NOYO - Topics 1, 2, 3, and 4 PDF

Noyo - Topics 1, 2, 3, and 4 Metabolism Metabolism: all of the chemical reactions in an organism Metabolic pathways:series of chemical reactions that either build complex molecules or break down complex molecules substrate intermediate intermediate product ___...

Noyo - Topics 1, 2, 3, and 4 Metabolism Metabolism: all of the chemical reactions in an organism Metabolic pathways:series of chemical reactions that either build complex molecules or break down complex molecules substrate intermediate intermediate product __________________ → ___________________ → ___________________ → ___________________ enzyme 1 enzyme 2 enzyme 3 Metabolic Pathways There are two types of metabolic pathways Catabolic Pathways Anabolic Pathways Pathways that release energy by Pathways that consume breaking down complex molecules energy to build complex into simpler compounds (hydrolysis) molecules into simpler compounds (dehydration) Catabolism Anabolism ➔ Questions? ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 1 Energy Energy: the ability to do work survive Organisms need energy to _________________ function and _________________ -a loss in energy flow results in death Kinetic energy: energy associated with motion Thermal energy: energy associated with the movement of atoms or molecules Potential energy: stored energy Chemical energy: potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction Think: how does the image of the surfer represent the forms of energy above? Laws of Thermodynamics thermodynamics The study of energy transformations in matter is called ________________________________ universe as a whole The laws apply to the __________________________________________ Think: how does the image of the squirrel eating and then climbing the tree represent the laws of thermodynamics? 1st Law: -energy CANNOT be created or destroyed -energy CAN be transferred or transformed The chemical (potential energy) stored in the nut will be transformed into kinetic energy for the squirrel to climb the tree ➔ Questions? ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 2 2nd Law: -energy transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe -during energy transfer or transformations, some energy is unusable and often lost as heat as the squirrel climbs the tree some energy is released as heat Free Energy Since the laws of thermodynamics apply to the universe as a whole, scientists use a concept called free energy to determine the likelihood of reactions in organisms, or if the reactions are energetically favorable ➔ Questions? ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 3  spontaneously (no outside input of energy is required) The free energy change of reactions determine whether or not the reaction occurs ____________________ exergonic Based on free energy changes, chemical reactions can be classified as ________________________ or endergonic ________________________ Exergonic reactions: Transition State reactions that release energy -ex cellular respiration Free Energy EA Reactants ΔG < 0 Products Reaction → reaction is spontaneous Endergonic reactions: reactions that absorb energy -ex photosynthesis Free Energy EA Products ΔG > 0 Reactants Reaction → reaction is not spontaneous absorbs free energy ➔ Questions? ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 4 Cells and Energy Living cells have a constant flow of materials in and out of the membrane equilibrium Cells are not at _______________________ Cell’s perform three kinds of work: Mechanical: movement (ie beating cilia, movement of chromosomes, contraction of muscle cells) Transport: pumpin substances across membrane against spontaneous movement Chemical: chemical synthesis of molecules (ie building polymer from monomers) adenine ATP phosphate groups Adenosine triphosphate: molecule that organisms use as a source of energy to perform work ribose exergonic ATP couples __________________________ endergonic reactions to __________________________ reactions to cellular work power __________________________________________ -exergonic process drives the endergonic process -organisms obtain energy by breaking the bond between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate in a hydrolysis reaction -ATP --> ADP 3 phosphates --> 2 phosphates + phosphate + energy (inorganic phosphorous given to another molecule giving enrgy) Phosphorylation: the released phosphate moves to another molecule to give energy Regeneration of ATP energy energy for cellular work from ADP can be regenerated to ATP via the ATP exergonic cycle process ➔ Questions? ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 5 Rate of Metabolic Reactions spontaneous The laws of thermodynamics tell us if a reaction is __________________________, but it does not describe rate the ______________ of the reaction -some spontaneous reaction move so slowly that it would be impossible for cells to utilize them efficiently -the hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose would take nearly 1000 years to happen spontaneously (enzymes!) Enzymes Enzymes: macromolecules that catalyze (speed up) reactions by lowering the activation energy -are not consumed by the reaction -type of protein (primary structure dictated by genes) -enzyme names end in -ase Enzyme Structure active site: area for substrate to bind enzyme acts on a reactant called a substrate Enzyme Function ➔ Questions? ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 6 products Induced Fit enzymes will changed the shape of their active site to allow the substrate to bind better Enzyme Catabolism enzyme-substrate complex think cat noir cataclysm breaks things down enzyme helps break down complex molecules Enzyme Anabolism enzyme helps build complex molecules Effects on Enzymes Enzymes are protein, which means their 3D shape can be affected by different factors The efficiency of enzymes can be affected by: -temperature -pH -chemicals Remember: change in shape means change in function ➔ Questions? ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 7  Optimal Conditions: the conditions (temperature and pH) that allow enzymes to function optimally (at their best) increases The rate of enzyme activity______________ with temperature (due to collision) up to a certain point after a certain point, the enzyme will denature (unfold into string of amino acids by losing secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure) pH Enzymes function best at a specific_______ -being outside the normal pH range can cause hydrogen bonds in the enzyme to break, changing the shape of the enzyme , losing active site Enzyme Cofactors Cofactors: non protein molecule that assist enzyme function -inorganic cofactors consist of metals -can be bound loosely or tightly -Holoenzyme: an enzyme with the cofactor attached Coenzymes: organic cofactors -ie vitamins Enzyme Inhibitors Enzyme Inhibitors: reduce the activity of specific enzymes Inhibition can be permanent or reversible -permanent: inhibitor bonds with covalent bonds ex: toxins and poisons -reversible: inhibitor bonds with weak interactions ➔ Questions? ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 8 Competitive Inhibitors: reduce enzyme activity by blocking substrates from binding to the active site -inhibition can be reversed with increased substrate concentrations Noncompetitive Inhibitors: Regulation of Chemical Reactions regulate A cell must be able to ____________________ its metabolic pathways How? -control where and when enzymes are active -switch genes that code for enzymes on or off ➔ Questions? ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 9 Allosteric Regulation two Allosteric enzymes have _________ binding sites 1 active site 1 allosteric site (regulatory site, site other than the active site) Enzyme Multi-subunit enzyme Allosteric regulation: molecules bind (noncovalent interactions) to an allosteric site which changes the shape and function of the active site -may result in inhibition (by an inhibitor) or stimulation (by an activator) of the enzymes activity May result in inhibition (by an inhibitor) or stimulation (by an activator) of the enzymes activity Allosteric activator: substrate binds to allosteric site and stabilizes the shape of the zymes so that the active sites remain open Allosteric inhibitor: substrate binds to allosteric site and stabilizes the enzyme shape so that the active sites are closed (inactive form) Cooperativity: substrate binds to one active site (on an enzyme with more than one active site) which stabilizes the active form -considered allosteric regulation since binding at one site changes the shape of other sites -activator binds to an active site and opens up other active sites for substrates inactive form active form ➔ Questions? ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 10 Feedback Inhibition sometimes, the end product of a metabolic pathways can act as an inhibitor to an early enzymes in the same pathway if too much product, bind to upstream enzyme and inactive once product used up, and not enough to case enzyme to be inactive anymore, enzyme 1 becomes active again Practice FRQ 1. The common cold is a viral infection that affects the upper respiratory tract. Symptoms include a cough, runny nose, and fever. a) Identify what happens to the body when it has a fever. b) Explain why having a fever is beneficial in fighting off the virus. c) Explain why having a long term fever (3+ days) can be dangerous to the human body. a) A fever is when you are sick and you have an immune response where your body gets hotter. this is _______________________________________________________________________________________ an attempt to make it hard to make virues or bacteria like the common cold to survive because they _______________________________________________________________________________________ viruses protein ate getting denatured. _______________________________________________________________________________________ b) A fever is beneficial to fighting off the virus because the rate of reaction (enzymes being catalyzed) increases, so there are more collisions with substrates on enzymes active site when the temperature _______________________________________________________________________________________ is higher. This allows the enzymes in white blood cells to get rid of the virus faster. On top of this the _______________________________________________________________________________________ virus is not able to reproduce as fast because it is constantly getting denatured, undoing the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels of proteins of virus. _______________________________________________________________________________________ c). A long term fever could cause too much activity of other enzymes that would become dangerous _______________________________________________________________________________________ to the body. For exaple, a long term fever could cause your own bodies healthy enzymes to start _______________________________________________________________________________________ denatureing. _______________________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________ ➔ Questions? ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 11  Practice FRQ 2. The human body needs vitamins to function properly. For example, a deficiency in vitamin B 12 leads to muscle weakness and fatigue because the body is unable to produce red blood cells. a) Explain how vitamins function in the body and why they are necessary. a) Vitamins are essential organic compounds that function as coenzymes. These coenzymes ______________________________________________________________________________________ help in aiding in metabolism and enzyme function. If there is a deficiency in vitamins, like ______________________________________________________________________________________ B12, it can lead to issues health due to inadequate red blood cell production. Proper vitamin ______________________________________________________________________________________ intake is crucial for preventing such health problems and ensuring efficient bodily functions.Vitamins help the body convert carbohydrates and fats into energy, repair and ______________________________________________________________________________________ construct new cells, and even simple things, like breathing when they help the enzymes This ______________________________________________________________________________________ is why vitamins gained from healthy foods are important. ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ ➔ Use this space to reflect on topics 1, 2, 3, and 4 ➔ Textbook chapters/pages to review 12