Reviewer In Introduction To Psychology (Midterms) PDF

REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS) LESSON #1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY  PSYCHOANALYSIS - The unconscious mind controls much of our conscious behavi...

REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS) LESSON #1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY  PSYCHOANALYSIS - The unconscious mind controls much of our conscious behavior and stresses the  PSYCHOLOGY - the scientific study of behavior and importance of early childhood experiences. mental processes.  WILHELM WUNDT – FATHER OF PSYCHOLOGY  IVAN PAVLON  Psychology as a science was first practiced in  a reflex could be caused to occur in response to a Germany in 1879 formerly unrelated stimulus through conditioning.  OBJECTIVE INTROPERSPECTIVE - The process of  JOHN WATSON objectively examining and measuring one’s own  BEHAVIORISM - Focused on observable behavior only. thoughts and mental activities.  WATSON AND ROSALIE RAYNER  He established the first experimental laboratory in  A phobia could be learned through conditioning. psychology.  MARY COVER JONES  EDWARD TITCHENER - Brought psychology to  Learned phobias could be canceled through America counterconditioning.  STRUCTURALISM - The focus of the study is the  PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE - The structure or basic elements of the mind. development of a sense of self and the discovery of  MARGARET WASHBURN - The first woman to receive motivations behind a person’s behavior other than a Ph.D. in psychology in 1894. sexual motivations.  WILLIAM JAMES – FATHER OF AMERICAN  BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE PSYCHOLOGY  B.F. SKINNER - Introduced the concept of  FUNCTIONALISM - How the mind allows people to reinforcement to behaviorism. function in the real world and adapt to their  HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE - Aspects of personality surroundings. that make people uniquely human, such as subjective  GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY - Focused on perception feelings and freedom of choice. and sensation, particularly the perception of patterns  ABRAHAM MASLOW & CARL ROGERS – and whole figures. Humanism's most famous founders. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS)  COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE - Focuses on memory,  PSYCHIATRIST – A physician who specializes in the intelligence, perception, thought processes, problem- diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. solving, language, and learning.  PSYCHIATRIC SOCIAL WORKER - Has training in  COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE - The study of the therapy methods and focuses on environmental physical changes in the brain and nervous system conditions that can have an impact on mental during thinking. disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress, and  SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE - Influence of social drug abuse. interactions, society, and culture on an individual’s  BASIC RESEARCH – Adding information to the thinking and behavior. scientific knowledge base.  Examines the impact of social interactions, community,  APPLIED RESEARCH - Finding practical solutions to and culture on a person’s thinking, behavior, and real-world problems. emotions. LESSON #2: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH  BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE - Human and animal behavior to biological events occurring in the  CRITICAL THINKING - Making reasoned judgments. body, such as genetic influences, hormones, and the (FOUR BASIC CRITERIA FOR CRITICAL THINKING) activity of the nervous system.  Includes the topics of sleep, emotions, aggression,  There are very few “truths” that do not need to be sexual behavior, learning and memory, and disorders. subjected to testing.  EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE - The biological  All evidence is not equal in quality. bases of universal mental characteristics that all  Just because someone is considered to be an authority or to humans share. have a lot of expertise does not make everything that person claims automatically true. (PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFESSIONALS AND AREAS OF  Critical thinking requires an open mind. SPECIALIZATION) ~  PSYCHOLOGIST – A professional with an academic  SCIENTIFIC APPROACH - A system of gathering data degree and specialized training in one or more areas of so that bias and error in measurement are reduced. psychology. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS)  THEORY – A general explanation of a set of  POPULATION - The entire group of people or animals observations or facts. in which a researcher is interested.  HYPOTHESIS – A tentative explanation of a  CORRELATION - Measure of the relationship between phenomenon based on observations. two or more variables.  REPLICATE RESEARCH - To repeat a study or  CORRELATION COEFFICIENT - A number that experiment to see if the same results will be obtained in represents the strength and direction of a relationship an effort to demonstrate the reliability of results. existing between two variables.  NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS - Observers who  POSITIVE CORRELATIONS - Increases in one watch animals or people in natural environments. variable are matched by increases in the other variable.  OBSERVER EFFECT - The tendency of people or  NEGATIVE CORRELATIONS - Increases in one animals to behave differently from normal when they variable are matched by decreases in the other know they are being observed. variable.  PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION - The observer  EXPERIMENT - Deliberate manipulation of a variable becomes a participant in the group being observed. to see if corresponding changes in behavior result,  OBSERVER BIAS - Observers to see what they expect allowing the determination of cause-and-effect to see. relationships.  LABORATORY OBSERVATION - Researchers can (THE VARIABLES) watch animals or people in an artificial but controlled situation.  OPERATIONALIZATION - Specific description of a  CASE STUDY - The study of one individual in great variable of interest that allows it to be measured. detail.  INDEPENDENT VARIABLE – Variable in an  SURVEYS - Asking standardized questions of large experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter. groups of people but respondents may not always tell  DEPENDENT VARIABLE - Variable in an experiment the truth or remember information correctly. that represents the measurable response or behavior  REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE - a randomly selected of the participants in the experiment. sample of participants from a larger population of  EXPERIMENTAL GROUP - Includes participants in an participants. experiment who are subjected to the independent variable. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS)  CONTROLLED GROUP - Includes participants in an ~ experiment who are not subjected to the independent  ANIMAL RESEARCH - Animals make useful models variable and who may receive a placebo treatment. because they are easier to control than humans.  RANDOM ASSIGNMENT – Assigning participants to the experimental or control groups randomly, so that LESSON #3: BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY each participant has an equal chance of being in either  NERVOUS SYSTEM - Extensive network of specialized group. cells that carries information to and from all parts of the  PLACEBO EFFECT – The expectations of the body. participants in a study can influence their behavior.  NEUROSCIENCE – A Branch of the life sciences that  EXPERIMENTER EFFECT - The tendency of the deals with the structure and function of neurons, nerves, experimenter’s expectations for a study to and nervous tissue. unintentionally influence the results of the study.  BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY/ BEHAVIORAL  SINGLE-BLIND STUDY – The participants do not know NEUROSCIENCE – A Branch of neuroscience that if they are in the experimental or the control group. focuses on the biological bases of psychological  DOUBLE-BLIND STUDY - Neither the experimenter processes, behavior, and learning. nor the participants know if the participants are in the  NEURON – The basic cell that makes up the nervous experimental or the control group. system and that receives and sends messages within (ETHICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH) that system.  DENDRITES – Branchlike structures of a neuron that  Protection of rights and well-being of participants receive messages from other neurons  Informed consent  SOMA – The cell body of the neuron responsible for  Justification when deception is used maintaining the life of the cell.  The right of participants to withdraw at any time  AXON - Tubelike structure of a neuron that carries the  Protection of participants from risk neural message from the cell body.  Debriefing of participants at the conclusion of the study  AXON TERMINALS - Enlarged ends of axonal  Confidentiality branches.  Remediation of ill effects  GLIAL CELLS - Provide support for the neurons to grow QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS) on and around.  REUPTAKE - Neurotransmitters are taken back into the  MYELIN - A layer of fatty substances. synaptic vesicles.  NERVES - Bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel  ENZYME DEGRADATION - Neurotransmitter is altered together through the body. so it can no longer act on a receptor.  DIFFUSION - Molecules moving from areas of high  LESIONING - Involves the insertion of a thin, insulated concentration to areas of low concentration. electrode into the brain through which an electrical  RESTING POTENTIAL - State of the neuron when not current is sent, destroying the brain cells at the tip of the firing a neural impulse. wire.  SYNAPTIC VESICLES - Saclike structures found inside (BRAIN STIMULATION) the synaptic knob containing chemicals.  NEUROTRANSMITTER - Chemical found in the  INVASIVE TECHNIQUES - Stimulating from the synaptic vesicles that, when released, has an effect on inside. the next cell.  