Cold War Era

• Cold War occurred in the 1950s

The Three World Order

• First World was anti-communist
• Second World was communist
• Third World was decolonized

Cold War Origins

• The USA and USSR aimed to spread their own values.
• The USSR spread communist values.
• The USSR ensured security
• The USA spread capitalism
• The USA spread democracy
• The US public stopped trusting the USSR.
• George Orwell's 1984 had features of Stalin and Hitler
• The Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 consisted of an economic meeting with Capitalist ideas to avoid a new Depression.
• The United Nations was created 13 days after FDR's death on April 25, 1945.
• The United Nations was led by Security Council of Big 5 Powers including USA, UK, France, China, and the USSR.
• The purpose of the United Nations was to prevent future wars.
• There was a presumption that major powers would cooperate with the UN
• The USA joined the UN hoping to prevent League of Nations failures.
• An early failure in the UN was the failed nuclear ban.
• The Headquarters are in NYC

War Crimes Trials

• Nazi and Japanese leaders were tried before military courts on charges of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and against peace.
• In the Nuremberg Trials from 1945 to 1946 there were 22 top culprits tried.
• Verdicts: 12 death and 7 lengthy prison times
• In the Tokyo Trials from 1946 to 1947, 28 top culprits were tried.
• Verdicts: 7 deaths and 18 lengthy prison times
• Harsh justice was delivered at both trials, with concerns about impartiality.

Defense Spending

• There was a huge rise in defense spending as the Cold War escalated.
• There was investment in aircraft technology
• There was investment in eletronics
• NSC-68: Truman's Nation Security Council suggested increasing the defense budget
• The amount increased was quadrupled.
• The Korean War led to Truman following this advice.
• National Security Act (1947) created the Air Force, CIA, NSA, & Department of Defense (DoD).
• DoD had half of the 1947 budget.
• People in the USA liked big defense spending

Harry S. Truman & the Fair Deal

• 1948 Election: Truman, Democrat, defeated Dewey, the Republican
• Truman beat the "Dixiecrats" & the Progressives.
• He was a Southern Democrat against integration
• Truman saw the federal government as responsible for social welfare of Americans.
• He tried to defend FDR's liberal policies, but the Conservative Congress overrode Truman's vetoes.
• Truman had tax raises and spending plans slashed
• Truman had Truman's Employment Act Rejected
• He passed the Taft-Hartley Act over Truman's veto
• Fair Deal: Social legislation to spread postwar prosperity across USA
• Fair deal continued the New Deal principles
• Truman successfully enacted desegregation of the USA military
• He raised the minimum wage
• He increased social security spending
• He improved housing
• He supported political equality but NOT social equality
• There were pushes in the private sector towards social equality:
• 1947: The Dodgers hired Jackie Robinson

Germany & Berlin

• The Potsdam Conference occurred in July 1945.
• It was Truman's first meeting as one of the “Big Three"
• Truman insisted on the Yalta promise of free elections in Poland.
• The Yalta plans were settled with demanding Japan's Unconditional Surrender and finalizing plan to divide & rebuild Germany
• Truman was forced to recognize Poland's Soviet-controlled government.
• The US, UK, and France combined their sectors after a period of rebuilding, creating West Germany and West Berlin.
• Soviets kept the Soviet sectors
• This created East Germany and East Berlin
• In 1948 The Soviets closed off all rail and road access to Berlin.
• The US & UK responded with the Berlin Airlift
• The Soviets lifted blockade in May 1949.
• This was the first Cold War Crisis

US Strategy: Containment

• Political Containment was suggested by George Keenan, a US diplomat to the USSR.
• Keenan wrote "Long Telegram” to warn Truman of Stalin's aggressive speeches.
• The Truman Doctrine was the First Containment policy.
• 1st use of Containment: The USA supported Greece & Turkey against rebels stating that The USA should support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures
• Economic Containment occured as the Sect. of State George Marshall invited European nations to draw up aid program plans in a joint plan
• The Soviets refused this invitation
• The goal was Encourage economic recovery of Europes and Encourage capitalism
• 16 Nations agreed and Congress committed $12.5 billion over 4 years.
• Initial resistance of the cost in Congress ended when the USSR staged a coup in Czechoslovakia

