Fukuzawa Yukichi and Meiji Era Civilization PDF

Fukuzawa Yukichi 福沢諭吉 (1835-1901) Seiyō jijō 西洋事情 (1866-1869) (Conditions in the West) Chambers’s Political Economy Gakumon no susume 学問のすゝめ (1872-76) (An Encouragement of Learning) Francis Wayland, Moral Science Bunmeiron no gairyaku 文明論之概略 (1875) (An Outline of a Theory of Civilization) Guizot, A History of Civilization in Europe Chambers’s Political Economy “Civilisation (bunmei kaika no michi 文明開化の道) It is shewn by history that nations advance from a barbarous to a civilised state. The chief peculiarity of the barbarous state is, that the lower passions of mankind have there greater scope, or are less under regulation; while the higher moral qualities of our nature are little developed, or have comparatively little play. In that state the woman is the slave instead of the companion of her husband; the father has uncontrolled power over his child; and, generally, the strong tyrannise over and rob the weak. From the consequent want of confidence between men, there can be no great combinations for the general benefit; in short, no institutions. In the state of civilisation all is reversed: the evil passions are curbed, and the moral feelings developed: woman takes her right place; the weak are protected: institutions for the general benefit flourish.” → Bunmei kaika 文明開化 as leitmotif of the early Meiji period (usually translated as “Civilization and Enlightenment”) Bunmei kaika 文明開化 Current state of “Civilization” epitomized by the “West” “civilization” proceeds in stages representing cumulative “progress” opposed to “barbarism” Japan seen as “backward” not only because its technology was backward but because its people were mired in “superstition, irrationality, ignorance, and backwardness.” For ordinary Japanese, however, “civilization” represented less by values than by material culture of the West (clothing, beef-eating, pocket-watches and the like) The term bunmei 文明 by itself was first asserted as a translational equivalent of the English “civilization” in English by Fukuzawa Yukichi in 1875. → Bunmeiron no gairyaku 文明論之概略 (An Outline of a Theory of Civilization) Bunmei 文明 in Classical Chinese The Chinese character sequence wen-ming appears in the Chinese Classics, such as the “Classic of Chances” (Ijing 易経). Modern English translation by Richard John Lynn: 見龍在田。天下文明。 “‘There appears a dragon in the field’”: all under Heaven enjoy the blessings of civilization. 天文也；文明以止、人文也 This is the pattern of Heaven. It is by means of the enlightenment provided by pattern (i.e. culture) that curbs are set, and this is the pattern of man. Compare the “curbs” (止) here to the “brake” in the entry for “Civilisation” in the Dictionnaire Universel (Trévoux), where “religion puts a brake on humanity” and is thus “the first source of civilization.” Bunmei 文明 used today for “civilization” as in “Egyptian civilization”, “Chinese civilization” etc. → But compare the insistence on “Japanese culture” (Nihon bunka 日本文化) Fukuzawa Yukichi, “There is only a government…” in 1872 ”Though regulations for publication are not very strict, the newspapers never carry opinions unfavorable to the authorities. To the contrary, every commendable trifle about the government is praised in bold letters. They are like courtesans flattering their guests. If we read the memorials, we find that their wordings are always extremely base. They look up to the government as if it were some god. They look down upon themselves as if they were criminals. They use empty phrases which are unworthy of equal human beings. …Yet the publishers of these newspapers and the writers of these memorials are almost all scholars of Western Learning. In private life they are not necessarily courtesans or lunatics. Their extremes of insincerity are the result of the fact that, never having had an example of equal rights, they are oppressed and blindly ruled by a spirit (kifū 気風) of subservience. Thus they are not able to realize their real capacity as citizens (kokumin 国民). It may well be said that in Japan there is a government, but as yet no people (kokumin 国民).” Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Encouragement of Learning, January 1874 Note that Fukuzawa would seem to seek to use the term kokumin 国民 (citizens) to ultimately convey as a sense of “civil society” here. Samuel Smiles, Self-Help (1859) Translated by Nakamura Masanao in 1870 “Civilization itself is but a question of the personal improvement of the men, women, and children of whom society is composed.” → Nakamura Masanao was a Confucian and teacher at the Confucian academy, who studied in English in the later 1860s. Later Professor for Chinese Philosophy at Tokyo Imperial University. “Civilization” here linked to individual “character” formation. Nakamura Masanao, “On Changing the Character of the People” (Meiroku zasshi 1875) “If we desire to change the people’s character and thereby encourage elevated conduct and virtuous feelings, we will accomplish absolutely nothing if we only reform the political structure… We should aspire instead to change the character of the people, more and more rooting out the old habits and achieving ‘renewal’ with each new day.” “Renovating the People” in Opening Line of the Confucian Great Learning “[The way of greater learning lies in] keeping one’s inborn luminous Virtue unobscured, in renovating the people, and in coming to rest in perfect goodness.” 明明德，在新民，在止於至善。 Commentary by Zhu Xi, quotes the following line from the Classic of Poetry “Zhou is an old state, its mandate, however, is new.” 