Karim Child Growth and Development NSG 504 Term Paper PDF

NAME: Karim Tobiloba May MATRIC NUMBER: 151212020 COURSE TITLE: Advanced midwifery II COURSE CODE: NSG504 TERM PAPER: CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES The objectives of this paper are; 1. To explain child growth and development 2. To outline no...

NAME: Karim Tobiloba May MATRIC NUMBER: 151212020 COURSE TITLE: Advanced midwifery II COURSE CODE: NSG504 TERM PAPER: CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES The objectives of this paper are; 1. To explain child growth and development 2. To outline normal child growth and development 3. To discuss the principles of growth and development 4. To discuss the factors affecting the growth and development of a child INTRODUCTION Child development involves the biological, psychological and emotional changes that occur in human beings between birth and the conclusion of adolescence. The early years of a child’s life are very important for his or her health and development. Healthy development means that children of all abilities, including those with special health care needs, are able to grow up where their social, emotional and educational needs are met (centers for disease control and prevention). Having a safe and loving home and spending time with family―playing, singing, reading, and talking―are very important. Proper nutrition, exercise, and sleep also can make a big difference. NORMAL CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT A child's growth and development can be divided into four periods( medline plus2021):  Infancy  Preschool years  Middle childhood years  Adolescence Soon after birth, an infant normally loses about 5% to 10% of their birth weight. By about age 2 weeks, an infant should start to gain weight and grow quickly. By age 4 to 6 months, an infant's weight should be double their birth weight. During the second half of the first year of life, growth is not as rapid. Between ages 1 and 2, a toddler will gain only about 5 pounds (2.2 kilograms). Weight gain will remain at about 5 pounds (2.2 kilograms) per year between ages 2 to 5. Between ages 2 to 10 years, a child will grow at a steady pace. A final growth spurt begins at the start of puberty, sometime between ages 9 to 15.The child's nutrient needs correspond with these changes in growth rates. An infant needs more calories in relation to size than a preschooler or school-age child needs. Nutrient needs increase again as a child gets close to adolescence. A healthy child will follow an individual growth curve. However, the nutrient intake may be different for each child. Provide a diet with a wide variety of foods that is suited to the child's age. Healthy eating habits should begin during infancy. This can help prevent diseases such as high blood pressure and obesity. Developmental milestones Developmental milestones are things a child can do by a certain age. At 2 months, Social and Emotional:  Begins to smile at people  Can briefly calm herself (may bring hands to mouth and suck on hand)  Tries to look at parent Language/Communication:  Coos, makes gurgling sounds  Turns head toward sounds Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving);  Pays attention to faces  Begins to follow things with eyes and recognize people at a distance  Begins to act bored (cries, fussy) if activity doesn’t change Movement/Physical Development:  Can hold head up and begins to push up when lying on tummy  Makes smoother movements with arms and legs At 4 months: Social and Emotional:  Smiles spontaneously, especially at people  Likes to play with people and might cry when playing stops  Copies some movements and facial expressions, like smiling or frowning Language/Communication:  Begins to babble  Babbles with expression and copies sounds he hears  Cries in different ways to show hunger, pain, or being tired Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving):  Lets you know if he is happy or sad  Responds to affection  Reaches for toy with one hand  Uses hands and eyes together, such as seeing a toy and reaching for it  Follows moving things with eyes from side to side  Watches faces closely  Recognizes familiar people and things at a distance Movement/Physical Development:  Holds head steady, unsupported  Pushes down on legs when feet are on a hard surface  May be able to roll over from tummy to back  Can hold a toy and shake it and swing at dangling toys  Brings hands to mouth  When lying on stomach, pushes up to elbows At 6 months: Social and Emotional:  Knows familiar faces and begins to know if someone is a stranger  Likes to play with others, especially parents  Responds to other people’s emotions and often seems happy  Likes to look at self in a mirror Language/Communication:  Responds to sounds by making sounds  Strings vowels together when babbling (“ah,” “eh,” “oh”) and likes taking turns with parent while making sounds  Responds to own name  Makes sounds to show joy and displeasure  Begins to say consonant sounds (jabbering with “m,” “b”) Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving):  Looks around at things nearby   Brings things to mouth  Shows curiosity about things and tries to get things that are out of reach  Begins to pass things from one hand to the other Movement/Physical Development:  Rolls over in both directions (front to back, back to front)  Begins to sit without support  When standing, supports weight on legs and might bounce  Rocks back and forth, sometimes crawling backward before moving forward At 9 months: Social and Emotional:  May be afraid of strangers  May be clingy with familiar adults  Has favorite toys Language/Communication:  Understands “no”  Makes a lot of different sounds like “mamamama” and “bababababa”  Copies sounds and gestures of others  Uses fingers to point at things Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving):  Watches the path of something as it falls  Looks for things she sees you hide  Plays peek-a-boo  Puts things in his mouth  Moves things smoothly from one hand to the other  Picks up things like cereals between thumb and index finger Movement/Physical Development:  Stands, holding on  Can get into sitting position  Sits without support  Pulls to stand  Crawls At 1 year: Social and Emotional:  Is shy or nervous with strangers   Cries when mom or dad leaves  Has favorite things and people  Shows fear in some situations  Hands you a book when he wants to hear a story  Repeats sounds or actions to get attention  Puts out arm or leg to help with dressing  Plays games such as “peek-a-boo” and “pat-a-cake” Language/Communication:  Responds to simple spoken requests  Uses simple gestures, like shaking head “no” or waving “bye-bye”  Makes sounds with changes in tone (sounds more like speech)  Says “mama” and “dada” and exclamations like “uh-oh!”  