Military Containment: Alliances in Europe

• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was formed as a Response to Soviet control in Hungary & Czechoslovakia
• Its purpose was Mutual defense in case of Soviet attack
• In1949, the 13 founding members were the USA, UK, France, Canada, Italy, Portugal, Iceland, Norway, Netherlands, Belgium & Luxembourg
• In the 1950s, West Germany, Greece, and Turkey Joined
• The Warsaw Pact was a Soviet controlled defensive alliance.
• It was a counter to NATO.
• Reality: Soviets dominated all other members
• Member – States: USSR, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria & Albania

Containment in Middle East: Israel

• May 14, 1948: The UN created Israel as a Jewish homeland.
• In 1948, there was an Arab-Israeli War soon after
• Many world leaders felt guilt for the Holocaust & Zionists who had asked Britain for a Jewish homeland
• President Truman made the USA the 1st ally of Israel
• The USA needed stability and oil
• This caused Arab anger which complicated US-Arab relations
• But it helped Truman to keep Soviets out of Israel.
• This began the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

Containment in Asia: Japan

• The US military occupied & rebuilt Japan.
• General Douglas MacArthur was the officer in charge
• The Japanese cooperated greatly
• In 1946, a new constitution was adopted.
• This introduced women's suffrage & equality and Western Democracy
• This ended militarism in Japan
• Japan was allowed to recover economically very rapidly

Chinese Revolution

• Failed Communist urban uprisings led to "Long March” retreat north in mid-1930s
• Japan's invasion created a Temporary truce between Chinese factions
• Mao Zedong was the Leader of Chinese Communist Party
• Mao gained lots of supporters in rural China fighting Japan
• Jiang Jieshi was ther Leader of China's Nationalist government
• In 1949, Mao forced Jiang & his followers to flee to Formosa (Taiwan)
• China openly allied with USSR but was never a puppet.
• The USA's official response was the White China Paper stating “USA could NOT have changed the outcome"
• Unofficially, Truman's critics accused him of being "soft" on Communism
• The USA Diplomatic recognized Taiwan as the true China until the mid-1970s

Nuclear Secrets & Arms Race

• In WWII, Henry Stimson wanted to share nukes with the USSR
• The USA decided to keep nukes secret
• Truman created the AEC (Atomic Energy Commission) for security at research & test sites
• In Sept 1949, the USSR successfully tested an A-Bomb
• Truman then ordered research for an H-bomb.
• Then the Nuclear Arms Race Began!!!
• Naval commands & radar sites sprang up along USA West Coast
• It Mutually Assured Destruction
• The purpose was to keep the Cold War “cold”
• In 1952 Truman tested the Hydrogen Bomb in South Pacific with Bikini Atoll as the test site
• In 1953, the Soviets tested an H-bomb and then the USA & USSR mastered fusion
• In 1957, The USSR successfully tested ICBM & launched the 1st artificial satellite "Sputnik"
• Both sides discovered dangers of fallout
• There were protests in USA & USSR
• In 1958, The USA & USSR agreed to suspend nuclear tests

Loyalty Questioned

• In 1947 Truman created a Loyalty Review Board to investigate federal employees.
• Original safeguards got set aside and 3,000 quit or were dismissed from federal jobs
• The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) required Communists to register
• Homosexuals were deemed security risks
• HUAC began the Hollywood Blacklist
• Senator Richard Nixon made a name for himself during Alger Hiss Case
• There was fear of spies and the only US citizens to be executed in peacetime for espionage were The Rosenbergs

