Introduction to Psychology (What is and Research in Psychology) PDF

Introduction to Psychology (What is and Research in Psychology) Giovanni Carlo Atendido, MS,RGC,LPT  What do we know about people who claim to have been abducted by aliens?  Psychologists who have studied the claims of alien kidnappings conclude that the kidnappin...

Introduction to Psychology (What is and Research in Psychology) Giovanni Carlo Atendido, MS,RGC,LPT  What do we know about people who claim to have been abducted by aliens?  Psychologists who have studied the claims of alien kidnappings conclude that the kidnappings never occurred. However, the people making the claims are not necessarily mentally ill, nor are they necessarily lying (Ladd & Borshuk, 2013)  Tales of alien abduction are widely known throughout our culture, so it is not at all surprising that the “memories” of people who claim to have been inducted by aliens would tend to coincide (Meyersburg et al., 2009; Swami et al., 2009).  Abductees generally claim that they are awakened in their sleep by the aliens and unable to move. Memories are not perfect snapshots.  All in all, “UFO memories may be constructed from bits and pieces of sleep-related hallucinations, nightmares, and media attention, and fixed solidly into place with the suggestion of hypnosis and the validation of support groups” (Clark & Loftus, 1996 )  Psychologists have thus worked to explain how it can be that many people report being abducted by aliens and being subjected to tests by them. But is there scientific evidence that people have been abducted by aliens? We will see who psychologists are, what they do, what they have learned, and perhaps most important, how they sort out truth from fiction.  Psychology As Science Scientific research has been one of the great drivers of progress in human history, and the dramatic changes we have seen during the past century are due primarily to scientific findings —modern medicine, electronics, automobiles and jets, birth control, and a host of other helpful inventions. Students often confuse stress and anxiety because the physical and emotional response can be the same. This activity is designed to help students differentiate between the two terms. The words “stress” and “anxiety” are often used interchangeably in everyday conversation; however, they have different meanings. Stress is the process by which we perceive and respond to circumstances that we appraise as challenging. Anxiety is characterized by excessive worries that do not go away, even when there is no clear source for the anxiety or after the source of the anxiety is eliminated. One reason the words stress and anxiety are used interchangeably is because they often feel the same. When we experience stress and when we are anxious, we might feel our heart racing, we might feel sweaty, we might have difficulty focusing, we might not want to eat or feel like eating a lot and have difficulty falling and/or staying asleep. Each of the following scenarios could result in increased heart rate, perspiration, difficulty concentrating, change in appetite, and/or insomnia. Read through the following pairs of scenarios and identify which is an example of stress or an example of anxiety. Taking care of a loved one with cancer. STRESS Worrying that a healthy loved one might get cancer. ANXIETY Worrying that your friends are saying bad things about you behind your back even though they always say nice things when you are together. ANXIETY Confronting a friend who you heard said something bad about you. STRESS Avoiding new situations because people in those situations might use racial slurs. ANXIETY Joining a new club and hearing someone in the club use racial slurs. STRESS Juggling school work, team practices, and a part-time job. STRESS Repeatedly thinking about what might happen if unable to juggle school work, team practices, and a part-time job. ANXIETY Sitting in traffic that might make you miss a flight. STRESS Repeatedly thinking about how much traffic there might be when you leave for the airport the next day. ANXIETY Worrying for weeks about what classmates thought about a presentation you gave even after receiving positive feedback from the teacher. ANXIETY Preparing and delivering a class presentation. STRESS Being made fun of or being humiliated by others. STRESS Avoiding going to any parties because someone who has teased you in the past might be there. ANXIETY Repeatedly thinking about the possibility of being rejected by all the colleges you apply to. ANXIETY Writing multiple essays to apply to several colleges. STRESS Take a careful look at the names and their contributions Mother Teresa “helped thousands of people living in the slums of Kolkata (Calcutta)” Albert Schweitzer “opened his famous hospital in Africa and went on to earn the Nobel Peace Prize.” Edward Jenner “father of immunology” because he was among the first to conceive of and test vaccinations. Norman Borlaug & Fritz Haber They created the “Green Revolution” by producing hybrid agricultural crops and synthetic fertilizer. Humanity can now produce food for the seven billion people on the planet, and the starvation that does occur is related to political and economic factors rather than our collective ability to produce food. Rev. Fr. Georges Lemaitre “There is no conflict between RELIGION and SCIENCE” The scientist who first proposed the Big Bang model as a probable explanation for how the universe unfolded was a Catholic priest. While Pope Pius XII and the Pontifical Academy of Sciences praised Lemaitre for his findings, many anti-clerical, irreligious skeptics