Earth and Life Science PDF

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM GENESIS...

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM GENESIS CM 1: EARTHS ORIGIN one of the books of the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament, described how God separated light from darkness, TOPIC OVERVIEW and created the sky, land, sea, moon, stars, and every living creature in a span A. THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE of six days. a. Different Theories of the Universe RIGVEDA b. Historical Prelude The Hindu text Rigveda describes the c. The Big Bang Theory: A universe as an infinitely oscillating Thrilling and Evolving Scientific universe in which a “cosmic egg” or Saga Brahmanda, containing the whole d. Other Theory on the Origin of universe expands out of a single point the Universe called Bindu, and eventually collapses B. THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM again. a. Models of the Solar System b. Theories of the Solar System PRIMORDIAL UNIVERSE C. LIFE AND MOTIONS OF EARTH The Greek philosopher Anaxagoras a. Earth’s System believed in a primordial universe, which D. TYPES OF BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE suggests that the original state of the a. Water Cycle cosmos was a primordial mixture of all its b. Phosphorus Cycle ingredients which existed in infinitesimal c. Nitrogen Cycle fragments of themselves. d. Oxygen-Carbon Cycle e. Sulfur Cycle ATOMIC The Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus believed in an atomic A THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE universe composed of tiny, inseparable, and indestructible atoms. All the objects UNIVERSE in the universe are composed of different The universe is literally everything, the arrangements of these eternal atoms sum of all existence. It includes all and an infinite void in which they form matter, like stars and galaxies. The different combinations and shapes. universe also includes all radiation and all other forms of energy. STOIC The Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece believed that the universe is like a A1 DIFFERENT THEORIES OF THE giant living body, with the sun and the UNIVERSE stars as the most important parts to which all the other parts are The universe, with its vast expanse of galaxies, interconnected. What happens in one stars, and planets, has been a subject of human place affects what happens elsewhere. curiosity for centuries. STEADY STATE-INFINITE UNIVERSEwho Sir Issac Newton published his A2 HISTORICAL PRELUDE Principia, which described a static, steady-state infinite universe, where matter on the large scale is uniformly PAGE 1 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM distributed and the universe is supporting evidence, such as the gravitationally balanced but essentially discovery of the cosmic microwave unstable. background (CMB) radiation and redshift. DESCARTES PRINCIPLE THE MOST IMPORTANT EVIDENCE OF THE BIG Rene Descartes outlined a model of the BANG THEORY universe with many of the characteristics REDSHIFT of Newton’s static, infinite universe. This finding supported the earlier According to him, the vacuum of space discovery of American astronomer Vesto was not empty but rather filled with Slipher (1875- 1969) on the Doppler shift matter that swirled around in large and in the spectra of galaxies. The universe is small vortices. expanding outward at an ever increasing rate of expansion. A3 THE BIG BANG THEORY: A THRILLING PRESENCE OF COSMIC MICROWAVE AND EVOLVING SAGA BACKGROUND (CMB) Also known as the cosmic background EINSTEIN STATIC UNIVERSE radiation (CMB), this radiation is the A model of the universe assumed by thermal leftover of the transition phase Albert Einstein in his theory of relativity that occurred when the hot early was no different from Newton's in that it universe cooled enough for atoms to was a static, dynamically stable universe, combine. The CMB was discovered by which neither expanded or contracted. Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias. This theory was abandoned. ABUNDANCE OF LIGHT ELEMENTS IN THE BIG BANG THEORY UNIVERSE currently the most acceptable scientific The actual abundances of hydrogen and explanation on how the universe was helium deduced from the spectra of the created and is based on Einstein’s theory oldest stars and gas clouds matched of general relativity with positive with what were expected from the big curvature and the theory of fundamental bang reactions. These findings agree particles with the hypothesis of the big bang The term “big bang” was coined by theory. Fred Hoyle, an English astronomer, who, ironically, did not support the big bang A4 OTHER THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE theory. The universe originated from a very tiny, extremely hot, and dense energy OSCILLATING UNIVERSE that exploded, expanded, and started to The oscillating universe followed the cool off to form the galaxies, stars, general theory of relativity equations of planets, and other astronomical objects the universe with positive curvature. This or bodies called singularity. curvature results in the universe expanding for a time and then MONSIGNOR