Jewish Studies 121A Midterm I Study Guide PDF

Please add your notes, and let’s make a group timeline together! https://quizlet.com/950521714/jewish-121-a-real-flash-cards/?new Terms and Short Definition - Sabbatai Zvi - Who: Self-proclaimed “messiah” who developed a following and criticized Rabbinical authority in Europe in...

Please add your notes, and let’s make a group timeline together! https://quizlet.com/950521714/jewish-121-a-real-flash-cards/?new Terms and Short Definition - Sabbatai Zvi - Who: Self-proclaimed “messiah” who developed a following and criticized Rabbinical authority in Europe in the 17th century. - What: Leader of a Messianic movement (claimed to fly, have visions from God, and be the ultimate redeemer and incarnate aspect of the kabbalistic godhead) - Followers were called Sabbatians - Was forced to convert to Islam in 1666 due to the laws of the Ottoman Empire or face death (still followed Jewish practices and preached as the Jewish Messiah) - When: 1626-1676 - Where: Ottoman Empire, from the port town of Smyrna Baruch Spinoza - Who: Portuguese-Jewish philosopher - What: Advocated for bringing truth and reason into Judaism. Rejects Rabbinical authority, and gets excommunicated, yet doesn’t convert to Christianity. - His excommunication was significant since his ideas not only challenged Jewish doctrines but also laid the groundwork for modern philosophical thought. He questioned the literal interpretations of the Torah and rejected the notion of a personal, interventionist god. His work, especially in Ethics, promoted a pantheistic view where god and nature were seen as one and the same, a radical departure from traditional religious views of the time. This philosophical stance, along with his rejection of Jewish communal authority, caused Spinoza to be seen as a heretic. His excommunication from the Jewish community of Amsterdam in 1656 marked a turning point in the history of secular thought, as he became one of the first major figures to fully separate religious belief from philosophical inquiry. - After his excommunication, he chose not to convert to Christianity (which was unheard of at the time) and instead kept his title as Jew, although non-practicing. - Where: Born in Amsterdam after his family fled Portugal for the more tolerant Dutch Republic - When: (1632-1677) - Spinoza’s mother was related to Uriel da Costa, but it is believed that Spinoza himself was unaware of that, but da Costa’s beliefs influenced Spinoza’s thinking Uriel da Costa - Who: Originally born a Christian (his ancestors were Jews that were forcibly converted to Christianity by the state edict in 1497) but he reverted to Judaism. He wrote 11 theses that attacked Rabbinic Judaism as not being biblical which caused him to be excommunicated. He was also excommunicated due to accusations of him also dissuading Christians from converting to the Jewish faith. - Da Costa was excommunicated twice, and in agreement to be readmitted, he had to prostrate himself and allow all the worshippers to trample over him. This repeated humiliation drove him to suicide a year later - What: Da Costa believed that rabbinic leadership was obsessed with ritualism and legalistic posturing, hence the creation of his earliest work known as Propositions Against the Tradition. This work called into question the disparities between certain Jewish customs and the literal reading of the Law of Moses. He also questioned both tradition Jewish and Christian beliefs, stating that their origins were based on human inventions instead of God’s revelation - Where: Born in Portugal, died in Amsterdam - When: (1580-1640) Blood libel - What: Another serious and superstitious accusation against Jews claiming that they use the blood of humans for religious practices, creates widespread fear and disdain. - Ritual murders: in conjuncture with blood libel, the antisemitic belief that falsely accuses Jews of murdering Christians for the use of their blood in various rituals (ex. Obtaining unleavened bread for Passover by using the blood of Christians) - The famous/first case of ritual murder was that of William of Norwich in 1144…there was a widespread belief that the Jews killed the boy and used his blood for religious rituals - Host desecration: the accusation that the Jews would sneak into churches and steal the host (the believed physical body of Christ) and harm it - Well-poisoning: the belief that the Jews poisoned the wells and led to the spread of the plague - Insulting caricatures: drawings or sculptures that depicted/associated the Jews with livestock and the devil - Why: Blood libel was used as a way to justify the forcible removal or hatred of the Jewish people. These accusations forced local authorities and governments to pass laws restricting Jewish movement/rights or to kick them out in general Servi camerae - What: Translation from latin → “Servants of the Royal Chamber” term that defined the place of Jews in Christian European society in the Middle Ages. - Why: The ruler had the right to tax the Jews, but the responsibility to protect them, Legal status of Jews (Vertical alliance) Host desecration - What: Rumor that Jewish people would break into Churches and steal the body of Christ, then destroy it/repeatedly stab (was as if harming the actual body of Jesus Christ) - Why: Another to put blame on the Jews so that they may be kicked out of their towns or a way to justify/spread the hatred felt for them Christian Wilhelm Dohm - Who: German historian and political writer, advocated for the emancipation of the Jews although he was not Jewish himself (friend of Moses Mendelssohn) - What: Questions why Jews were so hated at the time. Jews value love and respect, and they still value these things. “Jew is more man than jew.” - Suggested opening up agriculture and merchantilism as professions for Jews as well, and to avoid backlash by the Christian population, suggested that the holding of public office not be available just yet for Jewish applicants - Wrote about the terrible conditions and prejudice that Jews had long since been living under as a way to counter the strong anti-Jewish sentiments expressed at the time - Wrote the essay Concering the Amelioration of the Civil Status of the Jews. He believed that education was very important and that by allowing Jews to receive a standard education, their social situation would improve and emancipation would soon follow Dohm attributed the “negative characteristics” described by the Jews as a product of centuries-long oppression by Christians - Where: Germany - When: (1751-1820) On the Civic Improvement of the Jews (1781) - What: Document written by Christian Wilhelm Dohm, two volumes and argues for Jewish equality. Widely praised by Jewish communities of Berlin. - Starts with the suggestion of education and the opening of other professions to the Jews - Why: As a non-Jewish philospher, Dohm calling for the emancipation of the Jewish people was a major step towards the gain of civil rights in the Jewish community Naphtali Herz Wessely - Who: German-Jewish Hebraist (scholar of the Hebrew language) and educationist - What: Worked with Mendelssohn to write in the Torah with a mix of German and Hebrew, in order to assimilate into dominant culture (erased Yiddish.) Wrote Divrei… and advocated for secularism. He was an advocate of social and educational reforms as he endorsed the writings of Joseph II’s Edict of Toleration. He also wrote Words of Peace and Truth that emphasizes the necessity of a secular education. These works caused Wessely to be threatened with excommunication by the rabbinical courts - Where: Hamburg, Germany (born and died) - When: (1725-1805) Edict of Toleration (1782) - Who: Issued by Emperor Joseph II - What: This decree granted limited rights and tolerance to Jews within the Habsburg Empire. - allows Jews to integrate more into society. - Why: The goal was to make the Jewish people more economically useful to the state by granting them access to cities and towns as well as expanding the professions they were allowed to enter. The Jews were also granted access to attend public schools and universities and setting up their own factories Words of Peace and Truth (1782, Divrei shalom ve-emet) - Who: Written by Naftali Herz Wessely - What: aimed to inform Rabbinical authorities in Central Europe that secular education benefits the Jewish community. Encourages the adoption of Emperor Joseph II’s publication which sought to promote a greater degree of secularization and acculturation among the Jewish community (specifically within rabbinical leadership) - Wesseley believed that a secular education was the universal body of knowledge and should come first before divne knowledge which was supposed to supplement the secular Abbe Gregoire - Who: French catholic priest, constitutional bishop, and revolutionary leader (considered to be a friend of the Jews) - What: Writes “Essay on the Physical, Moral, and Political Regeneration of the Jews” in 1785. How do we make the “oriental” Jews reformed (or regenerated) into Europeans? He argued that  the unfortunate nature of the Jews was a result of circumstance and the condition with which they had been treated/persecuted by Christians. He believed that the Jews could be brought into mainstream society and made into citizens (hence his idea on the “Regeneration of Jews”) - Where: France - When: (1750-1831) Assembly of Jewish Notables - What: Napoleon gathered together a body of Jewish educated notables and gave them 12 questions to answer, in order to see if Jews were “compatible” with the French. - Where: Paris, France - When: 1806 - Why: Napoleon was creating a new French Empire and he wanted to ensure that all of his subjects would follow the laws that he would put in place, this included the Jews of France. It was necessary that he ask the leaders of the Jewish communities in France in order to make sure that he could emancipate the Jewish people or decide to get rid of them Grand Sanhedrin - What: Jewish court convened in 1807 by French Emperor Napoleon I to legalize and codify principles discussed by Jewish notables, information gathered from 12 questions asked. - Clarification: The questions were already asked/answered in 1806, this gathering was used to legalize the emancipation of the Jews in France in response to the answers given by the Assembly of Jewish Notables - Where: Paris, France - When: 1807 - Why: The use of the name was purposeful since this was the first time a Grand Sanhedrin had been called in 1700 years…this gave the impression that Napolean was messiah-like to the Jewish people (caused a lot of excitement in the Jewish community throughout Europe) Infamous Decrees 1808 - What: Proposed by Napoleon in 1808, in an attempt to give equality to Jewish citizenship but had adverse effects, suspended all money lending which hurt Jews financially living in eastern France. - Where: Alsace (Jews in surrounding areas were “safe” from these decrees, but those living in the Alsace region had their rights suspended for 10 years) - When: 1808 - Why: Suspended the debts owed to Jewish moneylenders by the poor peasants who bought homes of nobility in the Alsace after the French Revolution because there were complaints by the non-Jewish French peasants that now had debts to pay off and they were unable to do so Jewish Emancipation in France - What: In 1791, France emancipated the 40,000 Jews living there, and it inspired nations across Europe to follow suit. However, it was a long, drawn-out process, and some emancipation in Europe occurred in the mid-19th century. - The Sephardic Jews were the first to be emancipated because they conformed to non-Jewish culture easily - The reason that the Ashkenazi Jews of France were emancipated was becasue after the French Revolution, the non-Jewish people of France could not stand the idea that there were people  living in post-revolutionary France not following the French Laws (everyone had to be a Frenchman) Hep Hep riots - What: Series of pogroms against Jews, caused by Jewish desire for emancipation. Non-Jews felt threatened by Jews wanting equal rights because the non-jews thought the Jews were trying to assert power and take over Europe. No deaths, but lots of destruction of property. - Where: Germany - When: 1819 - Why: The non-Jewish people living in Germany did not want the Jews of their cities to be emancipated because that meant that the Jews would have greater freedoms and would be able to go into different professions, etc. - Named Hep Hep because it was a derogatory rallying cry against the Jews Pale of Settlement - Who: Decreed by Catherine the Great (Tsarina of Russia from 1762-1796) → was originally tolerant of Jews and amenable to complaints but after too many complaints she forced the Jews to move to this settlement - What: Passage of laws that confined Jews to a certain area - The size of France, Germany, and Austria combined, held 5 million Jews which only constituted as 12% of the population in this settlement (very large and in no way similar to a Ghetto, but did restrict the movement of the Jews and confined them to this one region) - There were restrictions on Jews, such as leases on fixed assets, i.e., mines, mills, breweries, distilleries, collection