sarcastically dubbed his hypothesis the “Big Bang” as a way of mocking the idea that time and space had a beginning and that matter became more complex over time (like the Bible states poetically and science demonstrates methodically). If you examine major social and technological changes over the past century most of them can be directly attributed to science. There were few cars and most people traveled by foot, horseback, or carriage. There were no radios, televisions, birth control pills, artificial hearts or antibiotics. Only a small portion of the world had telephones, refrigeration or electricity All of these medical advances and technological innovations are the direct result of scientific research and understanding. In the modern age it is easy to grow complacent about the advances of science but make no mistake about it—science has made fantastic discoveries, and continues to do so. These discoveries have completely changed our world. What Is Science? Ancient people were more likely to believe in magical and supernatural explanations for natural phenomena such as solar eclipses or thunderstorms. Scientifically minded people try to figure out the natural world through testing and observation. Science is the use of systematic observation to acquire knowledge. Example: Children in a science class might combine vinegar and baking soda to observe the bubbly chemical reaction. These empirical methods are wonderful ways to learn about the physical and biological world. The scientific method is also a form of empiricism. An empirical method for acquiring knowledge is one based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities. Science is not magic—it will not solve all human problems, and might not answer all our questions about behavior. Nevertheless, it appears to be the most powerful method we have for acquiring knowledge about the observable world. The essential elements of science are Systematic observation is the core of science. Scientists observe the world, in a very organized way. We often measure the phenomenon we are observing. We record our observations so that memory biases are less likely to enter in to our conclusions. Observation leads to hypotheses we can test. When we develop hypotheses and theories, we state them in a way that can be tested. Science is democratic. Scientists are skeptical and have open discussions about their observations and theories. These debates often occur as scientists publish competing findings with the idea that the best data will win the argument. Science is cumulative. We can learn the important truths discovered by earlier scientists and build on them. A crucial aspect of scientific progress is that after we learn of earlier advances, we can build upon them and move farther along the path of knowledge. Psychologists use the scientific method to acquire knowledge. Psychology refers to the scientific study of the mind and behavior. To apply the scientific method, a researcher with a question about how or why something happens will propose a tentative explanation, called a hypothesis, to explain the phenomenon. A hypothesis should fit into the context of a scientific theory, which is a broad explanation or group of explanations for some aspect of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence over time. A theory is the best understanding we have of that part of the natural world. The researcher then makes observations or carries out an experiment to test the validity of the hypothesis. Those results are then published or presented at research conferences so that others can replicate or build on the results. Sciences have certain goals. Psychology, like other sciences, seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control the events it studies. Psychologists seek to understand the factors that influence behavior and apply this knowledge for the public good— for example, to help individuals cope with problems such as anxiety and depression. WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO? Psychologists share a keen interest in behavior, but they may differ markedly in other ways. Psychologists engage in research, practice, and teaching. Some researchers engage primarily in basic, or pure, research. Pure research is undertaken because the researcher is interested in the research topic. Pure research has no immediate application to personal or social problems and has therefore been characterized as research for its own sake. Although pure research is sparked by curiosity and the desire to know and understand, today’s pure research frequently enhances tomorrow’s way of life. Other psychologists engage in applied research, which is designed to find solutions to specific personal or social problems. Many psychologists do not conduct research. Instead, they practice psychology by applying psychological knowledge to help individuals change their behavior so that they can meet their own goals more effectively. Still other psychologists primarily teach. They share psychological knowledge in classrooms, seminars, and workshops. Psychologists may also engage in all three: research, practice, and teaching. Ethics of Scientific Psychology Scientific psychologists follow a specific set of guidelines for research known as a code of ethics. There are extensive ethical guidelines for how human participants should be treated in psychological research (Diener & Crandall, 1978; Sales & Folkman, 2000). Following are a few highlights: 1. Informed consent. In general, people should know when they are involved in research, and understand what will happen to them during the study. They should then be given a free choice as to whether to participate. 