GEORGES HENRI JOSEPH contracting due to the pull of its gravity EDOUARD LEMAITRE in a perpetual cycle of Big Bang followed, Since its introduction in 1931 by in time, by Big Crunch. Monsignor Georges Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaitre as the primeval atom THE CYCLIC MODEL hypothesis, also called the cosmic egg The cyclic model predicts that another hypothesis, it has been gaining universe “died” to give birth to a new PAGE 2 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM one. GEOCENTRIC MODEL STRING THEORY was known to be the most predominant String theory was expanded by Paul theory of the structure of the universe in Steinhardt, an American physicist and the ancient world was the geocentric cosmologist, and Neil Turok, a South model. It says that the earth is at the African Physicist, in 1999, to address the center of the universe, and every other gaps in the big bang theory. celestial body rotates around the earth. HELIOCENTRIC MODEL THEORY OF INFLATION The concept that the sun is at the According to this theory, the universe’s center of the universe is known as the dimension during its inception seems Heliocentric Model which also first inconceivably small, imperceptible to emerged in Ancient Greece. It was the human senses, only to evolve into an Greek philosopher Aristarchus of Samos unimaginable dimension that ironically who proposed the theory and developed overwhelms the human senses. It was by Nicolaus Copernicus. made by Alan Guth. B1 THEORIES OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM MULTIVERSE MODEL Andrei Linde, a Russian-American physicist, proposed during the late 80s NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS that inflation can be a never-ending Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and process. He called this process eternal Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) were inflation. In his model, now known as the first to propose the earliest theory of how multiverse model, multitudes of the Solar System originated. The universes, called multiverse, are created Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis from this never-ending process of presumes that the Solar System began inflation as other parts of the early as a cloud of dispersed interstellar gas universe are inflated and exploded-a called nebula. neverending “big banging.” PLANETESIMAL HYPOTHESIS Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin and B THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM Forest Ray Moulton worked on the Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis, which MILKY WAY GALAXY became the Chamberlin-Moulton A galaxy is a large group of stars, gas, and planetesimal hypothesis. They proposed dust bound together by gravity. They that a star passed close enough to the come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The sun, creating huge tides and causing Milky Way is a large barred spiral materials to be ejected. galaxy. All the stars we see in the night sky are in our own Milky Way Galaxy. TIDAL THEORY Another theory proposed by James SOLAR SYSTEM Hopwood Jeans and Harold Jeffreys One of the contents of the universe is the was variation of the planetesimal galaxy, and inside it, are the systems. We concept. The JeansJeffreys’ tidal theory are included in a solar system. suggested that when a huge tidal wave was created from the sun’s collision with another star. B1 MODELS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM PROTOPLANET THEORY PAGE 3 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM The protoplanet theory is a modified The geosphere consist of three major layers: version of the nebular hypothesis, which incorporates modern knowledge of CRUST matter formed independently by Less dense surface astronomers Gerard Kuiper and Carl von The outermost layer, thin veneer below Weizsacker. the layer, is soil and beneath the ocean water. composed almost entirely of solid rock C LIFE AND MOTIONS OF EARTH MANTLE A less dense rocky. Earth is the only place, as of now, confirmed to The mantle is the big volume of the host life and is the only one known for sure to Earth. have liquid water on the surface. it covers the core and lies beneath the The following reasons why planet earth is crust. unique: The outermost mantle is cold, strong, and hard. 1. It has liquid water. innermost mantle is so hot that rock is 2. Plate Tectonics; and not stable, soft, plastic(a solid that will 3. It has atmosphere that shelters it from deform permanently) the worst of the sun’s rays Layers of the Mantle: The simultaneous motions of Earth make it possible to support life. As Earth rotates around Lithosphere: the rigid outer part of the sun, a flow of energy is received through Earth, consisting of the crust and upper solar radiation. mantle. Asthenosphere: located below 1. Biological lithosphere and upper mantle. 