of duties & taxes, and salt (around this time a good majority of Jews in villages and towns were in the alcohol trade) - Where: Tsarist Russia, settlement was created after Poland was partitoned and Russia suddenly acquired a significant amount of Poland’s Jewish population - When: (1791-1917) - Why: Catherine the Great was not entirely tolerant of Jews and after some complaints by the people of Russia, she issued decrees that forced the Jews to live in the settlement so that they would be out of major Russian cities Arenda - What: Leases on fixed assets that Jews got in return for running estates of nobility. Especially alcohol, grain, etc, in Poland - Mines, mills, breweries, distilleries, etc. since a good majority of Jews in this area were in the alcohol trade - Arenda refers to the system in which Jewish tenants, known as arendars, leased estates or economic rights (like mills, taverns, or tax collection) from landowners, particularly in Eastern Europe. This practice was common from the 16th century, allowing Jews to manage businesses or land for the nobility. While it provided economic opportunities, it often created tensions between Jewish arendars and local peasants. Khappers - What: Suppliers of Jewish children by the Jewish community under Czar Nicholas I for his army, after 1827 imposed conscription. Nicholas wanted to have young Jewish children so they could be converted to Orthodox Christianity - This disrupted the Jewish Community since Czar Nicholas I tasked the supplying of Jewish children to the members of the Jewish community…this caused unease and distrust which weakened the communal ties felt within the area Hasidism - Who: Founded by Ba’al Shem Tov, often referred to as “The BeSHT.” - What: Inserting the divine into the mundane. Begins with mysticism, and the belief that one has to come to God through prayer. Emphasizes joy and happiness - Had a strong emphasis on prayer → reaching an otherworldly state where supposedly you would not feel if a knife was thrust into you (the prayer could also be described as energetic and active, some find this form of prayer disrespectful (mitnagdism)) - Goal of prayer was to strive towards Devekut (cleaving to God), but this was not a definitive destination, just a goal. You are supposed to get as close to a saint as one can reach as an ordinary person (Beinoni) - Where: Ukraine - When: 18th century Mitnagdim - Who: Vilna Gaon (aka Elijah ben Salomon Zalman) was the leader of the Mitngadistic movement - What: The opponents or groups that disagreed with Hasidism. Concentrated in Lithuania, Mitnagdim eventually led to the Musar movement. - Had seven points of opposition (Introduction of Kabbalah into daily life, Rejection of Tzaddik, Torah study, mode of prayer, lack of decorum, charges of impropriety, and animal slaughter (the only one of these that also has an economic effect)) - Also had a Mitnagdic Ban → ban on business, lodging, association, etc. with Hasidic Jews - Where: Lithuania - When: Second half of the 18th century - Why: The opposition of the Hasidic religious practice Haskalah - Who: Prominent thinkers of the Haskalah → Moses Mendelssohn (Berlin), Yitshak ber Levinzon (Russia), Naphtali Herz Wesseley (Berlin), Yosef Perl (Galicia), etc. (partisans known as maskilim (Jewish Enlightenment thinkers)) - What: Referred to as the Jewish Enlightenment, which strived for Jewish people to integrate into dominant society in order to be accepted. Led to eventual emancipation across Europe. - Although emphasized the desire for acculturation of the Jewish people, also sought to promote the spiritual and cultural renewal of Jewish society Maskilim - What/Who: Members of the Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment) - Most of the Maskilim had Hasidic origin and they eventually became followers of the Haskalah and rejected Hasidism - Why: Europeanization of Judaism – Jews were thought to be a nationality and wanted to stray away from that idea, wanted to prove they could be European - The idea of who Jews should become - Accepting secular culture – way of pushing toward emancipation Jacob Frank - Who: Polish-Jewish religious leader who claimed to be the reincarnation of the self-proclaimed messiah Sabbatai Zevi and also of the biblical patriarch Jacob - Clarification → Sabbatai Zevi said he was the messiah and then Frank said he was the reincarnation of Sabbatai - What: Created Frankism which incorporated aspects of Christianity and Judaism, the religious mysticism followed socioeconomic changes in Poland and surrounding countries movement stemming from Sabbateanism - Where: Poland - When: (1726-1791) Partitions of Poland (Late 18th Century) - What: Poland was sectioned into three different territories which caused Russia to gain many Jews. The split into three makes three different Hasidic cultural expressions. - When: Partitioned three times (1772, 1793, and 1795) Israel ben Eliezer (Ba’al Shem Tov) - Who: Founder of Hasidism, rabbi and kabbalistic practitioner (Kabbalah = Jewish mysticism) - What: Mystical Jewish movement that emphasized joy, faith, and closeness to God - Where: Ukraine - When: (1698-1760) Shivhei ha-BeShT (1815) - What: Collection of tales about Ba’al Shem Tov, the founder of the Hasidic Judaism movement. Created a character and culture that Jews could look up to. - The BeSHT did not leave an writings, all the writings left to this day were written by his disciples and they each start with “the BeSHT once said” or “the BeSHT told me” - This allows for interpretations of what the BeSHT said, becoming a potentially pseudo-primary source or pretending to have the credibility as a primary source although it may be unknown if it truly was or not Dov Ber of Mezeritch - Who: Disciple of the Baal Shem Tov (founder of Hassidism) and chosen successor - What: Originally followed ascetic practices of self-denial and fasting which left him in poor health and brought him to seek counsel from The BeSHT who was a known healer, Dov Ber then chose to stay and learn from the Baal Shem Tov because he felt that there was much to learn and eventually took up the mantel as a founder of Hassidism after The BeSHT passed. Dov Ber took the BeSHT’s general words and guidance and turned them into doctrine. Then, the disciples of the BeSHT, and later Dov Ber, began to spread the teachings of Hassidism and it grew as a religious movement - Second generation of Hasidism - Where: Born in Volhynia and died in Poland - When: (1704-1772) Tzaddik - What: Righteous one, or saint. One who sublimates and transforms animalistic urges into positive