NON-INVASIVE TECHNIQUES - Stimulating from  SYNAPSE (SYNAPTIC GAP) - Microscopic fluid-filled the outside. space between the axon terminal of one cell and the (THE HINDBRAIN) dendrites or soma of the next cell.  RECEPTOR SITES - Three-dimensional proteins on the  MEDULLA – The first large swelling at the top of surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the and glands. brain.  EXCITATORY SYNAPSE – Neurotransmitter causes the  Responsible for life-sustaining functions such as receiving cell to fire. breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.  INHIBITORY SYNAPSE – Neurotransmitter causes the  PONS – The larger swelling above the medulla receiving cell to stop firing. that connects the top of the brain to the bottom.  ANTAGONIST – Chemical substances that block or  Plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left-right body reduce a cell’s response to the action of other chemicals coordination, and arousal. or neurotransmitters.  RETICULAR FORMATION (R.F) - Area of  AGONIST - Chemical substances that mimic or enhance neurons running through the middle of the the effects of a neurotransmitter. medulla and the pons. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS)  Responsible for general attention, alertness, and  Responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, arousal. hunger, thirst, and sex.  CEREBELLUM – Part of the lower brain located  HIPPOCAMPUS – A curved structure located within behind the pons. each temporal lobe.  Controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor  Responsible for the formation of long-term declarative movement and may have some cognitive functions. memories.  AMYGDALA - Brain structure located near the hippocampus. (THE LIMBIC SYSTEM)  Responsible for fear responses and memory of fear.  CINGULATE CORTEX - Plays an important role in  LIMBIC SYSTEM – Brain structures located primarily emotional and cognitive processing. under the cortex.  Involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation. (THE CORTEX)  THALAMUS – Part of the limbic system located in the  CORTEX - The outermost covering of the brain center of the brain, this structure relays sensory consisting of densely packed neurons. information from the lower part of the brain to the proper  Responsible for higher thought processes and areas of the cortex. interpretation of sensory input.  Processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area. (CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES)  OLFACTORY BULBS – Two bulblike projections of the  CEREBRUM – The upper part of the brain consisting of brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below the two hemispheres and the structures that connect the frontal lobes that receive information from the them. olfactory receptor cells.  CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES – The two sections of the  Smell is the only sense that does not have to first pass cortex on the left and right sides of the brain. through the thalamus.  CORPUS CALLOSUM – The thick band of neurons  HYPOTHALAMUS – A small structure in the brain that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres. located below the thalamus and directly above the  OCCIPITAL LOBE – A section of the brain located at the pituitary gland. rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS) the primary visual centers of the brain.  Responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system. (PARIETAL LOBE)  MIRROR NEURONS - Neurons that fire when an animal  PARIETAL LOBE – Sections of the brain located at the or person performs an action and also when an animal top and back of each cerebral hemisphere. or person observes that same action being performed by  Contains the centers for touch, temperature, and body another. position.  ASSOCIATION AREAS – Areas within each lobe of the  SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX – An area of cortex at the cortex. front of the parietal lobes.  Responsible for the coordination and interpretation of  Responsible for processing information from the skin information, as well as higher mental processing. and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and  BROCA’S AREA – Responsible for producing fluent, body position. understandable speech.  SPATIAL NEGLECT – Condition produced most often by  BROCA’S APHASIA – Causing the affected person to be damage to the parietal lobe association areas of the right unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to hemisphere. speak haltingly.  Inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left  WERNICKE’S AREA – Responsible for the visual field. understanding of language.  TEMPORAL LOBE - Areas of the cortex located along  WERNICKE’S APHASIA – Causing the affected person the side of the brain, starting just behind the temples. to be unable to understand or produce meaningful  Responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful language. speech. (SPLIT BRAIN RESEARCH) (FRONTAL LOBES)  LEFT BRAIN – Specializes in language, speech,  FRONTAL LOBES - Areas of the brain located in the handwriting, math calculation, sense of time and rhythm front and top. (mathematical in nature), and analytical thinking.  