2. Physiological Mesosphere: The rest of the mantle, 3. Meteorological hotter, but higher pressures keep this layer more rigid, and has high viscosity. C1 EARTH’S SYSTEM MANTLE The dense metallic EARTH'S SUBSYSTEM Two parts of the core: a shell called the Earth is composed of four subsystems: outer core and the sphere is the inner geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, core. and biosphere. It may be important to They are both made up of metal iron and note that humans are not part of the nickel. The outer core is liquid metal biosphere, and that human lives depend while the inner core is solid metal. on the interaction of the four subsystems. The magnetic field of the Earth generates in the outer core. GEOSPHERE Refers to the solid Earth. HYDROSPHERE It is composed of naturally-occurring The ocean makes up 71% of Earth and solid aggregate of minerals, organic contains 97.5% of water. material, or natural glass called ROCKS, It is the totality of Earth’s water, including and loose particles of rocks that blanket the permanent frozen parts called the the surface of Earth called REGOLITH cryosphere. PAGE 4 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM Earth is the only planet in the solar carbon cycle. system that contains water in all of its three phases. D TYPES OF BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES Water in the atmosphere is considered separate from that in the hydrosphere. ATMOSPHERE D1 THE WATER CYCLE is the mixture of gases (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, and water vapor WATER CYCLE that surrounds the planet. The water cycle, also known as The air in the atmosphere is generally hydrological cycle, is a cycle that involves composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, the continuous movement of water on, and the remaining 0.10% is made up of above and below the surface of the Earth. different trace gases. BERNARD PALISSY Layers of the Atmosphere: credited as the discoverer of the modern theory of the water cycle. Troposphere: Most of Earth’s weather happens here. EVAPORATION Stratosphere: where the ozone layer is Evaporation is also known as vaporization located. ' this substance ' s change of phase from Mesosphere: most of the meteors burn liquid to gas before reaching its boiling up in this layer. point Thermosphere: This is where you’ll find low Earth orbit satellites. Liquid to Gas: Evaporation is a cooling Exosphere: Outermost layer of the process since the transition from a liquid atmosphere. to a gas takes more energy, which it must obtain from the surroundings BIOSPHERE Heat Transfer: A liquid requires energy Includes all life forms and even organic to transform into vapor, which is referred matter that has not yet decomposed. to as the latent heat of evaporation. It is also in this zone that the interaction Surface Area: Vaporization usually between the different subsystems is happens on the surface of the water. most dynamic. Humidity: The humidity and rate of evaporation are in inverse relation to BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE each other. The higher the humidity in The four subsystems are closely linked to the atmosphere, the less will be the rate the biogeochemical cycles. of evaporation and vice versa. In the water cycle, the interaction with the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, TRANSPIRATION and geosphere. In the process of transpiration, water These biogeochemical cycles are molecules in the plant tissues are pathways by which chemical substances removed from the aerial parts of the move through both biotic and abiotic plants. components of Earth. It also maintains the balance of Roots: The roots absorb water and substances in the different subsystems of essential nutrients from the soil, Earth. anchoring the plant and supporting its Biogeochemical cycles: water cycle, growth. nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle, and PAGE 5 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM Stems: The stems serve as conduits, really slippery, turning them into a bit of transporting water and nutrients from a challenge. the roots to the leaves, and providing structural support for the plant. SURFACE RUN-OFF Veins: The veins, part of the plant' s Water naturally flows downhill due to vascular system, distribute water, gravity, which acts as a driving force. nutrients, and sugars throughout the When there is too much water on the leaves, ensuring the plant' s overall ground, it flows downhill and creates health. streams and rivers. Stomata: These tiny openings on the underside of leaves control gas GROUNDWATER FLOW exchange, allowing the plant to breathe Groundwater flow is the movement of and release excess water as vapor, which water beneath the Earth' s surface. After is crucial for the process of transpiration. water infiltrates the ground, gravity pulls it downward, where it moves through soil CONDENSATION and rock layers. Condensation is a gas like water vapor turns to a liquid. Infiltration: Water moves from the surface into the ground, filling the spaces Vapor to Liquid: This is the process or pores within the soil and underlying where the sun warmed a large body of rock layers. water that turns the water into vapor Discharge: This process is crucial for rising up into our atmosphere and turns maintaining the base flow of rivers and to liquid again waiting to fall once again the water levels in lakes and wetlands. Cooling Effect: It is when the water vapor reaches our atmosphere and is D2 