contributions, a term coined by Shneur Zalman of Lyady. - “Ideal human” - Believed to be determined by birth (although everyone should strive to be one) Tanya (1796) - Who: Written by Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (Disciple of Dov Ber of Mezervitch) - What: Handbook for daily spiritual life in Judaism outlines and defines Hasidic mysticism (considered to be the written Torah of Hasidism) - Early work of Hasidic philosophy Shneur Zalman of Lyady - Who: Founder and first Rabbi of HaBaD, which emphasizes wisdom, reason, and knowledge within Judaism - Wrote “Tanya” which was published in 1796. - Where: Born in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and died in Russia - When: (1745-1812) Beinoni - What: Someone who is “average,” and successfully resists negative inclinations, but struggles with it. - As close to a saint as the average person can get Devekut - What: “Cleaving to God” or “Closeness to God” HaBaD - What: Acronym for Wisdom (Hokhmah), Reason (Binah), and Knowledge (Da’at) → headquartered in Lubavitch ​as a branch of Hasidism, known for its intellectual and philosophical approach, founded by Shneur Zalman of Liadi. Vilna Gaon - Who: Famous Rabbi who was staunchly anti-Hasidism and considered the main prominent leader of mitnagdism. - What: One of the most influential figures in rabbinic study in the modern era. - Advocated for the study of secular subjects such as mathematics for a better understanding of rabbinic texts, but was opposed to the study of philosophy and metaphysics - Where: Born in Belarus and died in Lithuania - When: (1720-1797) Musar Movement - What: Movement emerging in the 19th century in Orthodox Jewry in Lithuania emphasized improving one's ethics and personal piety. - Was an ethical, educational, and cultural movement - Created in response to the social changes that were brought about by the Haskalah as a way to maintain the traditional, orthodox connection to the Jewish faith and reconnect with one’s personal piety Israel Salanter - Who: Seen as the leader of the Musar Movement - What: Argued to Jewish youth from a young age that personal piety is valuable - Created the Musar Movement as a discipline of efforts to further ethical and spiritual development - Believed that following the ritual aspects of Judaism without developing relationships with others and oneself was “unpardonable” - Where: Born in Lithuania and died in Germany - When: (1809-1883) Volozhin Yeshiva - What: An educational institution founded in Volozhin, Lithuania. Founded by Rabbi Volozhiner and was considered the first modern Yeshiva. Served as an institution teaching Mitnagdism. - Yeshiva = orthodox elementary or secondary school - Where: Russia - When: active from 1803-1939 Moses Mendelssohn - Who: German-Jewish philosopher and theologian - “Seen as the Jewish Socrates” - Didn’t have to pay taxes to the Jewish community in recognition of his greatness - What: Established the Jewish Free School - His writings and ideas on Jews and Jewish culture/religion/identity were central to the development of the Haskalah - Hebrew Bible Translation (1783) → translated the Hebrew bible to German and written in Hebrew characters (the purpose of this was to encourage the uptake of the German language a culture, to become more integrated with society) - Later wrote commentaries for the Hebrew Bible - Mendelssohn’s translation of the Hebrew bible into a non-Jewish language was not well-received and he was subjected to rabbinical courts) - Where: Holy Roman Empire (Berlin) - When: (1729-1786) Gotthold Ephraim Lessing - Who: German philosopher, publicist, dramatist, and art critic (Non-Jew) - wrote plays such as “The Jews” and “Nathan the Wise” in the eighteenth century, painted Jews in a positive light - Friends with Mendelssohn. - Where: Holy Roman Empire - When: (1729-1781) Jerusalem (1783) - Who: Published by Moses Mendelssohn - written in German so that non-Jews could read it too - What: Two parts of the book, the first discusses “Religious Power” and the second discusses Mendelssohn’s views on Judaism Ha-Me’asef (The Gatherer) - What: First secular Jewish publication (like a subscription-based journal) - Was originally produced by a group called Friends of the Hebrew Language (Society of the Promotion of the Hebrew Nation) but the name changed to Society of Promoting the Good and Noble (there was a movement away from calling the Jewish people a “nation” because it undermined the governments of the countries where the Jewish people lived) - The journal was written in Hebrew (biblical Hebrew, not contemporary) and had sections of philosophy, Jews around the world, book reviews, etc. - Based on the ideas of Bildung (German word for self-cultivation and refinement through education)  - First modern Jewish magazine - When: (1783-1811) Jewish Free School - Who: Established by Moses Mendelssohn - What: School for Jewish boys where Mendelssohn sought to demonstrate a connection between the secular and the religious - Where: Germany - When: 1778 Bildung - What: Self-cultivation- the idea of an educated middle-class person - Culturally maturing - idea of philosophy and education coexisting - Refinement through education Saul Ascher - Who: German writer, translator, and book seller - What: Establishment of the notion that Judaism is a religion, not a national identity. Judaism has things in common with other religions- universal thought. - Unlike other Jewish writers, Ascher was against Jews forced to enter the military (he believed this would only affect Jews with limited means and not the upper class as well) - Where: Berlin - When: (1767-1822) Wissenschaft des Judentums (Scientific Study of Judaism) - Who: Leopold Zunz is the father of this movement - What: Academic study of Judaism paved the way for Jewish studies classes found in the modern day - Critical investigation of Jewish literature and culture, including rabbinic literature, in order to analzye the origins of Jewish traditions - When: 1819 (start) - Where: Germany - Why: Proposed so that people could learn about Judaism and hopefully fight the antisemitic beliefs of the time just as one studied any other religion or culture at university Samson Raphael Hirsch - Who: A leader of Modern Orthodoxy, known for his Nineteen Letters on Judaism (1836), which defended traditional Jewish practice while engaging with modern society. - German Orthodox rabbi and founder of a school of contemporary Orthodox Judaism - Neo-orthodoxy - What: Wrote Nineteen Letters - Where: Germany - When: (1808-1888) Nineteen Letters on Judaism (1836) - Who: Published by Samson Raphael Hirsch (published under the pseudonym Ben Uziel) - Written in the format of a series of letters between a young intellectual and a young rabbi/philosopher → also written in classical German - What: Offered an intellectual understanding of Orthodox Judaism and a strong defense of its institutions and ordinances  Abraham Geiger - Who: German Rabbi and scholar, also the Father of Reform Judaism - What: Advocated for changes in Jewish practices that would make it easier for Jews to integrate with the prominent Christian society - One of the first Rabbis to attend a secular univeristy - Where: Germany - When: (1810-1874) Israel Jacobson - Who: German-Jewish philanthropist and community organizer. Was considered an Early Reformer (proponent of Reform Judaism) - Proponent of educational, political, and religious reforms in the early days of emancipation - What: Wanted there to be uniform prayers (since originally, synagogues would be loud due to people completing prayers at different times, no matter where the rest of the people were in the song/chant/etc. Latecomers would start from the beginning), modern melodies, and a choir - Wanted to make services emulate Christian ones - Established the Seesen School in 1801 - Established Temple at the school in 1810 - Where: Berlin - When: (1768-1828) Zacharias Frankel - Who: Bohemian-German rabbi and historian, also the Father of Conservative Judaism - What: Had positive views on tradition but didn’t believe that everything should be overturned (didn’t agree with the ideas of Reformed Judaism) - He believed that all changes within the community should be approved by the people (this included dress codes, synagogue codes of conduct, and other changes that were being made within reformed Judaism) - Some changes that he made: removed some hymns and introduction of a choir of boys (this made the services seem closer to Christian services due to the presence of a choir) - One of the first Rabbis (along with Geiger and Hirsch) that went to college and studied secular subjects (this was uncommon because traditionally, Rabbis went to Rabbinical Seminary) - Where: Born in Bohemia and died in Germany - When: (1801-1875) Reform Judaism - What: Movement Judaism emphasizes changes to Jewish practices that make it more conformational to the non-Jewish society of Germany - Implementation of using German instead of Hebrew in prayer, instituting mixed gender seating in the synagogue, observing one day, instead of two days, traditional holidays/festivals, and introducing music during worship and services (organ, choir, etc.) Hamburg Temple - What: The first Reform synagogue, established in Hamburg, Germany, symbolized the Reform movement’s desire to modernize Jewish worship practices  - The first free-standing reformed temple (reformed places of worship for Judaism are called temples and orthodox places of worship are called Synagouges) - There was a very strict decorum, strict Saturday morning services, a choir, an organ, sermons were given in German instead of Yiddish, and German prayerbooks were introduced - This gave the reformed temple a more Christian-like look as it strayed from the traditional format of worship - Garnered a lot of harsh criticism, notably from Moses Sofar who said, “Never say ‘times have changed’” suggesting Jews shouldn’t have to change their ways of practice to keep up with the times - When: 1818 Jewish Theological Seminary - Who: Established by Zacharias Frankel - What: Conservative Jewish education organization for training rabbis - There were three departments → rabbinical (only admitted students that were entitled to enroll in university), preparatory department (admitted students that had the knowledge required to be enrolled in a “secunda” or a Prussian gymnasium (secondary school), and a training school (for religious teachers) - Taught Talmudic literature, philosophy of religion, history, etc. \ - Destroyed by the Nazis in 1938 - Where: Breslau - When: 1854 Required Readings and summary/significant points/impact: The Jews of Pre-Modern Europe ○ Glikl: Memoirs Book one offers a glimpse into the daily life of an Ashkenazi Jewish woman as she details her business dealings and social, and familial responsibilities. She recounts her personal struggles and experiences and uses them as life lessons with a heavy emphasis on her belief in God Every hardship offered to her she accepts and deems as a gift from God for some sin that she inevitably committed and those challenges were her opportunities to repent/be punished Book Three of Glikl’s memoirs delves deeper into her life as a widow, focusing on the complexities of managing her family's business affairs and raising her children in the aftermath of her husband's death. In this section, Glikl grapples with the challenges of running a successful trading business in a male-dominated society, all while maintaining her family’s reputation and ensuring the future of her children through strategic marriages. She shares her thoughts on loss, resilience, and the role of Providence, as her faith remains a central guide through her hardships.  This part of the memoir is significant for its portrayal of Glikl’s persistence and resourcefulness as a businesswoman, navigating financial risks, trade networks, and partnerships during a time when Jewish communities faced political and economic instability. Additionally, her reflections on family dynamics and the emotional toll of motherhood in times of crisis provide readers with a nuanced view of Jewish domestic life and women's contributions to the economic survival of their households. Glikl’s narrative reveals the intersection of personal grief with public responsibility, offering a rare perspective on the inner life of an Ashkenazi Jewish woman of her time. Significant because it is one of the earliest known autobiographies of a Jewish woman Enlightenment and the French Revolution ○ Jews in the Modern World (JMW) - Concerning the Amelioration of the Civil Status of the Jews (1781) - Christian Wilhelm von Dohm “A Jew is even more man than Jew” He critiques the long-standing discriminatory treatment of Jews, attributing their marginalized status to the restrictions placed upon them by governments and Christian societies. Von Dohm asserts that the negative traits often ascribed to Jews—such as perceived dishonesty in business or insularity—are the result of systemic oppression rather than inherent qualities. He argues that by denying Jews access to broader economic opportunities and social integration, societies have inadvertently reinforced these negative traits. Dohm also urges for the emancipation of the