周旧邦雖、其命惟（維）新 This is the origin of the term ishin 維新 as in Meiji ishin 明治維新 as the as the Japanese term rendered “Meiji Restoration” in English The Term Ishin 維新 Linked to the Imperial Line The court noble Iwakura Tomomi, one of the key figures in the coup leading to the “restoration of imperial rule” (ōsei fukko 王政復古) on January 3, 1868, quotes in his memoir the following advice by the National Learning scholar Tamamatsu Misao of 1867. “You must make the restoration of imperial rule (ōsei fukko 王政復古) as broad and far-reaching as possible. Thus in reconstituting the structure of official ranks and offices, the goal should be a comprehensive regeneration (banki no ishin 万機の維新) aimed at unifying the realm based on the original foundation established by Emperor Jimmu (Jimmu-tei 神武帝).” If in Confucianism ishin 維新 (“renovation”) was linked to the moral transformation of “the people” under a state of enlightened (“luminous”) rule, it is linked to the mythical founding of the Japanese Empire by Emperor Jinmu (supposedly in 660 BCE) here. Fukuzawa on “Civilization” (bunmei 文明) as derived from “Civitas” in 1875 In An Outline of a Theory of Civilization of 1875, Fukuzawa explained the meaning of bunmei 文明 via the English term “civilization” as follows: “Hence the term civilization in English. It derives from the Latin civitas, which means nation (kuni 国). Civilization thus describes the process by which society (ningen/jinkan kōsai 人間交際) gradually changes for the better and takes on a definite shape. It is a concept of a unified nation (ikkoku no teisai 一国の体裁) in contrast to a state of primitive isolation and lawlessness (yaban muhō no dokuritsu 野蛮無法の独立).” Note that the phrase ikkoku no teisai 一国の体裁 is exactly the same as used by Fukuzawa to explain kokutai 国体 as a translation of “nationality” in the preceding chapters. Note also the difficulty Fukuzawa has rendering the term “society.” He does not use the term shakai 社会 yet. Fukuzawa’s Definition of Kokutai Earlier I mentioned the opinion that all countries ought to preserve their own national polity (kokutai 国体) when adopting Western civilization. … [W]hat does the term national polity (kokutai 国体) refer to? Let me put aside popular arguments for a moment and explain the term as I understand it. Polity means a union or a formation (tai wa gattai no gi nari, mata teisai no gi nari 体は合体の義なり、また体裁の義なり). It refers to a structure in which things are collected together, made one, and distinguished from other entities. Thus ‘national polity’ refers to the grouping together of a race of people of similar feelings, the creation of a distinction between fellow countrymen and, the fostering of more cordial and stronger bonds with one’s countrymen than with foreigners. It is living under the same government, enjoying self-rule, and disliking the idea of being subject to foreign rule; it involves independence and responsibility for the welfare of one’s own country. In Western countries it is called nationality.” Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, 1875 Fukuzawa was clearly relying for his definition of “nationality” on John Stuart Mill here: John Stuart Mill on “Nationality” “A PORTION of mankind may be said to constitute a Nationality if they are united among themselves by common sympathies which do not exist between them and any others -- which make them co-operate with each other more willingly than with other people, desire to be under the same government, and desire that it should be government by themselves or a portion of themselves exclusively.” John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, 1861 Fukuzawa Yukichi, “There is only a government…” in 1872 and 1875 Never having had an example of equal rights, they are oppressed and blindly ruled by a spirit (気風) of subservience. Thus they are not able to realize their real capacity as citizens (kokumin 国民). It may well be said that in Japan there is a government, but as yet no people (kokumin 国民). Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Encouragement of Learning, 1872 Therefore, one might even say that Japan has never been a nation (kuni 国). If today an incident should break out which pitted the people of the Japanese nation (Nihon kokujū no jinmin 日本国中の人民) against a foreign nation (gaikoku 外国), even if the whole Japanese populace took up arms and went to the front, we could calculate in advance how many would actually be interested in fighting and how many would be spectators. This is precisely what I meant when I once took the position that in Japan there is a government, but as yet no kokumin 国民 (nēshon ネーション). Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, 1875 While Fukuzawa in 1872 used kokumin 国民 as the collectivity of “citizens” in a way that suggests a sense of “civil society” (as conceptually opposed to “the government,” in 1875 clearly suggests a sense of “nation” (as conceptually opposed to other “nations”). His source of inspiration for now spelling kokumin 国民 in English as “nation,” was likely the following passage from the English translation of François Guizot, General History of Civilization in Europe (1828): Guizot on “Nationality” and “Nation” “Every time that, in speaking of the population of the country at this period [France in the late middle ages], we make use of some general term, which seems to convey the idea of one single and same society—such for example as the word people—we speak without truth. For this population there was no general society—its existence was purely local… For them there existed no common destiny, no common country—they formed not a nation…” “… Thus the nationality of France began to be formed. Down to the reign of the house of Valois, the feudal character prevailed in France; a French nation, a French spirit, French patriotism, as yet had no existence. With the princes of the house of Valois begins the history of France, properly so called. It was in the course of their wars, amid the various turns of their fortune, that, for the first time, the nobility, the citizens, the peasants, were united by a moral tie, by the tie of a common name, a common honour, and by one burning desire to overcome the foreign invader.” François Guizot, General History of Civilization in Europe, 1828 The word Kokutai 国体 (國體) The character compound kokutai 国体 (國體) which Fukuzawa used to render Mill’s “nationality” had been a watchword of the imperial loyalists of the Restoration movement demanding to “Revere the Emperor and