THE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE cooled and turns into a liquid. Surface Condensation: This is the process when a cold surface has been PHOSPHORUS affected by warm air and condenses it Phosphorus is an essential element for plants and animals, important in energy PRECIPITATION storage and cell development. When the clouds become too heavy with water droplets, they fall back to the PHOSPHORUS CYCLE ground as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. The phosphorus cycle is a biogeochemical cycle where phosphorus Rain: is liquid that is precipitated directly can be seen moving through the to the ground when the temperatures environment with multiple are above freezing point in the form of transformations without a gaseous droplets. phase allowing it only to move through Snow: Snow occurs when temperatures rocks, soil, bodies of water, and are below freezing, this leads to the organisms. condensation of water vapor in clouds in the form of ice crystals. The Process of the Phosphorus Cycle: Hail: Hail forms during intense thunderstorms with strong winds that WEATHERING freezes into ice balls. Rain and weathering release phosphate Sleet: These ice pellets are usually ions from rocks into soil and water. smaller and rougher than hailstones. The cycle starts with the weathering of Sleet can make roads and sidewalks rocks, which releases phosphate ions into PAGE 6 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM the soil and water bodies. Phosphorus, a common mineral, is typically found in NITROGEN CYCLE rocks and is released into soil and water This is the set of biogeochemical bodies over time due to the weathering processes by which nitrogen undergoes process. chemical reactions, changes form, and moves through different reservoirs on PLAN UPTAKE Earth, including living organisms. Plants absorb these phosphates through The nitrogen cycle refers to the their roots, using them to support movement of nitrogen within and essential functions such as energy between the atmosphere, biosphere, transfer and then used to create multiple hydrosphere and geosphere. essential molecules such as DNA, RNA, and ATP. The Nitrogen Cycle Stages: Plants absorb inorganic phosphate from the soil. NITROGEN FIXATION Nitrogen from the atmosphere, primarily CONSUMPTION AND DECAY in an inert form (N₂), is converted into Animals then obtain phosphorus, using it ammonia (NH₃) by symbiotic bacteria for growth, bone formation, and cellular like Azotobacter and Rhizobium, or functions. through processes like lightning or Animals eat plants, and when the plants industrial methods. or animals die, organic phosphate returns to the soil. NITRIFICATION Animals consume plants. Soil bacteria convert ammonia into Animals consume animals. nitrites and then into nitrates, which plants can safely absorb, preventing MINERALIZATION ammonia toxicity. Bacteria convert organic phosphate into inorganic forms accessible to plants. ASSIMILATION When the plants and animals that have Plants absorb nitrogen compounds from phosphate die, their body decomposes the soil and use them to form proteins, and releases phosphate back into the which then enter the food web when soil. It can also be found and released consumed by animals. back to the ecosystem through animal waste. AMMONIFICATION When organisms die, decomposers SEDIMENTATION break down organic matter, releasing Phosphorus eventually reaches the nitrogen back into the soil as oceans and becomes incorporated into ammonium. sediments. In aquatic environments, some of this DENITRIFICATION phosphorus settles to the bottom, In the absence of oxygen, bacteria becoming part of the sediment and convert nitrates in the soil back into eventually forming new phosphate-rich nitrogen gas, returning it to the rocks over geological timescales, thereby atmosphere and completing the completing the cycle. nitrogen cycle. D3 THE NITROGEN CYCLE D4 THE OXYGEN-CARBON CYCLE PAGE 7 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM OXYGEN About 18% percent of the body’s mass is Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, carbon. Fundamental building blocks.. gas essential to living organisms, being taken up by animals, which convert it to D5 THE SULFUR CYCLE carbon dioxide. Things That Oxygen Requires: SULFUR CYCLE Respiration The sulfur cycle is a biogeochemical cycle Decomposition that describes the movement of sulfur Rusting through the Earth's different spheres: the Combustion atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere PHOTOSYNTHESIS CONTRIBUTION: Sulfur is a vital element that forms the Approximately 70% of the oxygen, 30% backbone of many essential biological from terrestrial plants. molecules. Majority of sulfur remains within the OXYGEN RESERVOIRS lithosphere. The largest reservoir of oxygen is in the Earth’s crust. 2nd is the atmosphere. 