Jews and the establishment of equal rights. He says that there should be no profession that is off limits (which in turn takes away the monopoly that the Jews have on certain professions), the Jews should pay the normal taxes and not extra for their right to exist, equal rights to lease land and grow agriculture, grow into other fields of business such as craftsmanship, etc., right to education, and in the essence of equal rights, abolishing their special privileges bestowed by the monarchy. Dohm’s stance challenges the longstanding antisemitic beliefs and follows enlightenment-era thinking that suggests the Jews will prosper and contribute to the country should they be allowed to experience the full rights of a citizen Dohm also refutes the major argument that was used against the emancipation of the Jews, the idea that the Jews would not serve in the country’s military due to the observance of the Sabbath. Dohm then asserts that the Jews can overlook the religious demands and fight in the military, as seen in their numerous past wars, etc. ○ An Essay on the Physical, Moral and Political Reformation of the Jews (1789) - Abbé Grégoire Emphasizes that the Jews have supposedly become bad people because society made them that way, Grégroire takes the same stance that Dohm does in stating that there have been many injustices that “compelled [them] to become vicious.”  Grégoire is calling for the emancipation of the Jewish people and is writing a rebuttal to Johann David Michaelis’ views (who believes the Jews are vile creatures and said that out of 25 criminals in Germany, 24 of them are Jews) “You require that they should love their country – first give them one” Here, Grégoire is implying that with the granting of civil rights, the Jews will come to love their country and integrate with the population. He is suggesting that instead of first requiring the Jews to prove themselves, the country should prove itself to the Jews first, and they will then become full citizens The title of the essay suggests that Grégoire believes the Jewish people are deformed and that they must undergo reformation, and to do that, they must be granted full citizenship The reasoning of the essay is a little roundabout because Grégoire mentions that Jewish women are beautiful and then in the next paragraph, writes that the Jews are afflicted with “bad humors” and have an affinity for ailments. He stated that they are physically deformed and unwell and “exhale a bad smell.” He also says that the Jews are so sickly because they do not belong in any country besides their origin Napoleon, the Jews, and the Spread of Emancipation ○ Debate on the Eligibility of Jews for Citizenship (1789) - French National Assembly Count de Clermont de Tonnerre said, “The Jews should be denied everything as a nation, but granted everything as individuals.” Emphasizing the stance that Jews are people first before they are Jews and also being aligned with the post-French Revolution belief of one nation, thus the statement that Jews should be denied everything as a nation. (The reason why there was emancipation of the Jews during this period was because the people of France could not stand anyone not living according to the French law after the French Revolution) ○ Answers to Napoleon (1806) - The Assembly of Jewish Notables The Assembly of Jewish Notables skillfully wrote a letter to Napoleon answering the 12 questions posed at the Grand Sanhedrin asking about the Jewish faith. These Jewish leaders were able to answer the questions and most importantly imply that although they strictly followed their religious practices, they did not hinder their love or devotion to their country They also mentioned that their religious duties would not prevent them from serving in the country’s military, nor allow them to evade taxes imposed by the government This essay in response helped solidify the Jewish people’s emancipation ○ The “Infamous Decree” (1808) - Napoleon Bonaparte The significance of the "Infamous Decree" lies in its dual nature: while it did not revoke Jewish citizenship or their legal status as equals, it placed substantial economic and social limitations on their freedoms. It is considered "infamous" because it marked a regression in the Jewish emancipation process, reflecting lingering prejudice and economic scapegoating. This decree remained in effect for a decade, and its consequences served as a reminder of how fragile Jewish  rights and integration could be, even under a leader who had initially championed equality and civil reform. ○ David Sorkin “Is American Jewry Exceptional? Comparing Jewish Emancipation in Europe and America” In *Is American Jewry Exceptional?*, David Sorkin explores the historical development of Jewish emancipation in Europe and America, examining whether the experience of American Jews can be considered unique compared to their European counterparts. Sorkin contextualizes Jewish emancipation as a complex process that unfolded differently in various countries, shaped by political, social, and religious factors. He focuses on how Jews in Europe and America navigated their paths to civil rights and societal integration, drawing key distinctions and parallels between the two contexts. Sorkin argues that American Jewry is indeed exceptional due to the United States' unique political and social structures, which fostered a more immediate and less complicated path to Jewish integration. From the early days of the American Republic, Jews were granted full citizenship and legal equality, without the prolonged debates and incremental steps seen in Europe. The American Constitution’s emphasis on religious freedom and the separation of church and state allowed Jews to participate fully in civic life without facing the entrenched barriers that characterized European societies. In contrast, Jewish emancipation in Europe was a gradual and often contested process, shaped by Enlightenment ideals, nationalist movements, and religious opposition. European Jews had to navigate a series of legal reforms, cultural pressures, and ongoing discrimination, often gaining rights piecemeal and subject to reversal (Napoleon’s Infamous Decrees). Sorkin highlights the role of European nation-states and monarchies, which saw Jewish emancipation as tied to broader political reforms and shifts in governance, creating a more complex and protracted struggle for Jewish civil rights. Sorkin’s analysis emphasizes the distinct political environments in Europe and America, concluding that while European Jews faced a more arduous path to emancipation, American Jews benefited from a legal