Expel the Barbarians.” Coined by Aizawa Seishisai in 1825, it combined elements from Shinto mythology, Confucian ethics, and Bushidō (Way of the Samurai). It would become a pivotal concept in prewar and wartime emperor-centred nationalism: “Peace Preservation Law” of 1925 (same year as introduction of universal male suffrage) stipulates severe punishment for “crimes against the kokutai.” Kokutai no hongi 国体の本義 (“Fundamentals of Our National Polity”) published and distributed by Ministry of Education in 1937 Note that by claiming this concept as a translation of the English “nationality” and reading it into the English “civilization” in turn in 1875, Fukuzawa sought to turn the meaning of this term around. But by the same token he also affirmed a sense of “nationality” – rather than “civility” – as constitutive of “civilization.” Kokutai 国体 (國體) Continued Various translations of kokutai 国体 into English: “what is essential to the nation,” “national essence,” “national polity” etc. Note that the two meanings of the Sino-Japanese character tai 体（體）of physical “body” and metaphysical “substance” or “essence” are brought to overlap in the compound kokutai 国体 in a similar way as in the English term “body” in expressions such as “body politic.” “Just what is essential (tai 体) for a land and people to be a nation (kuni 国)? Without four limbs, a man is not a man. Similarly, a nation also possesses some essence [or requisite and defining entity that make it into a nation] (kokutai 国体).” (Aizawa Seishisai, Shinron 新論, 1825). But maybe closest: “imperial body politic,” since it conceptually ties Japan’s existence and “spiritual” unity as a “nation” (kuni 国) to its “imperial” quality manifest in an unbroken continuation of its imperial line. Note that Fukuzawa’s Japanese text deriving “civilization” (qua bunmei 文明) from Latin civitas (qua kuni 国) was actually based on the following English footnote to the American translation of François Guizot’s General History of Civilization in Europe (1828): “To this improvement various social conditions combine; but as the political organization of society—the STATE—is that which first gives security and permanence to all the others, it holds the most important place. Hence it is from the political organization of society, from the establishment of the STATE (in Latin civitas), that the word civilization is taken. Civilization, therefore, in its most general idea, is an improved condition of man resulting from the establishment of social order in place of the individual independence and lawlessness of the savage or barbarous life.“ Fukuzawa’s kuni 国 as a translation of Latin civitas thus actually translates the English “state” rather than “nation”! However, this is the time of the emerging “nation-state.” Note that Fukuzawa’s Japanese text deriving “civilization” qua bunmei 文明 from kuni 国 based on the following English footnote to the American translation of François Guizot’s General History of Civilization in Europe (published in French in 1828): “To this improvement various social conditions combine; but as the political organization of society—the STATE—is that which first gives security and permanence to all the others, it holds the most important place. Hence it is from the political organization of society, from the establishment of the STATE (in Latin civitas), that the word civilization is taken. Civilization, therefore, in its most general idea, is an improved condition of man resulting from the establishment of social order in place of the individual independence and lawlessness of the savage or barbarous life.“ Note that Fukuzawa kuni 国 translates the English “state” (rather than “nation”) as the supposed English translation of civitas here. Note that the phrase “state (in Latin civitas)” appears to be right out of Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, of 1651: Hobbes on “the State” qua Civitas “For by art is created that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMONWEALTH, or STATE (in Latin, CIVITAS), which is but an artificial man, though of greater stature and strength than the natural, for whose protection and defence it was intended; and in which the sovereignty is an artificial soul, …; equity and laws, an artificial reason and will; concord, health; sedition, sickness; and civil war, death.” Compare the concept of kokutai 国体 to the frontispiece (title image) of Hobbes’ book. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Common wealth Ecclesiastical and Civil (1651) “Common wealth” ←→ Res publica “Ecclesiastical” = “church-like” “Society” ↔ “Corporation” 社会 ↔ 会社 Note that what Hobbes is depicting here is quite literally a “corporation” in the sense of plural individuals forming or becoming “one body” (corpus). When Fukuzawa uses terms such as ittai o nasu 一体を成す (forming one body), or ikkoku no teisai 一国の体裁 (forming one nation) in explaining “civilization” he uses a similar metaphoric. Note also that you can look at this “assembly” of people spiritually united in “communion” with a “community” spirit or “god” (referred to by Hobbes as “the sovereign,” is also somehow similar to the idea inscribed in the term shakai 社会 and kaisha 会社 Ariga Nagao on the Term Shakai 社会 “I do not know who first translated the English word ‘society‘ as shakai 社会 into Chinese characters. As far as I am aware, the Chinese have been using the expression ever since the Song dynasty. In the ninth fascicle of the Jinsi lu 近視録 (“Reflections on Things at Hand” by Zhu Xi), under the heading “Rulership,” we find: ‘The local people formed a shehui 社会, and they established rules and regulations. They marked the difference between good and evil, clarifying encouragement and embarrassment (郷民為社会為立科條旌別善悪使有勧有恥).’ Thus, shehui 社会 here was a small entity formed from a single village.” Zōho shakai shinka ron 増補社会進化論 (1887) First Uses of Shakai 社会 in Book Titles スペンサー、松島剛訳『社会平権論』（1881-83） Herbert Spencer, Social Statics → compare the English “social state” and “state of society” as used for example by Alexis de Tocqueville in Democracy in America スペンサー、乗竹孝太郎訳『社会学之原理』（1882年） Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912) Establishment of first chair of “Sociology” in Bordeaux in 1887. “Society is a reality sui generis” (p. 15) “It may be strange that, to arrive at an understanding of present- day humanity, we should have to turn away from it so as to travel back in history…. But we must know how to reach beneath the symbol to grasp the reality it represents and that gives the symbol its true meaning.” “Religious representations are collective representations that express collective realities; rites are ways of acting that are born only in the midst of assembled groups and whose purpose is to evoke, maintain, or recreate certain mental states of those groups.” (p. 9) Randall Collins “The Sociology of God” “[There] is one reality that does have all the characteristics that people attribute to the divine. It is not nature, nor is it metaphysical. It is society itself. For society is a force far greater than any individual. … It has tremendous power over us. Everyone depends upon it in innumerable ways. We use tools and skills we did not invent; we speak a language passed on to us from others. Virtually our whole material and symbolic world is given to us from society. The institutions we inhabit … came from the accumulated practices of others, in short, from society. This is the fundamental truth that religion expresses. God is a symbol of society.” “The analysis of religion … leads us … to understand social rituals and the way in which they create both moral feelings and symbolic ideas. … It helps us to explain politics and political ideologies, and the dynamics of solidarity that make conflicts possible among social groups. It even tells us something about the private secular realms of modern life. You do not have to be either religious or politically active to experience the relevance of social rituals.” Motoori Norinaga (1733-1800) on the Meaning of Kami 神 “I do not yet understand the meaning of the term kami. Speaking in general, however, it may be said that a kami signifies, in the first place, the deities of heaven and earth that appear in the ancient records and also the spirit of the shrines where they are worshipped. It is hardly necessary to say that it included human beings. It also includes such objects as birds, beasts, trees, plants, seas, mountains and so forth. In ancient usage, anything whatsoever out of the ordinary, which possessed superior power, or which was awe-inspiring was called kami. Eminence here does not refer merely to the superiority of nobility, goodness or meritorious deeds. Evil and mysterious things, if they are extraordinary and dreadful, are called kami. It is needless to say that among human beings who are called kami the successive generations of sacred emperors are all included… Although they may not be accepted throughout the whole country, yet in each province, each village and each family there are human beings who are kami, each one according to his own proper position.” Terry Eagleton, The Idea of Culture (2000) “‘Culture’ is said to be one of the two or three most complex words in the English language and the term, which is sometimes considered to be its opposite – nature – is commonly awarded the accolade of being the most complex of all.” “[C]ulture, etymologically speaking, is a concept derived from nature. One of its original meanings is ‘husbandry,’ or the tending of natural growth. … Francis Bacon writes of ‘the culture and manurance of minds,’ in a suggestive hesitancy between dung and mental distinction. ‘Culture here means an activity, and it was a long time before the word came to denote an entity. Even then it was probably not until Matthew Arnold that the word dropped such adjectives as ‘moral’ and ‘intellectual’ and came just to be ‘culture’.” → Cicero: cultura animi (the tending of the mind) Terry Eagleton, The Idea of Culture (2000) “The Latin root of the word 'culture' is colere, which can mean anything from cultivating and inhabiting to worshipping and protecting. Its meaning as 'inhabit' has evolved from the Latin colonus to the contemporary 'colonialism', so that titles like Culture and Colonialism are, once again, mildly tautological.” But colere also ends up via the Latin cultus as the religious term 'cult', just as the idea of culture itself in the modern age comes to substitute itself for a fading sense of divinity and transcendence. Cultural truths - whether high art or the traditions of a people - are sometimes sacred ones, to be protected and revered. Culture, then, inherits the imposing mantle of religious authority, but also has uneasy affinities with occupation and invasion…” Raymond Williams on the English Term “Culture” “In 1945, after the ending of the wars with Germany and Japan, I was released from the Army to return to Cambridge. … …. I found myself preoccupied by a single word, culture, which it seemed I was hearing very much more often: not only, obviously, by comparison with the talk of an artillery regiment, but by direct comparison within the university over just those few years.” (p. xiii) Raymond Williams on the English Term “Culture” “I had heard it previously in two senses: one at the fringes, in teashops and places like that, where it seemed the preferred way for a kind of social superiority, not in ideas or learning, and not only in money or position, but in a more intangible area, relating to behavior; yet also, secondly, among my own friends, where it was an active word for writing poems and novels, making films and paintings, working in theatres. What I was hearing now were two different senses, which I could not really get clear: first, in the study of literature, a use of the word to indicate … some central formation of values …; secondly, in more general discussion … a use which made it almost equivalent to society: a particular way of life – ‘American culture’, ‘Japanese culture.’” Ruth Benedict The Chrysanthemum and the Sword (1946) “The Japanese were the most alien enemy the United States ever fought in an all-out struggle. In no other war with a major foe had it been necessary to into account such exceedingly different habits of acting and thinking… We had to understand their behavior in order to cope with it.” Kokka 国家 “state” linked to Confucian rites and Buddhist ritual in early and medieval Japan new overtones in “early modern” Japan Society 社会 “society” central to political debate in “modern” Japan but also used to talk about “Tokugawa society,” “Yayoi society” and so on. The term kokka 国家 in the “Seventeen-Article Constitution” of 604 (jūshichijō kenpō 十七条憲法) 四曰、群卿百寮、以禮爲本。