3 Form of Weathering: Physical weathering: Temperature CARBON DIOXIDE changes, wind, and water. Carbon dioxide is a colorless and Chemical weathering: Chemical non-flammable gas at normal reactions with water, oxygen, and other temperature and pressure. substances. Volcanoes may release some of this Biological weathering: Organisms, such carbon stored in the lithosphere when as plants and bacteria, produce acids they erupt. that can dissolve minerals. The ocean absorbs carbon in the form of carbon dioxide. It has a large amount of HYDROGEN SULFIDE & SULFUR DIOXIDE plankton that absorbs carbon dioxide are emitted into the atmosphere that it uses for photosynthesis. through volcanic activity and natural processes. Human activities that releases carbon dioxide: Humans burn fossil fuel which releases MARINE ALGAE carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. release dimethyl sulfide into the Another is the production of clinker atmosphere as tiny droplets. which is used for cement from limestone. Deforestation from humans can cause an Sulfur in the Atmosphere: increase in the amount of carbon in the Dimethyl sulfide reacts with oxygen, atmosphere. forming sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide reacts with atmospheric GREENHOUSE EFFECT oxygen to form sulfur trioxide. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, Sulfur trioxide reacts with atmospheric meaning it traps heat in the Earth’s water to form sulfuric acid, and with atmosphere. ammonia to produce sulfate salts. CARBON IN THE HUMAN BODY PAGE 8 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM SULFATE ACID AND SULFATE SALT the availability of water for all living Sulfuric acid and sulfate salts fall back organisms and regulates weather into Earth's surface through patterns on our planet. precipitation, such as rain, snow, or fog. The water cycle helps recycle and Sulfate salts are absorbed by both soil transport water around the planet. and plants. Plants incorporate sulfur from The cycle replenishes the water supply these salts into their biological processes. of ecosystems. Animals consume plants containing Unlike the nitrogen or carbon cycles, sulfur, and release sulfur compounds, phosphorus does not typically have a including sulfate salts and hydrogen gaseous phase. sulfide, upon their decomposition. Deforestation has an impact on the phosphorus cycle, which is one of the DECOMPOSITION AND BACTERIAL most essential elements for all living PROCESSES things. Anaerobic bacteria convert sulfur into Phosphorus mainly moves through sulfur gas during the decay of animals, rocks, soil, water, and organisms in while aerobic bacteria convert it into the environment. sulfate salts. Both forms of sulfur can be The oxygen cycle provides a absorbed by plants. continuous oxygen supply for living organisms. Letting plants, animals, and NOTE: people to breathe. There is nothing outside the universe, It maintains the concentration and because anything that exists is level of oxygen in the atmosphere automatically included in the All living things contain carbon, this definition of the universe. includes plants, which absorb carbon Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, and dioxide to grow and produce food Herman Bondi Proposed the steady through the process of photosynthesis state theory The sulfur cycle involves sulfur moving Descartes' model involved a system of through the lithosphere, atmosphere, huge swirling whirlpools of fine matter, and biosphere. In the lithosphere, producing what would later be called sulfur is stored in rocks and released gravitational effects. into the atmosphere by tectonic Earth is the only planet in the solar activity.. system that has a large amount of liquid water. About 70% of the surface of the Earth is covered by liquid or frozen water. Because of this, Earth is sometimes called a “blue planet.” or “blue marble”. The chemical and physical differences of the planetary formation was provided by Harold Urey. The terrestrial planets closest to the sun are Mercury, followed by Venus, Earth, and Mars. The Jovian Planet are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune The water cycle is an extremely important process because it enables PAGE 9 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM PYROCLASTIC IGNEOUS ROCKS CM 2: EARTHS ORIGIN from the consolidation of particles erupted by explosive volcanic activity such as ignimbrite, scoria, and pumice. TOPIC OVERVIEW Examples of Igneous Rocks: 1. Granite A. THE ROCK CYCLE 2. Basalt a. Different Types of Rocks 3. Pumice b. Classification of Rocks c. Rock Forming Mineral IGNEOUS ROCKS Formed when molten rock (magma or lava) cools and solidifies A THE ROCK CYCLE When formed inside of the earth, they are called intrusive, or plutonic. If they are ROCKS formed outside or on the earth's surface, A rock is a naturally-occurring they are called extrusive or volcanic. aggregate or combination of minerals and mineraloids, such as fossils and SEDIMENTARY ROCKS glass. Sedimentary rocks are combinations of Just as minerals are the building blocks the products of weathering erosion, of rocks, rocks are the natural building organic materials and deposition. blocks of the Earth’s lithosphere. The process by which these Earth’s lithosphere is made primarily of unconsolidated materials become rocks containing one or more minerals. solidified into rock is called lithification. Rocks are constantly being transformed, Sedimentary rocks that are lithified generated, and destroyed in a process below the surface can be exposed at