framework that promoted religious equality from the outset. This, in turn, fostered a different kind of Jewish identity and community life in America. The paper’s comparative approach offers insight into how Jewish emancipation is not a singular historical narrative but varies according to the political and cultural contexts in which it unfolds, with American Jewry standing out as an exception to the broader European experience. Asserts that American Jewry emulates the emancipation of the Port Jews (in France, England, and Holland) where they enjoyed almost all civil rights and then fought for later freedoms Hasidism and Mitnagdism ○ Excommunication of the Hasidism (1772) - The Rabbinical Leaders of Vilna  Mitnagdism is the strong opposition to Hasidism. In this short statement, the rabbinical leaders of Vilna, who were proponents of Mitnagdism mention the ways that they believe Hasidism to be evil and profane. There is mention of the ways that the Hasidic Jews pray which is full of fervor and festivities, it was called false prayer (this is a common point of opposition, Mitnagdism sees this as being disrespectful and not truly engaging in the act of worship) The Haskalah in Central Europe ○ The Right to be Different (1783) - Moses Mendelssohn Advocates for religious tolerance and the rights of minority communities to maintain their cultural and religious identity within broader society. He argues that religious diversity should not impede civil rights and that individuals should have the freedom to practice their faith without fear of persecution or forced assimilation. Mendelssohn emphasizes the importance of separating civil and religious authority, contending that the state should protect individual rights while allowing for pluralism. This work is a foundational text in Enlightenment thought on religious tolerance and minority rights, reflecting Mendelssohn’s broader efforts to integrate Jews into European society while preserving Jewish traditions. ○ Words of Peace and Truth (1782) - Naphtali Herz Wesseley “A ritually unclean carcass is more worthy than a scholar who knows the laws of God and His teachings but is void of knowledge (of manners and etiquette)” Wesseley is writing in encouragement to the uptake of Joseph II’s Edict of Toleration as he is a proponent for educational reform (study of secular subjects as well as the Torah). Wesseley emphasizes that the adoption of secular studies/knowledge does not inhibit/compromise Jewish values, instead it enhances the community’s capacity for social and economic advancement Encourages Jewish communities to adapt to the changing social and political landscape of Enlightenment Europe. Wesseley’s work sparked debate within the Jewish world, as it challenged long-standing resistance to secular education. His call for reform reflected the larger goals of the Haskalah movement, which sought to modernize Jewish life while promoting loyalty to both religious heritage and the state. Religious Innovation in Central Europe ○ Constitution of the Hamburg Temple (1817) - The New Israelite Temple Association Talks about reforming the Jewish temple with the introduction of services held in German (rather than Hebrew), and the use of a choir and organ. Also mentions the employment of a religious ceremony where children of both sexes, “after adequate schooling” are accepted in the Mosaic religion (this is the same principle as confirmations in a catholic church) Major part of reform Judaism where there is a shift from traditional Jewish traditions towards conformation with the Christian world ○ These are the Words of the Covenant (1819) - The Hamburg Rabbinical Court  This text was written in response to the reforms implemented in Reform Judaism. They state that it is forbidden to change the worship/take out words, hymns, prayers, etc. from the sermons, and forbidden to pray and lead worship in a language other than the Holy Tongue (in response to the changing of services from Hebrew to German), and forbidden to play any musical instruments in the Synagogue on Sabbath and other festivals (even when played by a non-Jew). ○ On the Concept of a Science of Judaism (1822) - Immanuel Wolf Lays the groundwork for the foundation of the Science of Judaism (Jewish Studies) → starting with the historical viewpoint and transitioning to the philosophical essence of what it is (textual, historical, and philosophical) Wolf believes that the implementation of Jewish Studies will preserve the Jewish identity in an age of increasing secularization and assimilation (Jews choosing to conform with the Christian masses). Through this method, Wolf believes that Jews can connect with their heritage/tradition while learning about the cultural and intellectual currents of the time ○ Scholarship and Emancipation (1832) - Leopold Zunz Leopold Zunz was one of the main figures pushing for the development and adoption of the Wissenschaft des Judentums (Jewish studies) movement. He argued that scholarly research into Jewish history, literature, and religion is essential for both the intellectual advancement of Jews and their pursuit of social and political emancipation. Zunz views rigorous academic study as a means of countering negative stereotypes about Jews and showcasing the rich intellectual and cultural contributions of Judaism to broader society. Zunz believed that through Jewish Studies, Jews would be able to gain the respect of non-Jews due to their dedication to subjecting Judaism to scholarly inquiry and rationalizing it based on historical and philosophical reasoning The ultimate goal was to reach Jewish emancipation which Zunz believed to be not only a political issue but an intellectual one. He wanted to emphasize that Jews were not just an isolated religious group but a part of a long-standing intellectual and cultural tradition Tsarist Russia and its Jews ○ Statues Concerning the Organization of Jews (1804) - Alexander I A list of rules for the Jews to follow that took away their rights/placed more restrictions on them due to complaints received on behalf of non-Jews. The first statute was on education. Jewish children were to be sent to public schools with other non-Jewish children, but they were not to be discriminated against based on religion, nor forced to practice a different one. If families chose not to send their children to these schools, then special schools would be built at the expense of the Jewish community and they would all have to pay extra taxes to fund them. There was a requirement for a dress code, meaning they had to dress in either Russian, Polish, or German attire. As well as learn/be literate