其治民之本、要在禮乎、上不禮、而下非齊。下無禮、以必有罪。是以、群臣禮有、位次不亂。百姓有禮、國家自治。 IV. The Ministers and functionaries should make decorous behavior their leading principle, for the leading principle of the government of the people consists in decorous behavior. If the superiors do not behave with decorum, the inferiors are disorderly: if inferiors are wanting in proper behaviour, there must necessarily be offences. Therefore it is that when lord and vassal behave with propriety, the distinctions of rank are not confused: when the people behave with propriety, the Government of the Commonwealth proceeds of itself. (English translation by W. G. Aston, 1896) … If the common people have rites the state will govern itself. (English translation by Kiri Paramore, 2017) Two Main Myths about Amaterasu Myth 1 Offended by her brother, Amaterasu withdraws into a cave, leaving the world in darkness. The Goddess Ame no Uzume [“Heavenly Alarming Female”] performs a lewd dance in front of the cave, and the gods make merry. When Amaterasu peeks out to see what is going on, she is confused by her own reflection in a mirror placed in front of her and pulled out. Myth 2 Descent of her heavenly grandson Ninigi to the land of Japan, and foundation of the imperial line by his grandson Jinmu 神武. The Oldest “Histories” Two chronicles (one in Japanese and one in Chinese) compiled by nascent “imperial court” to establish and enhance its legitimacy tracing “imperial descent” from an “Age of the Gods.” Kojiki 古事記 (“Record of Ancient Matters”) completed in 712 Nihon shoki 日本書紀 (“Chronicles of Japan”) completed in 720 History of the Kingdom of Wei 魏志倭人伝 Dynastic History covering the Wei dynasty (220-265) most revealing of early Chinese descriptions of Japan (297 CE) At least thirty power centers (Ch. guo or J. kuni 国) Elaborate burials and divination practices “tattoo patterns on their faces and bodies,” but “their customs are not indecent” Prominence of women in powerful positions (different from Chinese Confucian norms) → prevalence of co-gendered rulership in early Japan! Queen Himiko and “Yamatai” 卑弥呼王 Unmarried shamaness in “Yamatai” with ability to divine spirits, assisted by younger brother Location of “Yamatai” (Yamato) debated: Northern Kyushu or Nara (Yamato) Region. (Possibly in Northern Kyushu, but different power center later capital region) “It is the custom … to divine by baking bones… The fire cracks are examined for the signs” (similar to early Chinese divination practices) Tribute missions to China, gifts of bronze mirrors in return  connection to Amaterasu myth? Gold seal from Wei emperor in 238 CE: “Himiko, Queen of Wa, is designated a friend of Wei” “Religious Revolution?” Himiko may have been leading a “religious revolution” where faith in earlier deities associated with bells was displaced by faith in deities associated with mirrors, due to crises in connection with climatic shifts. (Smashed bells found in the archeological record) Religious Practices in Yayoi Period (ca. 300 BCE to 300 CE) Apparently many of the elements of later “Shintō”: appeal to shamans, rites to appease spirits, use of water to purge pollution Linked to emergence of regional centers dominating scattered hamlets. Increasing complexity of communal organization with the introduction of wet-field rice farming and other continental technologies (weaving, metallurgy, etc.) Yoshinogari 吉野ヶ里 Early regional center in northern Kyushu, excavated in 1980s Lively commercial life, various trades Indications of class differences: officials separated by a moat Large storehouses on stilts to house tax grains Possibly cooperative ownership of tools Headless skeletons and arrow-pierced bones in graves (military conflict) Glass beads and Korean-style dagger in ruler’s burial side (international trade) Bronze as a critical import and later domestically produced metal Kofun (Ancient Tomb) Period 古墳時代 Mounded tombs begin to proliferate by the end of the Yayoi period most significantly in the Nara region Signifies stratification of early Japanese society into rulers and ruled → Threshold of state formation “Mounded Tomb Culture” (Gina Barnes) Mounded burials known through contact with Continent. By fifth century, extremely large tombs in the Osaka coastal terraces. Suggests both the emergence of a dominant power and a desire to advertise this to the continent. In struggles among regional rivals, the rulers of the Kinai (Nara-Kyoto) region increasingly predominant Crucial aspect of “mounded tomb culture” is that it integrated many rulers of small polities in western Japan into a wide network However, no evidence of any sort of administrative organization beyond the burial rituals themselves! → Emergence of an elite sharing common values, aspirations, and beliefs → Springboard for the emergence of an actual organization that could be called a state Triangular-rim mirrors (often with deity-beast motive) found in tombs hypothesized by some scholars to have been the ones (or of the same kind as those) received by Himiko according to the History of Wei. “Queen Mother of the West” Motives and imagery of these mirrors point to possible connection with the Chinese folk deity “Queen Mother of the West” (associated with mountains, jade, a cosmic tree, mounded burial, curved jewels. Connection to Amaterasu myth?) Continental Connections of Later Amaterasu Cult Association with important