Roots of the Korean War

• In 1945 After Japan's surrender, Korea was liberated & divided along the 38th Parallel
• The North was Soviet supported with a Government of a Communist Dictatorship run by Kim Il Sung
• The south was USA supported with a Republic Government of a Capitalist economy run by Syngam Rhee
• Neither leader accepted a divided Korea, nor trusted the planned referendum on reunion
• The USA & USSR forces left Korea, but Soviets left lots more tanks, artillery & ‘advisors' than USA did
• In 1948: Border skirmishes began.
• Pre-war casualties: Grew for 2 years
• The sect of State Dean Acheson made a televised statement that "USA were not interested in intervention west of Japan & Philippines”
• As a reult, Communist China started planning an invasion of Taiwan, North Korea felt secure enough to invade South Korea

The Korean War Begins

• June 25, 1950: Kim Il Sung invaded South Korea with Stalin's support.
• In three days: Seoul was captured by North Korea
• The Northern forces took most of the South & pushing Southern forces to southeast coast
• Truman got the UN to condemn North Korea & send UN police action to help South Korea
• General Douglas MacArthrur was the Supreme Commander of UN forces
• 1st UN peace-keeping operation made up of 16 nations
• Most UN troops were Americans with over ⅓ of the ground forces Korean
• Truman ordered US troops to support the South without consulting Congress
• 1st UN move: Reinforce South Korean defenders at Pusan

The Inchon landing

• On Sept 15, 1950: MacArthur's bold opening move was landing at Inchon, behind enemy lines
• The Northern forces got pushed back across the border and MacArthur & Southern forces gave chase across the border
• The UN authorized this ONLY IF USSR & Communist China DON'T Intervene
• On Oct 19, 1950: Pyongyang fell to UN forces and MacArthur continued to pursue North Koreans to the Chinese border (Yalu Rive)
• This badly overextended MacArthur's lines

Truman V. MacArthur: Limited War V. Total War

• China's Counter-Offensive resulted in 300,000 Chinese ‘volunteers' pushed MacArthur back across the 38th parallel
• January 1951: North Korea recaptured Seoul
• On Nov 27, 1951: there was the Battle of Chosin Reservoir which was 17 days long, before the evacuation by UN forces
• McArthur's demanded nukes stating this was total war
• Truman refused the demands and goal was a “limited war."
• McArthur denounced Truman as a result
• On April 11, 1951: MacArthur got removed from command for insubordination

Stalemate & Peace Talks

• The New USA commander was General Matthew Ridgeway
• Operations Thunderbolt & Ripper resulted in UN forces retook Seoul
• The UN strategy was the Use of tech advantages against enemy numbers
• 1952-53: a series of border hilltop positions repeatedly changed hands and there was White Horse and Pork Chop
• Peace talks stalled frequently with the POW issue creating friction
• Many Chinese and North Korean POWs wanted to stay in South Korea
• In Dec 1952: president Eisenhower visited Korea
• He threatened nuclear action if peace talks didn't move forward

Effects of the Korean War

• July 7, 1953: A Ceasefire was signd but there was never a peace treaty
• Mililitary developments included helicopters, Desegregation of USA military and M.A.S.H hospitals
• Many USA & South Korean POWS are still unaccounted for
• Fighting Ended with a 38th Parallel border restored with DMZ region
• There was NO PEACE TREATY
• Japans relationshiop cemented as USA ally and anti communist shield
• Chinas support resulted in no USA recognition
• Support of North Korea ensured no USA recognition until 1972