Responsible for higher mental processes and decision-  RIGHT BRAIN – Processes information globally and making as well as the production of fluent speech. controls emotional expression, spatial perception, and  MOTOR CORTEX – Rear section of the frontal lobe. recognition of faces, patterns, melodies, and emotions. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS) ~ adulthood.  STEM CELLS – Special cells capable of becoming other  HANDEDNESS - The tendency to use one hand for most cell types when those cells need to be replaced due to fine motor skills. damage or wear and tear.  CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) - The “central  EPIGENETICS – The interaction between genes and processing unit”. environmental factors influencing gene activity;  Consisting of the brain and the spinal cord. environmental factors include diet, life experiences, and  SPINAL CORD - A long bundle of neurons that carries physical surroundings. messages between the body and the brain.  PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) - The  Responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes. interaction between genes and environmental factors  AFFERENT NEURON (SENSORY) – Carry information influencing gene activity. from the senses to the central nervous system  SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM – Nerves that carry  EFFERENT NEURON (MOTOR) - Carry messages information from the senses to the CNS and from the from the central nervous system to the muscles of the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the body body.  SENSORY PATHWAY – Nerves coming from the  INTERNEURONS – Found in the center of the spinal sensory organs to the CNS containing afferent neurons. cord receives information from the afferent neurons and  MOTOR PATHWAY - Nerves coming from the CNS to send commands to the muscles through the efferent the voluntary muscles, containing efferent neurons. neurons.  AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) – Nerves that  REFLEX ARC - The connection of the afferent neurons control all of the involuntary muscles, organs, and to the interneurons to the efferent neurons, resulting in glands. a reflex action.  SYMPATHETIC DIVISION (FIGHT OR FLIGHT  NEUROPLASTICITY – The ability within the brain to SYSTEM) – Responsible for reacting to stressful events constantly change both the structure and function of and bodily arousal. many cells in response to experience or trauma. - Sympathetic nervous system (SNS),  NEUROGENESIS – The formation of new neurons that  PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION (EAT, DRINK, AND occurs primarily during prenatal development but may REST SYSTEM) – Restores the body to normal also occur at lesser levels in some brain areas during functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day- QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS) to-day functioning of the organs and glands. LESSON #4: STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS - Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)  CONSCIOUSNESS – A person’s awareness of everything that is going on around him.  WAKING CONSCIOUSNESS – Thoughts, feelings, and  ENDOCRINE GLANDS – Have no ducts and secrete sensations are clear and organized and the person feels chemicals called hormones directly into the alert. bloodstream.  ALTERED STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS – There is a  PITUITARY GLAND – Located in the brain secretes shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as human growth hormone and influences all other compared with waking consciousness. hormone-secreting glands  CONTROLLED PROCESSES – Require our conscious  OXYTOCIN – A hormone released by the posterior attention to a fairly high degree (High Focus). pituitary gland that is involved in reproductive and  AUTOMATIC PROCESSES - Require a comparatively parental behaviors. low level of conscious awareness (Low Focus).  PINEAL GLAND – Located near the base of the  SLEEP – The wake cycle is controlled by the brain’s cerebrum and secretes melatonin. hypothalamus.  THYROID GLAND – Found in the neck and regulates  CIRCADIAN RHYTHM – Cycle of bodily rhythm that metabolism by secreting thyroxin. occurs over a 24-hour period.  PANCREAS – Controls the levels of sugar in the blood  SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS – The internal clock by secreting insulin and glucagon. that tells people when to wake up and when to fall  GONADS – The sex glands, that regulate sexual asleep. development and behavior as well as reproduction.  SEROTONIN – Associated with arousal and sleep  OVARIES – Female gonads or sex glands regulation.  TESTICLES – Male gonads or sex glands  ADRENAL GLANDS – Located on top of each kidney (THEORIES OF SLEEP) that secrete over 30 different hormones to deal with  ADAPTIVE THEORY - Animals and humans evolved stress, regulate salt intake, and provide a secondary sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes predators are most active. that occur during adolescence. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS)  MICROSLEEPS - Sleep lasting only a few seconds.  