2. Confidentiality. Information that researchers learn about individual participants should not be made public without the consent of the individual. 3.Privacy. Researchers should not make observations of people in private places such as their bedrooms without their knowledge and consent. Researchers should not seek confidential information from others, such as school authorities, without consent of the participant or his or her guardian. 4. Benefits. Researchers should consider the benefits of their proposed research and weigh these against potential risks to the participants. People who participate in psychological studies should be exposed to risk only if they fully understand these risks and only if the likely benefits clearly outweigh the risks. 5. Deception. Some researchers need to deceive participants in order to hide the true nature of the study. This is typically done to prevent participants from modifying their behavior in unnatural ways. Researchers are required to “debrief” their participants after they have completed the study. Debriefing is an opportunity to educate participants about the true nature of the study. Why Learn About Scientific Psychology? 1.To understand ourselves 2. To understand other people and groups 3. To be better able to influence others, for example, in socializing children or motivating employees 4. To learn how to better help others and improve the world, for example, by doing effective psychotherapy. Why Learn About Scientific Psychology? 5.To learn a skill that will lead to a profession such as being a social worker or a professor 6. To learn how to evaluate the research claims you hear or read about. 7. Because it is interesting, challenging, and fun! People want to learn about psychology because this is exciting in itself, regardless of other positive outcomes it might have. Why do we see movies? Because they are fun and exciting, and we need no other reason. Thus, one good reason to study psychology is that it can be rewarding in itself. WHY STUDY PSYCHOLOGY? students take a psychology course because it either satisfies a general education requirement or is required for a program of study such as nursing or pre-med. Many of these students develop such an interest in the area that they go on to declare psychology as their major. Psychology students hone critical thinking skills and are trained in the use of the scientific method. Critical thinking is the active application of a set of skills to information for the understanding and evaluation of that information. Moreover, it involves maintaining an attitude of skepticism, recognizing internal biases, making use of logical thinking, asking appropriate questions, and making observations. Psychology students also can develop better communication skills during the course of their undergraduate coursework (American Psychological Association, 2011)  FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists are found in several specialties. Although some psychologists wear more than one hat, most carry out their functions in the following fields.  Clinical Psychologists They help people with psychological disorders adjust to the demands of life. Clinical psychologists evaluate problems such as anxiety and depression through interviews and psychological tests. They help clients resolve problems and change self- defeating behavior. Clinical psychologists are the largest subgroup of psychologists. Counseling Psychologists Like clinical psychologists, use interviews and tests to define their clients’ problems. Their clients typically have adjustment problems but not serious psychological disorders. School Psychologists are employed by school systems to identify and assist students who have problems that interfere with learning. They help schools make decisions about the placement of students in special classes.  Educational Psychologists like school psychologists, they attempt to facilitate learning, but they usually focus on course planning and instructional methods for a school system rather than on individual children. research issues such as how learning is affected by psychological factors such as motivation and intelligence, sociocultural factors such as poverty and acculturation, and teachers  Developmental Psychologists study the changes— physical, cognitive, social, and emotional—that occur throughout the life span. They attempt to sort out the influences of heredity and the environment on development. Personality Psychologists identify and measure human traits and determine influences on human thought processes, feelings, and behavior. They are particularly concerned with issues such as anxiety, aggression, sexual orientation, and gender roles. Social Psychologists are concerned with the nature and causes of individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behavior in social situations.  Environmental Psychologist study the ways that people and the environment—the natural environment and the human-made environment—influence one another. study ways to encourage people to recycle and to preserve bastions of wilderness.  Experimental Psychologists have studied what areas of the brain are involved in processing math problems or listening to music. They use people or animals, such as pigeons and rats, to study learning.  