in a non-Jewish language (if they did not know this language it would prevent them from being elected as a rabbi and also prevent them from serving on municipal councils)  The Jews were split into four classes: farmers, merchants, craftsmen/manufacturers, and city dwellers. Based on these classifications, there were different laws that each had to follow → Jews not labeled in any of these classes were not tolerated Legally speaking, the Jews were tolerated and it was written that they would not be bothered by the subject of their religious affiliation or practice ○ Statutes Regarding the Military Service of Jews (1827) - Nicholas I If Jews are called into military service, they must serve their country in the same manner as everyone else, there are no special privileges based on their religion If a person were to forfeit their military service, they must pay a tax (this was extended to those of non-Jewish faith as well, but the Jews had to pay a larger sum of money). This could only be achieved if the Jewish community did not already owe a sum of money to the government and the community was not in debt to another community or individual Those who were sent to serve in the military must be between the ages of 12-25 and they must be provided for by the Jewish community itself, there was also a quota to fulfill for the number of boys sent Merchants were exempt from serving, as were Rabbis but they had to provide documents certifying their title. Others who were exempt were students enrolled in public schools/universities that had exemplary grades and those who had settled on land for agricultural purposes Boys under the age of 18 were sent to schools to prepare them for military service (cantonists) and those over 18 were sent straight to military duties based on their physical capabilities If one were to evade the draft, those who gave up the names of the individual evading were rewarded monetarily. In order to be released from military duty, the time on active duty after the age of 18 is taken into account (time spent in cantonist schools from 12-18 does not apply), and there is no prevention of the practice of religion as long as it is done during the recruit’s spare time ○ Delineation of the Pale of Settlement (1835) - Nicholas I Lists the cities/provinces that the Jews may settle with many exceptions/off-limit areas per province Any Jews that leave the country without an authorized “exit permit” are not allowed to return and thus have given up their Russian citizenship ○ The May Laws (1882) - Alexander III Places restrictions on where Jews can settle, states that they cannot settle outside of cities and townships (those on farmland for agricultural purposes are exempt) Jews cannot register property of mortgages under their name (temporarily) and they cannot lease real estate beyond the cities and townships in which they reside Jews cannot participate in commerce on Sundays (which are Christian holidays) → Jews already do not participate in commerce on Saturdays which are Jewish holidays. This means that the Jews now have a five-day workweek, which hinders income ○ Sholem Aleichem Tevye the Dairyman (35-131)  While being a cheery story of a Jewish man who makes a living for himself and his family and being devoted to God, there is also an underlying story of how Tevye grapples with changing ideals and his relationship/adherence to his religion His oldest daughter marries a poor man for love, which rejects the financial security that Tevye seeks for her. His second oldest daughter marries a revolutionary who rejects religious traditions entirely, representing the growing influence of secular ideologies like socialism. These decisions often leave Tevye torn between his love for his daughters and his desire to preserve his faith and customs. The Haskalah in Eastern Europe ○ Awake My People! (1866) - Judah Leib Gordon Calls for the modernization and secularization of the Jewish people during the Haskalah, the poem also critizes traditional ways of thinking and advocates for the integration of the Jewish people into European culture Promotes the idea of education and engagement with the broader society ○ For Whom do I Toil (1871) - Judah Leib Gordon Reflects the struggles of the Haskalah movement in both preserving elements of Jewish identity and modernizing Jewish culture The poem laments the fact that there has been a decline in literature written in Hebrew and a decline in those that read the Jewish language ○ Russin Must Be Our Mother Tongue (1861) - Osip Aronowich Rabinowich Asks the readers why they are not speaking the Russian language and calling Yiddish a “corrupted jargon” There is a strong push towards modernization and assimilation into Russian culture ○ Hebrew – Our National Fortress (1868) - Peretz Smolenskin Emphasizes the necessity to keep the Hebrew language alive because if the language dies, then so does the memory of the Jews Hebrew ties the Jews to Israel and is the remaining thing after the destruction of the Temple since it was stated that the Jews have no country, monument, or name ○ My Soul Desired Yiddish (1862) - Mendele Moykher Sforim Yiddish became a scorned language where the Jewish people were ashamed to be caught reading and writing in it. Yiddish was ridiculed but this author spurred the revival/increased use of the language as he published many editorials and then books in the language ○ Shloem Aleichem Tevye the Dairyman continued Tevye’s third daughter chose to convert to Christianity to marry a non-Jew. She turned away from Tevye’s religion and the scriptures that he cherished. Tevye’s fourth daughter committed suicude by drowning because the man who asked to marry her left town with his mother without a word. The man’s uncle questioned Tevye, asking how much Tevye hoped to settle for because there was no way that the daughter of a dairyman would marry into a rich family  Tevye’s youngest daughter was able to follow through with Tevye’s original dream for his daughters to marry rich and live comfortable lives but it ended with her being unhappy and Tevye being forced to sell his belonings and travel to Israel Tevye is then forced out of his village by the pogroms held by his fellow Christian neighbors Tevye’s story serves as an allegory for the Jewish experience during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as Eastern European Jews faced the pressures of modernization, assimilation, and persecution. Through Tevye, Sholem Aleichem captures the universal struggle of maintaining identity in a world of constant change, offering a blend of humor, tragedy, and profound human resilience.