DELTA WAVE - Long, slow brain waves that indicate the  RESTORATIVE THEORY - Sleep is necessary to the deepest stage of sleep. physical health of the body and serves to replenish (SLEEP DISORDERS) chemicals and repair cellular damage.  SLEEP DEPRIVATION - any significant loss of sleep,  NIGHTMARES – Bad dreams occurring during REM resulting in problems in concentration and irritability. sleep  NIGHT TERRORS – The person experiences extreme (STAGES OF SLEEP) fear and screams or runs around during deep sleep  RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP (R, REM) - The eyes without waking fully. move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is  SLEEPWALKING (SOMNAMBULISM) - Episode of typically experiencing a dream. moving or walking around in one’s sleep.  SLEEP PARALYSIS – Inability of the voluntary muscles  INSOMNIA – Inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get to move during REM sleep. quality sleep.  REM BEHAVIOR DISORDER (RBD) – A rare disorder in  SLEEP APNEA – The person stops breathing for 10 which the mechanism that blocks the movement of the seconds or more during sleep. voluntary muscles fails, allowing the person to thrash  NARCOLEPSY - A person falls immediately into REM around and even get up and act out nightmares. sleep during the day without warning.  REM REBOUND - Increased amounts of REM sleep  DREAM – According to Freud, it is defined as Wish after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights. fulfillment.  NON-REM SLEEP (NREM) - any of the stages of sleep  THE ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS HYPOTHESIS – that do not include REM. Dreams are created by the higher centers of the cortex.  ACTIVATION INFORMATION MODE (AIM) MODEL – (BRAIN WAVE PATTERNS) Information experienced during waking hours can  BETA WAVE – Smaller and faster brain waves, typically influence the synthesis of dreams. indicating mental activity.  HYPNOSIS - A person is especially susceptible to  ALPHA WAVE – Indicate a state of relaxation or light suggestion. sleep.  THETA WAVE – Indicating the early stages of sleep. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS) (THEORIES OF HYPNOSIS) coca plant.  NICOTINE – Stimulant found in tobacco.  DISSOCIATION – Divided state of conscious awareness  CAFFEINE – A mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and (multi-personalities). several other plant-based substances.  SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF HYPNOSIS –  DEPRESSANT – Drugs that decrease the functioning of People who are hypnotized are not in an altered state the nervous system. but merely playing the role expected of them in the situation. (MAJOR & MINOR TRANQUILIZERS) ~  BARBITURATES (MAJOR) - Depressant drugs that have a sedative effect.  PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS – Chemical substances that  BENZODIAZEPINES (MINOR) – Drugs that lower alter thinking, perception, and memory. anxiety and reduce stress.  PHYSICAL DEPENDENCE – A person’s body becomes unable to function normally without a particular drug. ~  WITHDRAWAL – Physical symptoms that can include  ALCOHOL - The chemical resulting from fermentation or nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and high blood distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter. pressure, resulting from a lack of an addictive drug in the  OPIATES – Drugs that suppress the sensation of pain. body systems.  OPIUM – A substance derived from the opium poppy.  DRUG TOLERANCE – The need for higher doses of the  MORPHINE – A narcotic drug derived from opium. drug to achieve the same effect, occurs as the body  HEROIN - A narcotic drug derived from opium that is becomes conditioned to the level of the drug. extremely addictive.  PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE – The belief that the  OPIOIDS - Synthetic drugs that mimic the pain-reducing drug is needed to continue. effects of opiates.  STIMULANTS – Drugs that increase the functioning of  HALLUCINOGENS - Drugs that cause false sensory the nervous system. messages, altering the perception of reality.  AMPHETAMINES – Stimulants that are synthesized in laboratories rather than being found in nature. (MANUFACTURED HALLUCINOGENS)  COCAINE – Natural drug derived from the leaves of the  LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE (LDS) – A powerful QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS) synthetic hallucinogen.  JUST NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCE (JND) – The  PCP – Used as an animal tranquilizer. smallest difference between two stimuli that is  MDM (ECSTASY OR X) – A designer drug, that can detectable 50 percent of the time it is present. have both stimulant and hallucinatory effects.  Difference threshold  STIMULATORY HALLUCINOGENS – Drugs that  ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD – The lowest level of produce a mixture of psychomotor stimulant and stimulation that a person can consciously detect 50 hallucinogenic effects. percent of the time the stimulation is present.  SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY – For assessing the (NON-MANUFACTURED HALLUCINOGENS) accuracy of judgments or decisions under uncertain  MARIJUANA - Mild hallucinogen (also known as “pot” or conditions. “weed”), derived from the leaves and flowers of a ~ particular type of hemp plant called “Cannabis sativa”.  HABITUATION – The tendency of the brain to stop LESSON #5: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION attending to constant, unchanging information. I. SENSATION  SENSORY ADAPTION – The tendency of sensory  SENSATION – Occurs when special receptors in the receptor cells to become less responsive to a stimulus sense organs are activated, allowing various forms of that is unchanging. outside stimuli to become neural signals in the brain. II. SEEING  TRANSDUCTION – Converting outside stimuli, such as (STRUCTURE OF THE EYE) light, into neural activity.  SYNESTHESIA – The signals from the various sensory  CORNEA – The clear membrane on the surface of the organs are processed differently, resulting in the sense eye. information being interpreted as more than one  AQUEOUS HUMOR – The clear, watery fluid beneath sensation. the cornea.  PUPIL – The hole in the interior of the eye that lets in light. (SENSORY THRESHOLD)  IRIS – A round muscle that surrounds the pupil.  It is the colored part of the eye. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS)  LENS – A clear, flexible structure.  OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY – Color vision  Changes its shape to finish the focusing process. proposes that visual neurons (or groups of neurons) are  VITREOUS HUMOR – A large, open space filled with a stimulated by light of one color and inhibited by light of clear, jelly-like fluid. another color.  It nourishes the eye and gives it shape.  AFTER IMAGES – When a visual sensation persists for  VISUAL ACCOMMODATION - The lens changes its a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed. shape from thick to thin, enabling it to focus on objects  COLOR BLINDNESS – In color-deficient vision, color that are close or far away. perception is limited to combinations of two cones or  RODS – Visual sensory receptors found at the back of colors (to yellows/blues or reds/greens). the retina responsible for noncolor sensitivity to low III. HEARING levels of light.  CONES – Visual sensory receptors found at the back of (STRUCTURE OF THE EAR) the retina responsible for color vision and sharpness of  PINNA – The visible part of the ear. vision.  AUDITORY CANAL – Short tunnel that runs from the  BLIND SPOT – The area in the retina where the axons pinna to the eardrum (tympanic membrane). of the retinal ganglion cells exit the eye to form the optic  OSSICLES – The three tiny bones in the middle ear. nerve.  HAMMER, ANVIL, STIRRUP  It is insensitive to light.  OVAL WINDOW – A membrane covering the opening  DARK ADAPTATION – As the eye recovers its ability to of the inner ear. see when going from a brightly lit state to a dark state.  COCHLEA – A snail-shaped structure.  LIGHT ADAPTATION – The recovery of the eye’s  ORGAN OF CORTI – Contains special hair cells that sensitivity to visual stimuli in light after exposure to are the receptors for sound. darkness; it occurs more rapidly than dark adaptation.  AUDITORY NERVE – A bundle of axons from the hair (PERCEPTION OF COLOR) cells in the inner ear to the brain.  THRICROMATIC THEORY – Color vision proposes there are three types of cones: red, blue, and green.  THREE COLORS THEORY QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS)  PITCH – The psychological experience of sound that (THE FIVE BASIC TASTES) corresponds to the frequency of the sound waves;  SWEET higher frequencies are perceived as higher pitches.  SOUR  PLACEMENT THEORY – Pitch states that different  BITTER pitches are experienced by the stimulation of hair cells  SALTY in different locations on the organ of Corti.  UMAMI  FREQUENCY THEORY – Pitch that states that pitch is related to the speed of vibrations in the basilar ~ membrane.  OLFACTION – The ability to smell odors.  VOLLEY PRINCIPLE – A theory of pitch that states that  OLFACTORY BULBS – Two bulb-like projections of the frequencies from about 400 Hz to 4,000 Hz cause the brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below hair cells (auditory neurons) to fire in a volley pattern, the frontal lobes that receive information from the or take turns firing. olfactory receptor cells. (TYPES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT) V. SENSE OF TOUCH  CONDUCTION HEARING IMPAIRMENT – Problems  SOMETHIC SENSES – The body senses consist of with the mechanics of the outer or middle ear mean the sin senses, the kinesthetic sense, and the that sound vibrations cannot be passed from the vestibular senses. eardrum to the cochlea.  PACINIAN CORPUSCLES – Just beneath the skin  NERVE HEARING IMPAIRMENT – The problem is and respond to changes in pressure. damage to the inner ear or to the auditory pathways in  VISCERAL PAIN – Pain (and pressure) in the the brain. organs whereas somatic pain is pain sensation in IV. TASTE & SMELL the skin, muscles, tendons, and joints.  