technologies of continental origin: silkworm cultivation (also symbol of metamorphosis and longevity) weaving, metallurgy Introduction of Confucianism According to the Nihon shoki (720) “On the sixth day of the eighth month in the autumn of the fifteenth year a Prince from [the Korean state of] Paekche called Araki came before the court and presented two fine horses to the [Japanese] emperor… This Araki was very good at reading the [Confucian] classics… Hearing this, the emperor asked Araki, ‘Do you possess a fine Confucian professor [in Paekche]?” Araki replied: “There is one called Wani, he is excellent… In the spring of the sixteenth year Wani arrived. Prince Uji no Waki took him as his teacher. He learned various classics from Wani. There was none of them he could not master. Wani became the first keeper of the imperial books.” Allegedly this occurred in 284. More likely 402 CE or fictional account. Confucianism perceived as part of the status symbolism of East Asian interstate relations. “Formulation of Confucianism in Japan and formation of the Japanese state were concurrent and symbiotic processes.” (Kiri Paramore) Introduction of Buddhism Reportedly occurred in 552, when a Paekche diplomatic mission presented a statue of the Buddha and several sutras to the Yamato court. Soga 曽我 clan advises Emperor Kinmei to worship the gifts. Opposing faction warns of wrath of indigenous gods threat to indigenous belief system, which upheld the political and social order by legitimizing the clan (uji 氏) chieftain’s role as representative of the clan’s guardian spirit (uji-gami 氏神) Conflict breaks out in the 580s. Soga prove victorious. Court officially recognizes Buddhism. Construction of large burial mounds now ceases, as Buddhist temples coopt funeral rites Hōryūji est. by Shōtoku Taishi Empress Suiko and Shōtoku Taishi 592 Head of Soga clan orchestrates assassination of the emperor and replaces him with his niece Suiko 推古. Shōtoku Taishi 聖徳太子, also of Soga descent, serves as regent and co-ruler 581-618 Sui Dynasty in China, Reunification of Chinese Empire utilizing Buddhist, Daoist, and Confucian ideology. Centralized military, effective legal code, new state bureaucracy, large-scale public work projects Reforms under Shōtoku Taishi in Japan as well: 603 Introduction of cap ranks 604 “Seventeen-Articles Constitution” (mixture of Confucian and Buddhist maxims) Seventeen-Articles Constitution (604) 十七条憲法 I. Harmony is to be valued, and contentiousness avoided. All men are inclined to partisanship and few are truly discerning. II. Sincerely reverence the Three Treasures. The Buddha, the Law (Dharma) and the religious orders are the final refuge of all beings. III. When you receive imperial commands, fail not scrupulously to obey them. The lord is Heaven, the vassal is Earth. Heaven overspreads, and Earth upbears. IV. The ministers and functionaries should make ritual decorum their leading principle… If the common people have rites the state will govern itself. XI. Give clear appreciation to merit and demerit, and deal out to each its sure reward and punishment XV. To turn away from what is private, and to set our faces to what is public – this is the path of a minister (背私向公、是臣之道矣) Taika Coup and Reforms 大化の改新 Succession struggle after the death of Shōtoku Taishi in 622 and Empress Suiko in 628 Assassination of Soga chief in 645. Taika 大化 (Great Reform) chosen as the first era name. (Leader of this coup, Nakatomi Kamatari, ancestor of the Fujiwara clan.) Centralization of taxes, population registers, court appointment of governors etc. Imperial control of resources by announcing end to clan possession of land and people (Clan aristocracy still remained, but the authority and income of clans and their chieftains now derived from their position as officials of the court and central government.) Nihon shoki: “Now our hearts are one. There shall be one sovereign and ministers shall not oppose his rule.” Advent of the “Heavenly Sovereign” (Tennō 天皇) By 650, alliance between Tang China (618-907) and Korean state of Silla. Japanese come to the aid of Paekche, but are defeated in 663. Emperor Tenji 天智 (668-671) expands authority of imperial line against background of fear of Tang-Silla invasion(e.g. creation of the Council of State). Aided by Paekche refugees, including members of the royal house. Renewed infighting in the imperial line leads to civil war in 672. Tenmu 天武 (Heavenly Warrior) establishes himself in power, succeeded by his wife Jitō 持統. Beginning of compilation of the two chronicles Kojiki 古事記 and Nihon shoki 日本書紀. Jitō first to claim Tenmu’s descent from the Sun Goddess. Nihon 日本 as self-appellation of “Japan.” Assumption of the title tennō 天皇. Emperors asserted to be “living gods” → But close association with Buddhism continues. Tenmu often recognized as first ruler to officially sponsor Buddhism as a protector of the country and the imperial family. The Design of the Ritsuryō State (律令制) Series of Law Codes culminating in Taihō (702) and Yōrō Codes (718) hierarchical, nation-wide social and administrative system in which all power flowed from the emperor. Functional ministries. Officials ranked according to position. Taxes levied according to complex system. Basic assumption that all land belonged to the emperor. Military conscription of all able-bodied adult males. Permanent capitals following Chinese model, ultimately in Heijō (Nara) and Heian (Kyoto). Increasing Privatization of Power Fujiwara family dominates politics and culture of the Heian Court Taxable land assigned to monasteries and aristocratic families tax-free in return for political support By 1200 half of imperial tax land converted into shōen 荘園 (tax-free/”private” landed estates) From 11th century onward, “retired emperors” participate as heads of the imperial clan in scramble for income from “private estates” as well Disintegration of military conscript system since ninth century Court increasingly dependent on hired military men (samurai 侍 or bushi 武士) By 1150s, commanders of samurai bands most powerful men in Japan. Shōen Landed Estates 荘園 Provincial landed properties, home to cultivators engaged in agricultural production and obligated to pay part of their produce to local managers and absentee proprietors. Exempt from “public taxes.” Often right to deny entry to public officials. Complex system of “rights to income” (shiki 職) Initially created as: Sources of operating expenses for religious institutions Incentive for land reclamation Later: commendation to power brokers in capital The Kenmon System of Codependent Rulership (Kuroda Toshio) “The elite formed three large power blocs (kenmon 権門) that performed administrative, military, and religious duties, respectively, in a codependent arrangement of shared rulership. The court nobility (kōke or kuge 公家), consisting of the imperial family and the capital aristocracy, held the administrative and ceremonial responsibilities of the state. The emperorship remained above the system as the untouchable symbol of the state, ensuring its survival through ages of both peace and turmoil. Accordingly, the emperor made all central appointments, including the shogun (from the Kamakura period onward) and monks to lead important ceremonies at the court, even so such rights were at time in name only… The main responsibility of the warrior aristocracy (buke 武家) was keeping the peace and physically protecting the state. From the late eleventh century, these duties were entrusted increasingly to prominent warrior leaders from the Minamoto 源, Taira 平, and other central warrior houses.” Buddhism and the State under the Kenmon System “The third member of the ruling triumvirate [i.e. the temple-shrine complexes], supplied the state and its members with spiritual protection through a panoply of religious services and rituals. These ceremonies were also important as status markers since they supported a vertical differentiation between rulers and ruled through participation in and sponsorship of magical and expensive rituals. In contrast to the other two blocs, however, the religious establishment had no clear apex, but consisted instead of a handful of elite temples supported and patronized by various factions in the capital.” The idea of Buddhism as “protecting the state” (chingo kokka 鎮護国家) also gave rise to the idea of promoting peace and defending the state in the sense of defending the people. Rise of new forms of popular Buddhism including popularization of Esoteric Buddhism (Tendai and Shingon, confined to elite during Heian). Kamakura Shogunate (1192-1333) Struggle over imperial succession in 1156 leads to fighting between warriors in capital. Taira no Kiyomori 平清盛 establishes himself in control. 1180-1185 Genpei 源平 War between Minamoto and Taira. Minamoto no Yoritomo 源頼朝 emerges victorious. 1192 appointed as shogun. Establishes military government (later called bakufu 幕府) in Kamakura. Right to appoint “provincial governors” (shugo 守護) and “stewards” (jitō 地頭) to private estates  Parallel structure of shogunal rule (“Dual Polity”) with imperial clan dominating civil affairs in Kyoto while shogunal government in Kamakura commands newly empowered warrior network. Institutions of Kamakura Governance Crisis of leadership after Yoritomo’s death in 1199. Power wielded by Hōjō Masako (Yoritomo’s widow) until her death in 1225 (“the nun shogun”) and subsequently Hōjō clan as regents. 1221 Attempt at uprising by ex-emperor Go-Toba against Hōjō ends in failure. → expanded powers to place warriors on landed estates and in selection of future emperors. Second generation of Hōjō leaders (Yasutoki and Shigetoki) famous for formulations of governing ethos. 1232 Goseibai shikimoku: Fifty-one article law code as a guide to adjudicating disputes involving warriors, emphasizing fairness and equity based on thorough understanding of context → (dōri 道理 “common sense” or “reasonableness” as norm) Challenges of Kamakura Governance Shogunate rewarded its retainers with rights to income from land. (No clearly defined warrior “class” yet. “Warriors” essentially land managers, tax collectors, bureaucrats, police etc.) Minamoto Yoritomo had gained adherents by promising “job security” But as enemies defeated, no further land and posts to distribute to vassals. Conflicts between landholders over income rights. Problem of inheritance. Land increasingly passed on to one heir (leaving siblings empty-handed.) Increasing independence of “stewards” (at times becoming land proprietors themselves.) Famines and warriors without inheritance causing rise in banditry and piracy. Failed Mongol Invasions (1274 and 1281) as beginning of the end of Kamakura rule. The Kenmu Restoration 建武中興 Hōjō benefited from defeat of Mongols in the short run. However, no lands to distribute for military service. At the same time, split in the imperial line: Descendants of two emperors alternate. 1318 Godaigo becomes emperor, seeks to reassert power of court. 1331 Exiled to Oki island by Hōjō 1333 Escapes. Ashikaga Takauji sent by Hōjō to quell uprising, but switches over to Godaigo. Collapse of Hōjō rule. Significance: End of dual government. Ashikaga Takauji seeks to control warriors from Kyoto. Also: Precedent for “restoration” of imperial rule. Samurai fighting and dying for Godaigo later become paragons of “imperial loyalty” in prewar and wartime school textbooks. Ashikaga Shogunate (1338-1573) 1336 Ashikaga Takauji turns on Godaigo. Godaigo escapes and establishes “Southern Court” in Yoshino. → Imperial schism until 1392: “Northern and Southern Court” 1338 Ashikaga Takauji establishes shogunate in Kyoto Ashikaga ultimately fail to gain firm grip on the land. Solid control only over the capital region. 