Forensic Psychologists apply psychology to the criminal justice system. They deal with legal matters such as whether a defendant was sane when he or she committed a crime. They may also treat psychologically ill offenders, consult with attorneys on matters such as picking a jury, and analyze offenders’ behavior and mental processes. They may conduct research on matters ranging from evaluation of eyewitness testimony to methods of interrogation. Sport Psychologists help athletes concentrate on their performance and not on the crowd, use cognitive strategies such as positive visualization (imagining themselves making the right moves) to enhance performance, and avoid choking under pressure. Industrial psychologist focus on the relationships between people and work. Organizational psychologists study the behavior of people in organizations such as businesses. Human factors psychologists make technical systems such as automobile dashboards and computer keyboards more user-friendly. Consumer psychologists study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence their behavior. They advise store managers on how to lay out the aisles of a supermarket in ways that boost impulse buying, how to arrange window displays to attract customers, and how to make newspaper ads and television commercials more persuasive Health Psychologists study the effects of stress on health problems such as headaches, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. They also guide clients toward healthier behavior patterns, such as exercising and quitting smoking. Even in modern times many people are skeptical that psychology is really a science. To some degree this doubt stems from the fact that many psychological phenomena such as depression, intelligence, and prejudice do not seem to be directly observable in the same way that we can observe the changes in ocean tides or the speed of light. Because thoughts and feelings are invisible many early psychological researchers chose to focus on behavior. You might have noticed that some people act in a friendly and outgoing way while others appear to be shy and withdrawn. By using behavioral measures and rating scales it is possible to measure thoughts and feelings. This is similar to how other researchers explore “invisible” phenomena such as the way that educators measure academic performance or economists measure quality of life.  History of Psychology Psyche is one of the most celebrated characters in Greek mythology. Known as the goddess of the soul, her name meant “breath of life,” and she was linked closely to the inner human world. Her beauty rivalled that of Aphrodite, the goddess of love. Born mortal, she captured the affection of Aphrodite’s son Eros, the god of desire. She completed a series of impossible tasks for Aphrodite, and was later granted immortality and goddess status so she Psyche comes to represent the human soul’s triumph over the misfortunes of life in the pursuit of true happiness. The Greek word psyche means soul, and it is often represented as a butterfly. The word psychology was coined at a time when the concepts of soul and mind were not as clearly distinguished (Green, The root ology denotes scientific study of, and psychology refers to the scientific study of the mind. Since science studies only observable phenomena and the mind is not directly observable, we expand this definition to the scientific study of mind and behavior. The pursuit of knowledge about mind and its processes has a history that is embedded in the history of philosophy. The late-eighteenth-century declaration that a true scientific study of the mind was not possible posed a challenge that was answered in the nineteenth century when the possibility of a scientific study of mind emerged within philosophy by the adoption of the experimental methods employed to study the physiology of the senses.  Socrates Have you heard the expression “Know thyself”? It was proposed by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates about 2,500 years ago. Psychology, which is in large part the endeavor to know ourselves, is as old as history and as modern as today. Knowledge of the history of psychology allows us to appreciate its theoretical conflicts, its place among the sciences, the evolution of its methods, and its social and political roles Socrates suggested that we should rely on rational thought and introspection— careful examination of one’s own thoughts and emotions—to gain self- knowledge. He also pointed out that people are social creatures who influence one another. Aristotle argued that human behavior, like the movements of the stars and the seas, is subject to rules and laws. Then he delved into his subject matter topic by topic: personality, sensation and perception, thought, intelligence, needs and motives, feelings and emotion, and memory. Democritus that we could think of behavior in terms of a body and a mind. He pointed out that our behavior is influenced by external stimulation. Democritus was one of the first to raise the question of whether there is free will or choice. Putting it another way, where do the influences of others end and our “real selves” begin? The synergy of these nineteenth-century developments gave impetus to the “new psychology” whose history embodies continued efforts to develop and maintain psychology as a scientific discipline and to extend the methods of science to an ever- widening field of inquiry within the discipline.  Christian Wolff (1679–1754) first popularized the term psychology to designate the study of mind. divided the discipline between empirical and rational psychology The data of mind that resulted from observing ourselves and others constituted empirical psychology. Rational psychology referred to the interpretation of empirical psychology’s data through reason and logic. These psychologies were characterized as using knowledge acquired through experience (empirical psychology) or using knowledge that the mind possesses independent of experience.  Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) denied the validity of any rational psychology because, he argued, rational mental processes must be activated by mental content derived from experience; therefore, the study of mind must be confined to questions appropriate to an empirical psychology. Kant asserted, the method of observing the mind—introspection—distorts the events observed by observing them. However, Kant suggested, psychology might improve its status as an empirical science by adopting the methods of anthropology to observe the activities of human beings in realistic settings.  The Scientific Context The study of physiology emerged as a discipline separate from anatomy as the nineteenth century began. Studying intact physiological systems, in vivo or in vitro, accelerated the understanding of the functional characteristics of those systems and built on the knowledge gained from the study of anatomy via dissection. The methods and subject matter of physiology, especially sensory physiology, helped to provide the scientific basis for psychology. Johannes Müller (1801–1858), the “Father of Physiology,” produced the classic systematic handbook (Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen, 1833–1840) that set forth what was then known about human physiology and offered observations and hypotheses for further research Relating the experience to the stimulus was a matter of experimental research that could be carried out with intact human beings; detecting the activity of nerves and the location of the brain to which stimulation was transmitted was possible then only with in vitro preparations of animals. Relating subjective, psychological experience to specific external stimulation was one step in suggesting how psychology might become a science. PSYCHOLOGY’S FIRST LABORATORY It was then that Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) published his landmark book Elements of Psychophysics, which showed how physical events (such as lights and sounds) stimulate psychological sensations and perception. Fechner also showed how we can scientifically measure the effect of these events. Most historians set the debut of modern psychology as a laboratory science in the year 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. In 1875, at the age of 42, Wundt accepted a position as professor of philosophy at the University of Leipzig, where he established the first experimental research program in psychology. In 1879, Wundt and students Max Friedrich and American G. Stanley Hall began a program of independent research (Boring, 1965; Bringmann, Bringmann, & Ungerer, 1980) that initiated psychology as “the organized and self-conscious activity of a community of investigators” Experimental psychology as practiced by Wundt and his students at Leipzig employed the methods of physiology to study the contents and processes of individual human consciousness. Among the studies pursued in Wundt’s laboratory were psychophysical experiments to analyze and measure sensations, reaction-time experiments to measure the duration of mental processes, and experiments on attention, memory, and the association of idea.  Structuralism Wundt and his students founded the school of psychology called structuralism. Structuralism attempted to break conscious experience down into objective sensations, such as sight or taste, and subjective feelings, such as emotional responses, and mental images such as memories or dreams. 8 lessons from "The Courage to Be Disliked: How to Free Yourself, Change Your Life, and Achieve Real Happiness," : 1. Freedom Through Self-Acceptance: True happiness comes from accepting yourself as you are, flaws and all. When you stop seeking validation from others, you free yourself from the fear of rejection. This self-acceptance is the foundation for genuine self-confidence and inner peace. 2. Live in the Present: Focusing on the here and now allows you to fully engage with life. Let go of past regrets and future anxieties. This mindfulness helps you appreciate the present moment and reduces unnecessary stress. 3. Interpersonal Relationships: Life is fundamentally a series of relationships. The quality of your interactions with others significantly impacts your happiness. Prioritize healthy, respectful relationships and strive for mutual understanding and cooperation. 4. Separation of Tasks: Recognize which tasks are yours and which belong to others. Focus on handling your responsibilities and avoid trying to control others. This separation reduces conflict and allows for healthier relationships. 5. Contribution to Community: Find ways to contribute positively to your community. This sense of purpose and belonging enhances your sense of self-worth. Feeling connected and valuable in your community can significantly boost your overall happiness. 6. Courage to Be Disliked: Embrace the fact that not everyone will like you, and that’s okay. Seeking universal approval limits your freedom and authenticity. True courage lies in being true to yourself, regardless of others' opinions. 7. Change Your Narrative: The stories you tell yourself about your life shape your reality. Rewrite negative narratives into positive ones. This shift in perspective empowers you to overcome challenges and create a more fulfilling life. 8. Overcoming Feelings of Inferiority: Understand that feelings of inferiority are often self-imposed. Instead of comparing yourself to others, focus on