the called the rock cycle. surface by means of the geologic processes, such as uplift and erosion of the overlying material. Examples of A1 THE TYPES OF ROCKS sedimentary rocks are shale, limestone, sandstone, conglomerate, and bauxite. Types of rocks that are formed through Formed through accumulation and the cooling of magma and lava. compaction of minerals or organic Igneous came from the latin word materials. “ignis”, which means fire. Three ways that magma or lava can Examples of Sedimentary Rocks: solidified in one: 1. Sandstone 2. Limestone INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS 3. Dolomite from a slow-cooling magma and formed have good crystallization METAMORPHIC ROCKS (coarse-grained) such as granite, diorite, Metamorphic rocks are formed from the and syenite. exposure of sedimentary or igneous rocks to high pressure, high temperature, EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS or both, deep within the Earth’s surface. from fast-cooling lava and formed have Metamorphic rocks can form into the no visible crystals (fine grained) such as process of metamorphism. basalt and andesite. Metamorphic rocks have distinct foliation Foliation is a term used that describes minerals lined up in planes. PAGE 10 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM Certain minerals, most notably the mica group, are mostly thin and planar by MINERALOGY default. is the study of the composition, crystal Foliated rocks typically appear as if the structure, and physical and optical minerals are stacked like pages of a book, properties of minerals. thus the use of the term 'folia', like a leaf. MINERALOGIST Examples of Metamorphic Rocks: is a person who studies minerals. Most 1. Soapstone mineralogists study minerals with 2. Mariposite economic value, such as metals like 3. Lapis Lazuli copper, aluminum, iron ore, gypsum, and clays. They determine their physical and chemical properties, how to retrieve A2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS them from ores, and how to process them. TEXTURE refers to the size, shape, and ABRAHAM GOTTLOB WERNER arrangement of mineral grains and other (1749-1817) is considered to be founder of constituents. mineralogy because he was the first to systematically classify minerals during DISTINCT GRAIN SIZE 1771 to 1800 by their obvious external/ aphanitic rocks have grains that are too physical characteristics such as color, small to see or identify, whereas luster, streak, crystal form, crystal habit, phaneritic rocks have grains, which are cleavage, and hardness. big enough to see. aphanitic rocks have grains that are OPTICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: too small to see or identify, while phaneritic rocks have grains, which are LUSTER big enough to see. refers to the quality of light on the surface of a rock, crystal, or mineral. COMPOSITION It can be described as greasy, silky, taken as the natural expression of metallic, earthy and vitreous. composition. COLOR caused by the absorption. A3 ROCK-FORMING MINERALS STREAK MINERALS color of the powdered mineral produced Minerals are composed of elements such when a mineral is rubbed across an as those found in the periodic table. unweathered surface. CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS HARDNESS naturally occurring chemical compounds mineral’s ability to resist scratching or inorganic abrasion homogeneous solids Mohs scale of hardness has definite composition which can be represented by a chemical formula CLEAVAGE Each mineral’s structure arranges atoms tendency of a mineral to split or cleave in a crystalline. along planes of weakness. PAGE 11 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM of concentric shells. CM 3: EXOGENIC AND ENDOGENIC PROCESSES FROST WEATHERING refers to the alternate freezing and thawing of water inside the joints of TOPIC OVERVIEW the rocks causing them to split into small particles or fragments. This occurs A. EXOGENIC PROCESS because freezing increases the volume of a. Types of mass wasting water by 10 percent and creates pressure, b. Types of soil erosion causing the pore spaces to split B. ENDOGENIC PROCESS CHEMICAL WEATHERING Chemical weathering is the weakening A EXOGENIC PROCESS or disintegration of rocks and the formation of new compounds or new WEATHERING substances caused by chemical is the general term applied to the reactions. Chemical processes include combined action of all physical and oxidation, hydrolysis, and acid action. chemical processes that disintegrate and decompose rocks near the Earth’s TYPES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING: surface through the elements of weather. OXIDATION DIFFERENT TYPES OF WEATHERING: is the process in which oxygen reacts with the rock and changes its mineral PHYSICAL WEATHERING composition. The greatest impact of this Physical weathering happens whenever process is observed on ferrous minerals, rocks are broken up without any which contain iron. change in their chemical composition. Sometimes called mechanical CARBONATION weathering. is the process involving the formation of various types of carbonates in rocks. TYPES OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING: Some