Tries to say words you say Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving):  Explores things in different ways, like shaking, banging, throwing  Finds hidden things easily  Looks at the right picture or thing when it’s named  Copies gestures  Starts to use things correctly; for example, drinks from a cup, brushes hair  Bangs two things together  Puts things in a container, takes things out of a container  Lets things go without help  Pokes with index (pointer) finger  Follows simple directions like “pick up the toy” Movement/Physical Development:  Gets to a sitting position without help  Pulls up to stand, walks holding on to furniture (“cruising”)  May take a few steps without holding on  May stand alone At 18 months: Social and Emotional:  Likes to hand things to others as play  May have temper tantrums  May be afraid of strangers  Shows affection to familiar people  Plays simple pretend, such as feeding a doll  May cling to caregivers in new situations  Points to show others something interesting   Explores alone but with parent close by Language/Communication:  Says several single words  Says and shakes head “no”  Points to show someone what he wants Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving):  Knows what ordinary things are for; for example, telephone, brush, spoon  Points to get the attention of others  Shows interest in a doll or stuffed animal by pretending to feed  Points to one body part  Scribbles on his own  Can follow 1-step verbal commands without any gestures; for example, sits when you say “sit down” Movement/Physical Development:  Walks alone  May walk up steps and run  Pulls toys while walking  Can help undress herself  Drinks from a cup  Eats with a spoon At 2 years: Social and Emotional:  Copies others, especially adults and older children  Gets excited when with other children  Shows more and more independence  Shows defiant behavior (doing what he has been told not to)  Plays mainly beside other children, but is beginning to include other children, such as in chase games Language/Communication  Points to things or pictures when they are named  Knows names of familiar people and body parts  Says sentences with 2 to 4 words  Follows simple instructions  Repeats words overheard in conversation  Points to things in a book Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving):   Finds things even when hidden under two or three covers  Begins to sort shapes and colors  Completes sentences and rhymes in familiar books  Plays simple make-believe games  Builds towers of 4 or more blocks  Might use one hand more than the other  Follows two-step instructions such as “Pick up your shoes and put them in the closet.”  Names items in a picture book such as a cat, bird, or dog Movement/Physical Development  Stands on tiptoe  Kicks a ball  Begins to run  Climbs onto and down from furniture without help  Walks up and down stairs holding on  Throws ball overhand  Makes or copies straight lines and circles At 3 years: Social and Emotional:  Copies adults and friends  Shows affection for friends without prompting  Takes turns in games  Shows concern for crying friend  Understands the idea of “mine” and “his” or “hers”  Shows a wide range of emotions  Separates easily from mom and dad  May get upset with major changes in routine  Dresses and undresses self Language/Communication  Follows instructions with 2 or 3 steps  Can name most familiar things  Understands words like “in,” “on,” and “under”  Says first name, age, and sex  Names a friend  Says words like “I,” “me,” “we,” and “you” and some plurals (cars, dogs, cats)  Talks well enough for strangers to understand most of the time  Carries on a conversation using 2 to 3 sentences Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving):  Can work toys with buttons, levers, and moving parts  Plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people  Does puzzles with 3 or 4 pieces  Understands what “two” means  Copies a circle with pencil or crayon  Turns book pages one at a time  Builds towers of more than 6 blocks  Screws and unscrews jar lids or turns door handle Movement/Physical Development:  Climbs well  Runs easily  Pedals a tricycle (3-wheel bike)  Walks up and down stairs, one foot on each step At 4 years: Social and Emotional:  Enjoys doing new things  Plays “Mom” and “Dad”  Is more and more creative with make-believe play  Would rather play with other children than by himself  Cooperates with other children  Often can’t tell what’s real and what’s make-believe  Talks about what she likes and what she is interested in Language/Communication  Knows some basic rules of grammar, such as correctly using “he” and “she”  Sings a song or says a poem from memory such as the “Itsy Bitsy Spider” or the “Wheels on the Bus”  Tells stories  Can say first and last name Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving):  Names some colors and some numbers  Understands the idea of counting  Starts to understand time  Remembers parts of a story  Understands the idea of “same” and “different”  Draws a person with 2 to 4 body parts  Uses scissors   Starts to copy some capital letters  Plays board or card games  Tells you what he thinks is going to happen next in a book Movement/Physical Development:  Hops and stands on one foot up to 2 seconds camera Catches a bounced ball most of the time camera Pours, cuts with supervision, and mashes own food At 5 years: Social and Emotional:  Wants to please friends  Wants to be like friends  More likely to agree with rules  Likes to sing, dance, and act  Is aware of gender  Can tell what’s real and what’s make-believe  Shows more independence (for example, may visit a next-door neighbor by himself [adult supervision is still needed])  Is sometimes demanding and sometimes very cooperative Language/Communication  Speaks very clearly  Tells a simple story using full sentences  Uses future tense; for example, “Grandma will be here.”  Says name and address Cognitive (learning, thinking, problem-solving):  Counts 10 or more things  Can draw a person with at least 6 body parts  Can print some letters or numbers  Copies a triangle and other geometric shapes  Knows about things used every day, like money and food Movement/Physical Development  Stands on one foot for 10 seconds or longer  Hops; may be able to skip  Can do a somersault  Uses a fork and spoon and sometimes a table knife  Can use the toilet on her own   Swings and climbs At every milestone, considerable growth is noted in the child's social/emotional, language/communication cognitive and physical development. This growth especially the physical development is monitored using the child growth and developmental chart. PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT The process of development has been studied experimentally and otherwise. The studies and researches have highlighted certain significant facts or principles underlying this process. These are as follows (Deepti verma) (i) Development follows a pattern: Development occurs in an orderly manner and follows a certain sequence.This means that control of the body as well as improvements in the structure itself develops first in the head and progresses later to parts further from the head.Even the specific phases of development such as motor, social and play follows a pattern also. Group play activity follows the self-centered play activity. The child is interested in himself first before he can develop interest in other children. He babbles before he talks, he is dependent on others before he achieves dependence on self. (ii) Development proceeds from general to specific responses: It moves from a generalised to localised behaviour. This can be observed in the behaviour of infants and young children. This newborn infant moves his whole body at one time instead of moving only one part of it. The baby waves his arms in Ogeneral and makes random movements before he is capable of such a specific response as reaching out for a specific object. (iii) Development is a continuous process: Development does not occur in spurts. Although, it is suggested that there are definite developmental stages such as ‘gang age’ or ‘adolescence’, yet it is a fact that growth continues from the moments of conception until the individual’s reaches maturity. It takes place at a slow regular pace rather than by ‘leaps and bounds’. Development of both physical and mental traits continues gradually until these traits reach their maximum growth.There may be a break in the continuity of growth due to illness, starvation or malnutrition or other environmental factors or some abnormal conditions in the child life. (iv) Although Development is Continuous Process, yet the Tempo of Growth it not Even: There are periods of accelerated growth and periods of accelerated growth. During infancy and the early preschool years, growth moves swiftly. Later on it slackens Growth from three to six is rapid but not so rapid as form birth to three years. In early adolescence it is again rapid as compared to the period covering eight to twelve years. (v) Different aspects of growth develop at different rates: Neither all parts of the body grow at the same rate, nor do all aspects of mental growth proceed equally. They reach maturity at different times. For example, the brain attains its mature size around the age of six to eight years. It gains much in organisation after that. The feet, hands and nose reach their maximum devolvement early in adolescence.This can explain the awkwardness, clumsiness and self-consciousness characteristic of this period. Similarly, creative imagination develops rapidly during childhood; it seems to reach its peak during youth. Reasoning develops at a relatively slower rate. Rote memory and memory for concrete objects and facts develop more quickly than memory for abstract and theoretical materials.General intelligence reaches its peak, in most cases, about the age of 16 years. Children probably learn more new things in the first five years of life than in all the rest of their lives. Adolescence is marked by the most rapid development of the genital systems and of certain definite social interests and emotional capacities which is not so in other stage of development. (vi) Most Traits are correlated in Development: Generally it is seen that the child whose intellectual development is above average is so in health size, sociability and special aptitudes. Mental defectives tend to be smaller in stature than the normal child. Idiots and imbeciles are often the smallest of the feeble-minded group. There is a correlation between high intelligence and sexual maturity. (vii) Growth is Complex. All of its Aspects are closely Inter-Related: “It is impossible to understand the physical child without understanding him at the same time as a child who thinks and has feeling. ” His mental development is intimately related to his physical growth and its needs. Again, there is a close relationship between his total adjustment to school and his emotions, his physical health and his intellectual adequacy. An emotional disturbance may contribute to difficulties in eating or sleeping. A physical defect may be responsible for the development certain attitudes and social adjustments. (viii) Growth is a Product of the Interaction both Heredity and Environment: Neither heredity alone, nor the mere environment is the potent factor in the development of an