GATE CONTROL THEORY – Activating other pain  TASTE BUDS – The common name for the taste receptors by opening “gates” in the spinal column receptor cells. and sending the message to the brain.  GUSTATION – The sense of taste. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS)  SUBSTANCE P - Receptors sensitive to pain are  SIZE CONSTANCY – Tendency to interpret an object stimulated, a neurotransmitter. as always being the same actual size, regardless of its  PAIN DISORDERS – Inability to feel pain. distance.  Include congenital analgesia and congenital  SHAPE CONSTANCY – Tendency to interpret the insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis (CIPA) shape of an object as being constant, even when its  KINESTHESIA – The awareness of body shape changes on the retina. movement.  BRIGHTNESS CONSTANCY – Tendency to perceive  PROPRIOCEPTION – Awareness of where the the apparent brightness of an object as the same even body and body parts are located in relation to each when the light conditions change. other in space and to the ground. (GESTALT PRINCIPLES)  VESTIBULAR SENSE – The awareness of the balance, position, and movement of the head and  FIGURE-GROUND – The tendency to perceive objects body through space in relation to gravity’s pull. or figures as existing on a background.  SENSORY CONFLICT THEORY – Explanation of  REVERSIBLE FIGURES – Visual illusions in which the motion sickness in which the information from the figure and ground can be reversed. eyes conflicts with the information from the  PROXIMITY – Tendency to perceive objects that are vestibular senses, resulting in dizziness, nausea, close to each other as part of the same grouping. and other physical discomfort.  SIMILARITY – Tendency to perceive things that look  BIOFEEDBACK TRAINING – Feedback about similar to each other as being part of the same group. biological conditions is used to bring involuntary  CLOSURE – Tendency to complete figures that are responses, such as blood pressure and relaxation, incomplete. under voluntary control.  CONTINUITY – Tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather than with a VI. PERCEPTION complex, broken-up pattern.  PERCEPTION – The sensations experienced at any  CONTIGUITY – Tendency to perceive two things that given moment are interpreted and organized in happen close together in time as being related. a meaningful fashion. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS)  COMMON REGION – Tendency is to perceive objects  MOTION PARALLAX – The perception of motion of that are in a common area or region as being in a objects in which close objects appear to move more group. quickly than objects farther away.  ELEMENT CONNECTEDNESS – Tendency to perceive  ACCOMMODATION – The brain’s use of information objects that are connected overrides both elements of about the changing thickness of the lens of the eye in similarity and proximity. response to looking at objects that are close or far  DEPTH PERCEPTION – Ability to see the world in away. three dimensions.  CONVERGENCE – The rotation of the two eyes in their  MONOCULAR CUES – Require the use of only one sockets to focus on a single object. eye.  BINOCULAR DISPARITY – The difference in images  Pictorial depth cues. between the two eyes, which is greater for objects that  BINOCULAR CUES – Perceiving depth based on both are close and smaller for distant objects. eyes. (PERCEPTUAL ILLUSION)  LINEAR PERSPECTIVE – Tendency for parallel lines to appear to converge on each other.  HERMANN GRID – A perceptual illusion that distorts  RELATIVE SIZE – When objects that a person expects visual stimuli involving feature detectors. to be of a certain size appear to be small and are,  MULLER-LYER ILLUSION – Illusion of line length that therefore, assumed to be much farther away. is distorted by inward-turning or outward-turning  INTERPOSITION – An object that appears to be corners on the ends of the lines, causing lines of equal blocking part of another object is in front of the second length to appear to be different. object and closer to the viewer.  EBBINGHAUS ILLUSION – Uses context to determine  AERIAL (ATMOSPHERIC) PERCEPTION – The the size of objects. haziness that surrounds objects farther away from the  THE MOON ILLUSION – The moon when on the viewer, causing the distance to be perceived as horizon appears to be much larger than the moon when greater. high in the sky (the apparent distance hypothesis).  TEXTURE GRADIENT – Tendency for textured  ILLUSION OF MOTION – Autokinetic effect, surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as stroboscopic motion, phi phenomenon. the distance from the viewer increases. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY  REVIEWER IN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY (MIDTERMS)  PERCEPTUAL SET / PERCEPTUAL EXPECTANCY – The previous experiences or expectations influence those perceptions.  TOP-DOWN PROCESSING – The use of preexisting knowledge.  BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING – The analysis of smaller features to build up to a complete perception. QUIAMBAO, JOHN RUSSEL Y. FIRST YEAR BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY