The Cold War and the 1950s - Past Paper PDF

▪ USA & USSR aimed to spread their own ▪ 13 days after FDR’s death (Apr 25, 1945): values ▪ United Nations was created ▪ USSR: ▪ Led by Security Council of Big 5 Powers: ▪ Communism, Security for USSR...

▪ USA & USSR aimed to spread their own ▪ 13 days after FDR’s death (Apr 25, 1945): values ▪ United Nations was created ▪ USSR: ▪ Led by Security Council of Big 5 Powers: ▪ Communism, Security for USSR ▪ USA, UK, France, China, USSR ▪ USA: ▪ Purpose: ▪ Capitalism, Democracy ▪ Prevent future Wars ▪ US public stooped trusting USSR ▪ Presumed: ▪ That major powers would cooperate ▪ Why did the USA join? ▪ George Orwell’s 1984 showed: ▪ Hoped to prevent League of Nations failures ▪ “Big Brother” had features of Stalin & ▪ Early Failure: Hitler ▪ Failed nuclear ban ▪ Bretton Woods Conference (1944): ▪ HQ: NYC ▪ Economic meeting w/Capitalist ideas on how to avoid a new Depression ▪ Nazi and Japanese leaders were tried before military courts on charges of war crimes, crimes against humanity and against peace. ▪ Nuremburg Trials (1945 – 1946) ▪ 22 Top culprits tried ▪ Verdicts: ▪ 12 Death ▪ 7 Lengthy Prison times ▪ Tokyo Trials (1946-1947) ▪ 28 top culprits tried ▪ Verdicts: ▪ 7 Deaths ▪ 18 Lengthy Prison times ▪ Both trials delivered harsh justice, with concerns about impartiality. ▪ HUGE rise in defense spending as Cold War escalated ▪ Aircraft technology ▪ Electronics ▪ NSC-68: Truman’s Nation Security Council suggested increasing defense budget ▪ How much? Quadrupled it ▪ Korean War led to Truman taking this advice. ▪ National Security Act (1947) ▪ Created Air Force, CIA, NSA, & Department of Defense (DoD) ▪ Gave DoD half the 1947 budget ▪ Most in the USA liked big defense spending. ▪ 1948 Election: Truman (Dem) defeated ▪ Fair Deal: Social legislation to spread Dewey (Rep) postwar prosperity across USA ▪ Also beat the “Dixiecrats” & Progressives ▪ Continued New Deal principles ▪ Saw federal government as responsible ▪ Successfully enacted these policies: for social welfare of Americans ▪ Desegretaged USA military ▪ Raised minimum wage ▪ Increased social security spending ▪ He tried to defend FDR’s liberal ▪ Improved housing policies, but the Conservative Congress overrode Truman’s vetoes. ▪ Slashed Truman’s tax raises & spending ▪ He supported political equality but plans NOT social equality ▪ Rejected Truman’s Employment Act ▪ Interestingly there were pushes in the private sector towards social equality: ▪ Passed Taft-Hartley Act over Truman’s ▪ 1947: Dodgers hired Jackie Robinson veto ▪ Potsdam Conference: July 1945. ▪ US, UK & France combined their ▪ Truman’s first meeting as one of the “Big sectors after period of rebuilding Three” ▪ West Germany & West Berlin ▪ Truman insisted on: ▪ Soviets kept the Soviet sectors ▪ Yalta promise of free elections in Poland ▪ East Germany & East Berlin ▪ Yalta plans were settled: Demanded Japan’s Unconditional Surrender ▪ 1948: Soviets closed off all rail and ▪ AND finalizing plan to divide & rebuild road access to Berlin Germany ▪ US & UK responded with: Berlin Airlift ▪ Truman is forced to recognize Poland’s Soviet controlled government ▪ Soviets lifted blockade in May 1949. ▪ 1st Cold War Crisis! Political Containment Economic Containment ▪ Suggested by George Keenan (US diplomat ▪ Sect. of State George Marshall invited European to USSR) nations to draw up aid program plans. (Joint Plan) ▪ Wrote “Long Telegram” to warn Truman of ▪ Soviets refused this invitation Stalin’s aggressive speeches ▪ Goal: ▪ TRUMAN DOCTRINE ▪ Encourage economic recovery of Europe ▪ 1st Containment policy. ▪ Encourage capitalism ▪ 1st use of Containment: ▪ USA supported Greece & Turkey against rebels ▪ 16 Nations agreed. Congress committed $12.5 billion over 4 years. ▪ “USA should support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures.” ▪ Initial resistance of the cost in Congress ended when the USSR staged a coup in: Czechoslovakia NATO Warsaw Pact ▪ Full Name: North Atlantic Treaty ▪ A Soviet controlled defensive Organization alliance ▪ Response to Soviet control in Hungary & ▪ A counter to NATO Czechoslovakia ▪ Purpose: Mutual defense in case of ▪ Reality: Soviets dominated all other Soviet attack members ▪ 1949: 13 founding members: ▪ USA, UK, France, Canada, Italy, Portugal, Iceland, ▪ Member – States: USSR, Poland, East Norway, Netherlands, Belgium & Luxembourg Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria & Albania ▪ 1950s: West Germany, Greece & Turkey joined ▪ May 14, 1948: UN created Israel as a Jewish homeland ▪ 1948: Arab-Israeli War soon after ▪ Many world leaders felt guilt for Holocaust & Zionists had asked Britain for a Jewish homeland ▪ President Truman made the USA the 1st ally of Israel ▪ USA needed: Stability & oil ▪ Arab anger over this complicated US-Arab relations ▪ BUT it did help Truman: Keep Soviets out of Israel ▪ Beginning of the: Israeli-Palestinian Conflict ▪ US military occupied & rebuilt Japan. ▪ Officer in charge: General Douglas MacArthur ▪ Japanese cooperated greatly ▪ 1946: new constitution adopted. ▪ Introduced: ▪ Women suffrage & equality, ▪ Western Democracy ▪ Ended Militarism ▪ Allowed Japan to recover economically very rapidly ▪ Failed Communist urban uprisings led to ▪ China openly allied with USSR “Long March” retreat north in mid-1930s ▪ but was never a puppet. ▪ Japan’s invasion:Temporary truce between Chinese factions ▪ USA’s Response: ▪ Mao Zedong ▪ Official: White China Paper ▪ Leader of Chinese Communist Party ▪ “USA could NOT have changed the outcome” ▪ Gained lots of supporters in rural China while ▪ Unofficially: fighting Japan ▪ Truman’s critics accused him of being “soft” on Communism ▪ Jiang Jieshi ▪ Diplomatic: ▪ Leader of China’s Nationalist government ▪ USA recognized Taiwan as the true China until the ▪ mid-1970s ▪ 1949: Mao forced Jiang & his followers to flee to Formosa (Taiwan) ▪ In WWII, Henry Stimson wanted to: Share nukes ▪ 1952: Truman tested Hydrogen Bomb in South ▪ USA decided to: Pacific with USSR ▪ Bikini Atoll was the test site ▪ Keep nukes secret ▪ Truman created AEC (Atomic Energy ▪ 1953: Soviets tested an H-bomb. USA & USSR Commission) mastered fusion ▪ Security at research & test sites ▪ 1957: USSR successfully tested ICBM & ▪ Sept 1949: USSR successfully tested an A-Bomb launched the 1st artificial satellite ▪ Truman ordered research for an H-bomb. ▪ Sputnik ▪ NUCLEAR ARMS RACE BEGINS!!! ▪ Both sides discovered dangers of fallout ▪ Naval commands & radar sites sprang up along ▪ Protests in USA & USSR USA West Coast ▪ 1958: USA & USSR agreed to suspend nuclear tests Mutually Assured ▪ MAD: Destruction ▪ Purpose: ▪ Kept Cold War “cold” ▪ 1947: Truman created a Loyalty Review Board to investigate federal employees. ▪ Original safeguards got set aside. ▪ 3,000 quit or were dismissed from federal jobs ▪ House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) ▪ Required Communists to register ▪ Homosexuals were deemed security risks ▪ Began the Hollywood Blacklist ▪ Senator Richard Nixon made a name for himself during: Alger Hiss Case ▪ Fear of Spies: Only US citizens to be executed in peacetime for espionage: The Rosenbergs ▪ 1945: After Japan’s surrender, Korea ▪ Neither leader accepted a divided was liberated & divided along the: Korea, nor trusted the planned 38th Parallel referendum on reunion ▪ ▪ USA & USSR forces left Korea, but: Soviets left lots ▪ North: Soviet supported more tanks, artillery & ‘advisors’ than USA did ▪ Government: Communist Dictatorship ▪ 1948: Border skirmishes began. ▪ Leader: Kim Il Sung ▪ Pre-war casualties: Growing for 2 years ▪ South: USA supported ▪ Government: Republic. Capitalist economy ▪ Sect of State Dean Acheson made a ▪ Leader: Syngam Rhee televised statement: ▪ “USA not interested in intervention west of Japan & Philippines” ▪ Result: Communist China started planning an invasion of Taiwan. North Korea felt secure enough to invade South Korea ▪ June 25, 1950: Kim Il Sung invaded South Korea with Stalin’s support. ▪ In three days: Seoul was captured by North Korea ▪ Northern forces took most of the South & pushing Southern forces to southeast coast ▪ Truman got UN to condemn North Korea & send UN police action to help South Korea ▪ Supreme Commander of UN forces: General Douglas MacArthrur ▪ 1st UN peace-keeping operation made up of 16 nations ▪ Troops: Most UN troops were Americans. Over ½ of ground forces were Korean ▪ Truman ordered US troops to support South without consulting Congress ▪ 1st UN move: Reinforce South Korean defenders at Pusan ▪ Sept 15, 1950: MacArthur’s bold opening move: Landed at Inchon, behind enemy lines ▪ Northern forces got pushed back across the border. ▪ MacArthur & Southern forces give chase across the border ▪ UN authorized this ONLY IF: USSR & Communist China DON’T Intervene ▪ Oct. 19, 1950: Pyongyang fell to UN forces and MacArthur continued to pursue North Koreans to the Chinese border (Yalu Rive) ▪ This badly overextended MacArthur’s lines. ▪ China’s Counter-Offensive: 300,000 Chinese ‘volunteers’ pushed MacArthur back across the 38th parallel ▪ January 1951: North Korea recaptured Seoul ▪ Nov 27, 1951: Battle of Chosin Reservoir ▪ 17 day long battle before evacuation by UN forces ▪ McArthur’s demanded nukes: Total War ▪ Truman refused. Goal was a “limited war.” ▪ MacArthur denounced Truman ▪ April 11, 1951: MacArthur got removed from command for insubordination ▪ New USA commander: General Matthew Ridgeway ▪ Operations Thunderbolt & Ripper: UN forces retook Seoul ▪ After, the UN strategy was: Use tech advantages against enemy numbers ▪ 1952-53:Series of border hilltop positions repeatedly changed hands ▪ White Horse ▪ Pork Chop ▪ Peace talks stalled frequently ▪ POW issue: Many Chinese and North Korean POWs wanted to stay in South Korea ▪ Dec 1952: president Eisenhower visited Korea ▪ threatened nuclear action if peace talks didn’t move forward. ▪ July 7, 1953: Ceasefire is signed, but ▪ Korea: there was never a peace treaty Fighting ended. 38th Parallel border restored with DMZ region NO PEACE TREATY ▪ Military developments: ▪ Japan: ▪ Helicopters Cemented Japan’s relationship as USA’s ally ▪ Desegregation of USA military & an anti-communist shield in the Pacific ▪ M.A.S.H. hospitals ▪ China ▪ POWs: Many USA & South Korean POWs Its support of North are still unaccounted for Korea ensured no USA recognition until 1972  ▪ 1952 election: Ike wins as Republican ▪ Ike favored “dynamic conservatism” candidate ▪ Conservative with money, Liberal with people ▪ Had never joined a political party before 1952 ▪ Supported business with reduced federal government role in the