individual. But it is not possible to indicate exactly in what proportion heredity and environment contribute to the development of an individual. The two work hand in hand from the very conceptions. The environment bears upon the new organism from the beginning. Among the environmental factors, one can mention nutrition, climate, the conditions in the home, and the type of social organisation in which individual move and live, the roles they have to play and other. (ix) Each Child Grows in his own Unique Way. There are wide individual differences: How much and how little individuals vary one from another has not yet been discovered as definitely as the fact that they do differ. It is definitely indicated in various studies that the differences in physical structure are less than the differences in intellectual capacity. Similarly, it has been found out, that personality differences are far more marked than either physical or intellectual differences. Differences in special aptitudes seem to be the most marked of all. Individual differences are caused by differences in hereditary endowment and environmental influences. Among the environmental influences, the most important factors are food, climate health conditions, opportunities for learning, motivation to learn, social relationships, codes of behaviour set up by the social group to which the individual belongs, and the strength of social approval or disapproval. Individual differences in rate of development remain constant. For example, a child may be slow in learning in early childhood. It is wrong to presume that he will catch up with the average. Evidence shows that the rate of growth is consistent and those who grow rapidly at first will continue to do so and those who develop slowly in early years will continue to do so, in later years. This observation is not applicable when the growth has been regarded by some condition which may be remedied, if the treatment is given in time. (x) Growth is both quantitative and Qualitative: These two aspects are inseparable. The child not only grows in ‘size’; he grows up or matures in structure and function. Breckenridge and Vincent have given a nice example to illustrate this principle. The baby’s digestive tract not only grows in size, but also changes in structure, permitting digestion of more complex foods and increasing its efficiency in converting foods into simpler forms which the body can use. The younger the child, the simpler the emotions. With growth, there is an increase of experiences and these produce more and more complex emotional reactions to more and more complicated situations. (xi) Development is Predictable: We have seen that the rate of development for each child is fairly constant. The consequence is that it is possible for us to predict at an early age the range within which the mature development of the child is likely to fall. But it may be noted that all types of development, particularly mental development, cannot be predicted with the same degree of accuracy. It is more easily predictable for children whose mental development falls within the normal range rather than for those whose mental development shows marked deviation from the average. (xii) Principle of spiral versus linear arrangement: The child doesn’t proceed straight on the path of development with a constant or steady pace. Actually he makes advancement, during a particular period but takes rest in the next following period to consolidate his development. In advancing further, therefore, he turns back and then makes forward again like a spiral. Developmental psychologists have also observed that each developmental phase has certain traits, that it has certain undesirable forms of behaviour which are usually found at that age and which are outgrown as the individual passes into the next stage, and that every individual normally passes through each stage of development. Jersild, while writing about the principles of development, remarks that one feature of the growing ability is its spontaneous use and wholeheartedness.As a child’s capacities for doing, thinking and feeling mature he has an impulse to put them to use, and he often does it wholeheartedly. This is described by Jersild as ‘Indigenous motivation’. Another feature of human development is its struggle. The process of growth involves conflicting impulses and demands. The child struggles against these in his striving toward maturity. The process of development is also characterised by anticipation, in that it is also geared to the needs of the future, by the capacity for self-repair by the developmental revision of habits, by the persistence of archaic behaviour trends and by its quality of becoming’ its dynamic rather static nature, made so by the changes that occur in the individual at every step. FACTORS AFFECTING CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Development is affected by many factors. Some of these factors play a more important role than others. These ten factors are the main factors affecting growth and development.( Mahak Arora 2019) 1. Heredity Heredity influences all aspects of physical appearance such as height, weight, body structure, the colour of the eye, the texture of the hair, and even intelligence and aptitudes. Diseases and conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, etc., can also be passed through genes, thereby affecting the growth and development of the child adversely. However, environmental factors and nurturing can bring the best out of the already present qualities in the genes. 2. Environment The environment plays a critical role in the development of children and it represents the sum total of physical and psychological stimulation the child receives. Some of the environmental factors influencing early childhood development involve the physical surroundings and geographical conditions of the place the child lives in, as well his social environment and relationships with family and peers. It is easy to understand that a well-nurtured child does better than a deprived one; the environment children are constantly immersed in contributes to this. A good school and a loving family builds in children strong social and interpersonal skills, which will enable them to excel in other areas such as academics and extracurricular activities. This will, of course, be different for children who are raised in stressful environments. 