Dwight D. Eisenhower & His Republicanism

• In the 1952 election Ike wins as Republican candidate
• Ike had never joined a political party before 1952
• Quiet, restrained, consensus-making were his leadership qualities
• He wanted to restore the balance between government branches and reduce national government authority
• President from 1952 – 1960, One of only 2 presidents to Be more personally popular after 2 terms than at the start of his terms
• Ike favored “dynamic conservatism”
• He was Conservative with money, and Liberal with people
• He supported business with reducing federal government role in the economy and lowered Defense spending
• States were given control over offshore ofields leading to congress reigning in labour leaders
• Basic features of the FDR's New Deal welfare state were accepted
• This included minimum wage, social security, unemployment pay
• Federal Highway Act (1958): $26 billion for 40,000 miles of road.
• Based on German Autobahn, It Allowed rapid military movement

Eisenhower's Policy of Boldness

• Eisenhowers Secretary of State came up with this foreign policy
• Expanded containment
• The goals were to Encourage the liberation of Communist states and to save money in the Defense budget
• Ike but up airfleet of nuke-equipped superbombers called Strategic Air Command
• These would attack Soviets and Chinese who were aggressive with “Massive Retaliation”
• Downside: too much power to use in small regional crises.
• In the 1956 Hungarian Uprising there was a large impact.
• 1960: The USA-Soviet peace talk collapses due to U-2 Spy Plan Incident

Eisenhower Doctrine

• Eisenhower continued US military and political involvement in the Middle East
• In Iran (1953): the CIA kept the Shah in power
• In Egypt (1956): USA stopped UK, France and Israel from attacking Egypt when Nassir took Suez Canal
• 1957:The US declared the Eisenhower Doctrine, which applied containment to the Middle East
• The 1st official use of the doctrine was Ike sending USA troops to Lebanon to restore order

Roots of the Vietnam War

• 1950's: Southeast Asia was in turmoil.
• French Indo-China was shattered by rebellion
• Nationalist & Communist Vietnamese forces fought France for independence
• Ike's response: He supported French
• Nationalist Communist forces defeated French at Diem Bien Phu
• Hostilities ended with the Geneva Accords
• Vietnam divided at the 13th Parallel
• There was communist North and non-Communist South with plans to create a Referendum and reunification later
• Eisenhower pledged support for Ngo Dinh Diem's South Vietnam IF it began reforms

Containment in Latin America

• The USA focus was on stability & short-term private investment in Latin America
• whoever could keep control in Latin America NOW was supported, often dictators
• Example: The CIA overthrew Guatemala's president
• 1959: TheCuban Cuban Revolution overthrew Cuban dictator Batista with a revolution led by Fidel Castro
• The USA issued a response with a USA embargoed Cuba, but with undesired results
• Castro allied with the Soviets, and then Cuba became the 1st & only Communist nation in the Western Hemisphere

McCarthy's Hunts & Casualties

• Senator Joe McCarthy used 'witch hunts' & public alarm to further his career
• In the Army-McCarthy hearing: He accused Joint Chiefs of being "Reds"
• There were televised court hearings and McCarthy was shown to be a bully and a liar ultimately ending his career
• The Cold War Red Scare led to suspicion & paranoia and 5th Amendment rights of Due Process were often ignored as "Contempt of court"
• Targets were Government workers, Civil Rights leaders, Actors, Academics, Homosexuals & Writers

Civil Rights in the 1950s

• In the government action Brown v. Board of Education (1954) resulted in the Supreme Court reversing Plessy v Ferguson's “separate but equal” ruling, and it
• Initially DC schools integrated first
• Little Rock (1957) was the first challenge to school integration, and Ike sent troops to guard Little Rock students
• The Civil Rights Act of 1957 Allowed federal investigations and injunctions in Civil Rights violation cases
• Regarding citizen action the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955) was caused by Rosa Parks arrest for violating bus segregation laws
• Martin Luther King J was the famous organizer who later founded the SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference)
• April 1960: southern black students formed the SNCC and organized sit-ins and “pray-ins”