economy. ▪ Leadership style: ▪ Lowered Defense spending ▪ Quiet, restrained, consensus-making ▪ Gave states the control over offshore oil fields ▪ Got congress to reign in labor leaders ▪ Wanted to restore the balance between government branches and reduce national government authority ▪ Accepted basic features of FDR’s New Deal welfare state ▪ Minimum wage, social security, unemployment ▪ President from 1952 – 1960 pay ▪ One of only 2 presidents to: ▪ Federal Highway Act (1958): $26 billion for Be more personally popular 40,000 miles of road. after 2 terms than at the start of ▪ Based on German Autobahn his terms ▪ Allowed rapid military movement ▪ Eisenhower’s Secretary of State came up with this policy ▪ US foreign policy under Eisenhower. Expanded containment. ▪ 2 Goals: ▪ Encourage liberation of Communist states ▪ Save money in the Defense budget ▪ Ike built up airfleet of nuke-equipped superbombers: Strategic Air Command ▪ To attack if Soviets and Chinese got aggressive. “Massive Retaliation” ▪ Downside: too much power to use in small regional crises ▪ Example: 1956 Hungarian Uprising ▪ 1960: USA-Soviet peace talk collapses due to U-2 Spy Plan Incident ▪ Eisenhower continued US military and political involvement in the Middle East ▪ Iran (1953): CIA kept the Shah in power ▪ Egypt (1956): USA stopped UK, France and Israel from attacking Egypt when Nassir took Suez Canal ▪ 1957: US declared Eisenhower Doctrine, applying containment to: Middle ▪ 1st official use: Ikesent USA troops to Lebanon to East restore order ▪ 1950s: Southeast Asia was in turmoil. ▪ French Indo-China became shattered by rebellion ▪ Nationalist & Communist Vietnamese forces fought France for independence ▪ Ike’s response: He supported French ▪ Nationalist Communist forces defeated French at: Diem Bien Phu ▪ Hostilities ended with the Geneva Accords: ▪ Divided Vietnam at 13th Parallel ▪ Communist North and non-Communist South ▪ Planned for a referendum and reunification later ▪ USA never signed them. Ike pledged support for: Ngo Dinh Diem’s South Vietnam IF it began reforms ▪ USA focus: stability & short-term private investment ▪ Supported whoever could keep control NOW, often dictators ▪ Example: CIA overthrew Guatemala’s president ▪ 1959: Revolution overthrew Cuban dictator Batista ▪ Revolution leader: Fidel Castro ▪ USA response: USA embargoed Cuba ▪ Undesired result: Castro allied with the Soviets ▪ Cuba became: 1st & only Communist nation in Western Hemisphere ▪ Senator Joe McCarthy used ‘witch hunts’ & public alarm to further his career ▪ Army-McCarthy hearing: He accused Joint Chiefs of being “Reds” ▪ Televised court hearings ▪ McCarthy was shown to be a bully and a liar. Ended his career ▪ Cold War Red Scare led to suspicion & paranoia ▪ 5th Amendment rights of Due Process often ignored as “Contempt of court” ▪ Targets: Government workers, Civil Rights leaders, Actors, Academics, Homoxesuals & Writers Government Action Citizen Action ▪ Brown v. Board of Education (1954): ▪ Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955): ▪ Supreme Court reversed Plessy v ▪ Cause: Rosa Parks arrested for Ferguson’s “separate but equal” ruling violating bus segregation laws ▪ DC schools integrated first ▪ Famous organizer:Martin Luther King Jr ▪ Little Rock (1957): the first challenge ▪ Later founded the: to school integration SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership ▪ Ike sent troops to guard Little Rock Conference) students ▪ April 1960: southern black students formed the SNCC ▪ Civil Rights Act of 1957: ▪ organized sit-ins and “pray-ins” ▪ Allowed federal investigations and injunctions in Civil Rights violation cases ▪ War against Nazis eroded white supremacy ▪ USA lifted the ban on Japanese immigration ▪ Ike hoped to settle Indian claims & stop reservations from being separate entities “Termination” Policy. Ike cancelled this policy soon after ▪ Latinos faced segregation in southwest. “Bloody Christmas” ▪ Police brutality in California ▪ Operation Wetback: Ike arrested & deported illegal Mexican immigrants ▪ More Puerto Ricans in NYC than in San Juan BUT Mexican Americans were the largest Latino group (Chicanos) ▪ WWII ended Depression. Prosperity ▪ Military spending led to lots of “R & D” continued through the 50s. Incomes ▪ Computers doubled. ▪ Transistors ▪ 60% of USA were Middle Class ▪ Plastics ▪ Affluent Society ▪ More White Collar than Blue Collar jobs (shift from production to service ▪ New technology led to a consumer culture economy began) ▪ New tech replaced radio as at home entertainment: TV ▪ Roots of Prosperity: ▪ 7 million sold in 1951 ▪ Military spending ▪ Credit cards: increased short term buying ▪ Cheap Energy = Oil ▪ 1at: Diner’s Card ▪ Cheap fuel made the Auto industry a ▪ Fast Food big player. Led to: ▪ Disney ▪ Rise of oil industry & oil dependency ▪ Returning servicemen got: ▪ Job Counseling ▪ Priority for government jobs ▪ Unemployment pay while job hunting ▪ 4 years of college or trade school at government expense ▪ Let Veterans’ Administration give Low-interest home mortgages ▪ Stimulated: Housing Boom ▪ Baby Boom: post-WWII soaring ▪ Record numbers return to organized birthrates religions ▪ Dominant Growth Factor ▪ In many cases, this is superficial ▪ 50 million babies born in USA by the ▪ Attendance did not always mean piety end of the 1950s ▪ New tech of tv saw rise of “televangelists”: ▪ Death rate dropped due to: ▪ Fulton Sheen (Catholic) & Billy Graham (Baptist) ▪ New medicines (Penicillin & Vaccines) ▪ Catholicism: ▪ WWII westward migration continued ▪ Pope John XXIII started the 2nd Vatican Council ▪ Sunbelt: Crescent shaped region of Southeast & Pacific 1/3 of USA moved to ▪ suburbs ▪ Religious conformity did get challenged ▪ William Levitt built by: mass produced ▪ Buddhist leanings of Beat Generation suburbs (Levittowns)  Conformity & Consensus Cultural Rebels ▪ Postwar Men: ▪ Beat Generation ▪ Still expected to be provider/breadwinner ▪ Rejected: Materialism & ▪ BUT many veterans had difficulty returning to traditional USA values civilian life ▪ Promoted: Buddhist influences & unconventional values ▪ Postwar Women: (marijuana & overt sex lives) ▪ More in white collar jobs than ever BUT ▪ Pop Music & Film Rebels ▪ pressure to be house-wives/moms ▪ Elvis Presley & James Dean ▪ AND to go to college AND marry young ▪ USA painters rejected European ▪ Feminine Mystique: influence: 1st modern feminist book on ▪ Abstract Expressionism conflicting expectations for women Unconscious mind used as inspiration ▪ Poverty amid Affluence: millions were reported below poverty level. ▪ Ex: Appalachia mountain folk, Mississippi tenant farmer, Migrant farmers in Florida, Texas & California ▪ Racial Segregation still blocked most southern Blacks from voting and sharing public facilities ▪ USA is stable & secure through the mid-40s & 50s ▪ Rise of the Middle Class ▪ Minorities still disadvantaged, but believed in the American Dream ▪ Seeds of Protest were sown ▪ Cold War dominated international relations in the Post-WWII World ▪ USA vs. USSR: Competition for international influence ▪