3. Sex The sex of the child is another major factor affecting the physical growth and development of a child. Boys and girls grow in different ways, especially nearing puberty. Boys tend to be taller and physically stronger than girls. However, girls tend to mature faster during adolescence, while boys mature over a longer period of time. The physical structure of their bodies also has differences which make boys more athletic and suited for activities that require physical rigour. Their temperaments also vary, making them show interest in different things 4. Exercise and Health The word exercise here does not mean physical exercise as a discipline or children deliberately engaging in physical activities knowing it would help them grow. Exercise here refers to the normal playtime and sports activities which help the body gain an increase in muscular strength and put on bone mass. Proper exercise helps children grow well and reach milestones on time or sooner. Exercise also keeps them healthy and fights off diseases by strengthening the immune system, especially if they play outside. This is because outdoor play exposes them to microbes that help them build resistance and prevent allergies. 5. Hormones Hormones belong to the endocrine system and influence the various functions of our bodies. They are produced by different glands that are situated in specific parts of the body to secrete hormones that control body functions. Their timely functioning is critical for normal physical growth and development in children. Imbalances in the functioning of hormone-secreting glands can result in growth defects, obesity, behavioural problems and other diseases. During puberty, the gonads produce sex hormones which control the development of the sex organs and the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics in boys and girls. 6. Nutrition Nutrition is a critical factor in growth as everything the body needs to build and repair itself comes from the food we eat. Malnutrition can cause deficiency diseases that adversely affect the growth and development of children. On the other hand, overeating can lead to obesity and health problems in the long run, such as diabetes and heart disease. A balanced diet that is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates and fats is essential for the development of the brain and body. 7. Familial Influence Families have the most profound impact in nurturing a child and determining the ways in which they develop psychologically and socially. Whether they are raised by their parents, grandparents or foster care, they need basic love, care and courtesy to develop as healthy functional individuals. The most positive growth is seen when families invest time, energy and love in the development of the child through activities, such as reading to them, playing with them and having deep meaningful conversations. Families that abuse or neglect children would affect their positive development. These children may end up as individuals who have poor social skills and difficulty bonding with other people as adults. Helicopter parenting also has negative effects as they render children dependent on the parents even as young adults and unable to deal with difficulties in life on their own. 8. Geographical Influences Where you live also has a great influence on how your children turn out to be. The schools they attend, the neighbourhood they live in, the opportunities offered by the community and their peer circles are some of the social factors affecting a child’s development. Living in an enriching community that has parks, libraries and community centres for group activities and sports all play a role in developing the child’s skills, talents, and behaviour. Uninteresting communities can push some children to not go outside often but play video games at home instead. Even the weather of a place influences children in the form of bodily rhythms, allergies and other health conditions. 9. Socio-Economic Status The socio-economic status of a family determines the quality of the opportunity a child gets. Studying in better schools that are more expensive definitely has benefits in the long run. Well-off families can also offer better learning resources for their children and they afford special aid if the kids need it. Children from poorer families may not have access to educational resources and good nutrition to reach their full potential. They may also have working parents who work too many hours and cannot invest enough quality time in their development. 10. Learning and Reinforcement Learning involves much more than schooling. It is also concerned with building the child up mentally, intellectually, emotionally, and socially so they operate as healthy functional individuals in the society. This is where the development of the mind takes place and the child can gain some maturity. Reinforcement is a component of learning where an activity or exercise is repeated and refined to solidify the lessons learned. An example is playing a musical instrument; they get better at playing it as they practice playing the instrument. Therefore, any lesson that is taught has to be repeated until the right results are obtained. In conclusion, child growth and development must be monitored duly to avoid abnormal life psychologically, emotionally, socially and physically later in the life of the child. References deepti verma 12 main principles of growth and development of children. www.shareyouressays.com Factors That Affect Growth and Development in Children.Mahak Arora ,July 17, 2019. Medically Reviewed By Dr. Sameer Awadhiya(Paediatrician) U.S National library of medicine; medline plus May 2021 A.D.A.M. medical encyclopedia: normal child growth and development