of these carbonates are soluble in water. For example, when rainwater BLOCK DISINTEGRATION containing carbon dioxide forms is caused by successive heating and carbonic acid, it passes through cooling that causes the expansion and permeable limestone rocks. contraction of rocks. In hot desert regions, the extreme daily range of day HYDRATION and night temperature causes successive is the result of the absorption or expansion and contraction of rocks. combination of water and a particular substance on the rock, leading to a EXFOLIATION change in shape. The addition of water in is the stripping of the outer layers of the rock increases its volume, which rocks due to intense heating. Since changes the shape of the grains. rocks are poor conductors of heat, the inner layers remain almost unaffected by SOLUTION heat. The successive expansion and is the process in which some of its contraction of the outer layers of the rock minerals in rocks are directly dissolved peels off from the main rock in the form in water. As water continues to remove substances in rocks, the rock is PAGE 12 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM weakened, deformed, broken into pieces, SOIL EROSION and disintegrated. The product of weathering is the disintegration of rocks into particles of BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING soil. The removal of soil at a greater rate Biological or biotic weathering is the than its replacement by natural agencies disintegration of rocks caused by living is known as soil erosion organisms. A2 TYPES OF SOIL EROSION CAUSES OF BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING: PLANTS WIND EROSION contribute to both mechanical and happens when winds carry large chemical weathering. The roots of the amounts of fine soil particles and sand plants penetrate into the joints of the away from a region, spreading it over rocks searching for moisture. As the roots adjoining cultivated land and destroying grow larger and thicker, they exert their fertility. pressure on the rocks. SHEET EROSION ANIMALS is the removal of thin layers of soil Through burrowing. The disintegrated because of surface runoff and rain. This rocks can easily be exposed to more type of erosion is common along the intense processes, or be eroded or riverbeds and areas affected by floods. removed by other agents RILL EROSION HUMANS is the removal of soil by the action of play a very important role in the concentrated running water. This process weathering of rocks creates several centimeter-deep tiny Provisions for agriculture and channels called rills, which carry water construction of houses and roads, among during storms. others, require large amounts of rocks to be broken down. GULLY EROSION is the removal of soil in water channels or MASS WASTING drainage lines. The gullies gradually Mass wasting is a natural process that multiply and spread over a wide area. occurs after weathering. It is considered a natural hazard. B ENDOGENIC PROCESS A1 TYPES OF MASS WASTING HEAT It is seen as an energy from the motion of FALL the molecules of bodies such as Earth the free-fall movement of detached individual that may be transferred by conduction, pieces of rock convection, or radiation. SLIDES occur when rock materials remain fairly Three sources of heat on Earth: coherent and move along a well defined surface. FLOW 1. Heat from the accretion of Earth during its happens when rock materials are saturated with formation water and move downslope as a viscous fluid. PAGE 13 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814  EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE 1ST TERM – SBC – MONDAY: 2:00-3:30 PM | TUESDAY: 2:30-4:00 PM | FRIDAY SCELIFE 4:30-6:00 PM 2. Frictional heating, caused by the sinking of core materials to the center of the planet 3. Heat from the decay of radioactive elements. VOLCANISM Volcanism is the eruption of molten rock called magma onto the Earth’s surface through a vent. It includes all phenomena associated with the creation and discharge of magma within the mantle to rise through the crust, forming volcanic rocks on the surface TECTONIC FORCES AND PROCESS As the plates continue to move due to the convection of the Earth’s layers, rocks are continuously exposed to stress. When rocks are subjected to stress. DEFORMATION Deformation refers to any change in the shape or size of a rock as a response to stress. The deformation may occur by either folding of faulting Types of Stress: 1. Compressional stress causes squeezing 2. Tensional stress causes stretching 3. Shear stress causes side-to-side movement Types of Faults: Normal fault is one in which the rocks above the fault plane, or hanging wall, move down relative to the rocks below the fault plane, or footwall. Reverse fault is one in which the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall. Transform fault, which is caused by shear stress. There are two types of transform fault: dip-slip fault and strike-slip fault. Dip- slip faults show vertical movement of the hanging wall and footwall. Strike-slip fault shows horizontal and parallel displacements of the fault planes. PAGE 14 JASON NIMER – 12 HUMSS 2403 – [email protected] | 63+ 09604046814