1950s Race Relations

• The War against Nazis eroded white supremacy.
• The USA lifted the ban on Japanese immigration.
• Ike hoped to settle Indian claims & stop reservations from being separate entities
• He issued a “Termination” Policy BUT Ike cancelled this policy soon after
• Latinos faced segregation in the southwest, with police brutality in California "Bloody Christmas”
• Operation Wetback resulted in the arrest and deportation of illegal Mexican immigrants, BUT more Puerto Ricans were in NYC than in San Juan while Mexican Americans were the largest Latino group (Chicanos)

American Prosperity

• In the Great Prosperity Period from 1947–79, pay rose with productivity
• Wages and overall compensation, for production and non-supervisory workers (now about 82 percent of the private sector work force), tracked steadily upward alongside gains in productivity.
• The rising value of goods and services per worker meant rising pay, but this relationship ended in the 1970s.

Economic Boom

• WWII ended Depression. Prosperity continued through the 50s and incomes doubled.
• 60% of the USA were Middle Class
• There was an Affluent Society and More White Collar than Blue Collar jobs (shift from production to service economy began)
• Roots of Prosperity: were Military spending and cheap energy (= oil)
• Cheap fuel made the Auto industry a big player leading to Rise of oil industry & oil dependency
• Military spending led to lots of “R & D (resarch and development)"
• This led to increases in Computers, Transistors, and Plastics
• New technology led to a consumer culture
• New tech like TV replaced radio as at home entertainment with 7 million sold by 1951
• Credit cards increased short term buying
• There was lat: Diner's Card with Fast Food and Disney

GI Bill of 1944

• Returning servicemen got Job Counseling and Priority for government jobs
• They receieved Unemployment pay while job hunting
• They were given 4 years of college or trade school at government expense
• The Veterans' Administration gave Low-interest home mortgages, which stimulated the Housing Boom

Demographics & Religion

• Baby Boom: there was Post-WWII soaring birthrates, a dominant growth factor
• 50 million babies born in the USA by the end of the 1950s
• The Death rate dropped due to new New medicines (Penicillin & Vaccines)
• WWII westward migration continued
• The Sunbelt: Crescent shaped region of Southeast & Pacific
• One third of USA moved to the suburbs
• William Levitt built mass produced suburbs (Levittowns)
• Record numbers returned to organized religions, however In many cases, this was superficial
• Attendance did not always mean piety and New tech of tv saw rise of “televangelists":
• There was Fulton Sheen (Catholic) & Billy Graham (Baptist)
• Catholocism enjoyed a growth:
• Pope John XXIII started the 2nd Vatican Council
• Religious conformity did get challenged by:
• Buddhist leanings of the Beat Generation

Conformity vs. Cultural Rebels

• Postwar Men were still expected to be provider/breadwinner, BUT many veterans had difficulty returning to civilian life
• Postwar Women were More in white collar jobs than ever BUT pressure to be house-wives/moms, and Were expected to go to college AND marry young
• Feminine Mystique was the 1st modern feminist book on conflicting expectations for women
• The Beat Generation rejected Materialism & traditional USA values and Promoted Buddhist influences & unconventional values (marijuana & overt sex lives)
• There were Pop Music & Film Rebels such asElvis Presley & James Dean
• USA painters rejected European influence by painting Abstracts with Unconscious mind used as the inspiration

The "Other America"

• There was Poverty amid Affluence with millions reported below the poverty level.
• An exmple was Appalachia mountain folk, Mississippi tenant farmer, Migrant farmers in Florida, Texas & California
• Racial Segregation still blocked most southern Blacks from voting and sharing public facilities

Conclusions

• The USA was stable & secure through the mid-40s & 50s
• There was a rise of the Middle Class and minorities were still disadvantaged, but they believed in the American Dream
• Seeds of Protest sown
• The Cold War dominated international relations in Post-WWII World
• USA vs. USSR: There was Competition for international influence

Questions about the Cold War era covering the formation of the UN, the Nuremberg trials, NSC-68, the National Security Act of 1947, George Orwell's 1984, The Eisenhower Doctrine and more.