1392 End of imperial schism. Height of Ashikaga power under third shogun Yoshimitsu. (“Palace of Flowers” in Muromachi. Hence “Muromachi period”) 1402 Beginning of tally trade with Ming China. Yongle Emperor addresses Yoshimitsu as “King of Japan.” Shugo as Precursors of Daimyō 守護から大名へ Shugo (provincial military governors) primary link between Ashikaga shoguns and provinces Ashikaga shoguns dependent on these military governors for crushing resistance of forces aligned with Southern Court until 1392 For this purpose, shugo received permission to exact half of the revenues collected from local estates (hanzei “half tax”) from 1352. → Military governors increasingly independent from center. Third Shogun Yoshimitsu hosts military governors in the capital, where they partake in culture of the capital. But increasing tensions: Autocratic Sixth Shogun Yoshinori killed by military governor in 1441 While Eighth Shogun Yoshimasa patronizes culture (“Silver Pavilion”), political order disintegrates. Aesthetics and Arts Spreading impact of Buddhism noticeable not least in arts and literature themes of evanescence and non-attachment Nō (Noh) drama as representative works of the period use of sparse prose to narrate tales of dead warriors, priests, and officials returning as ghosts But also comical intermezzos (Kyōgen) and gaudy architecture (“Golden Pavilion”). Ink paintings, tea ceremony, tatami rooms, gardening etc. often seen as instances of Zen aesthetics. However, this is a simplification owing much to Western ideas about “Zen” and “Japanese Culture.” Warlords patronize culture to bolster their claim to legitimacy and leadership. Much of what is considered distinctive about Japanese aesthetics today originates in this period. The Period of Warring States 戦国時代 (late 15th – late 16th century) By the middle of the 15th century, warrior leaders were far less preoccupied with securing the shogun’s approval than with finding reliable sources of local support. 1467-77 Ōnin Civil War Rival clans take their fight to the capital. Widespread destruction of Kyoto. Effective (although not nominal) end to Ashikaga shogunal rule Political order disintegrates. Country divided up between “warlords.” 1543 Portuguese shipwrecked off Tanegashima Introduction of muskets. From 1549, arrival of Jesuit missionaries. Portuguese traders. Sengoku (Warring States) Daimyō 戦国大名 Term used by historians by contrast to the earlier “shugo [military provincial governor] daimyo.” Far more powerful within their realms than earlier local power. Need for survival in all-out warfare. New military tactics, greater armies, more efficient administration of economic resources, military consolidation of holdings, strategic marriages, land surveys, new forms of taxation, absolute loyalty by vassals, detailed stipulation of obligations, legal codes, exchange of hostages, castle towns. Early modern uses of the term kokka 国家 (Katsumata) New overtones by the end of the Warring States Period “For instances where daimyo ordered temples and shrines within their domain to offer prayers and ceremonies for the safety of kokka 国家, the word did not imply all of Japan but only the consolidated sphere of a daimyo’s political control.” “The basis or rule over the country is not attained by being appointed shugo by the shogun. Control [of the kokka] is achieved when the daimyo, by his own efforts, brings peace to the kokka by establishing the laws of the kuni 国 (land).” Kuni 国 and ie 家 frequently used separately: Okuni, oie no tame 御国御家の為 The word kokka 国家 expressed the idea of the union of the daimyo house (ie 家) and the kuni 国 that served as the sphere of political control.  It embraced both the private aspect of control over the ie 家 and the public aspect of rule over the kuni 国 as composite object of political control. Three characteristics of warring-states period kokka 国家 1. Autonomy or integrity of the sphere of political control. Numerous prohibitions against the formation of ties with other domains. Imposition of unified standards, including coin selection edicts. 2. Inhabitants of the domain, not merely the daimyo’s direct retainers, were seen by the daimyo as constituent members of the kokka 国家 made up of a sphere of territorial authority and of the people who resided within that sphere (kokumin 国民) 3. Use by daimyo of the concept of kokka 国家 as an ideology of political control for the purpose of legitimizing their authority over the territory (ryōgoku 領国): purpose of maintaining the peace, security, and social order of this kokka 国家. Warring-states daimyo who had carved out their domains and enforced their authority over the inhabitants of these domains by force of arms and with little heed to legitimacy, were able to claim legitimacy for their rule as a “public” or “official” authority (kōgi 公儀 or kubō 公方). The “Kyoto Orientation” of the Sengoku daimyo Even as many Sengoku daimyo sought to portray themselves as absolute rulers of their realms, they were also eager to maximize their ties to the faltering Ashikaga shogunate and imperial court. Peasants who challenged samurai government appealed to the more distant governance of earlier times in which the military had not come to stand between them and the court, and frequently claimed for themselves the standing of imperial servants. Consequently the warriors had to insist that their control over the countryside derived from the imperial court as well as from the authority of the shogun. The Three Unifiers Oda Nobunaga Toyotomi Hideyoshi Tokugawa Ieyasu Account of Japan by a Foreign Observer in the 1570s “The second defect of this nation is the meagre loyalty which the people show towards their rulers. They rebel against them whenever they have a chance, either usurping them or joining in with their enemies. Then they about-turn and declare themselves friends again, only to rebel once more when the opportunity presents itself; yet this sort of conduct does not discredit them at all…” Alessandro Valignano (Jesuit Missionary) → gekokujō 下剋上 “The low overthrow their superiors” Account of Japan by a Foreign Observer in 1620 “This government of Japan may well be accompted the greatest and powrefullest Terrany, that ever was heard of in the world, for all the rest are as Slaves to the Emperor (or greate commander as they call him), whoe upon the leaste suspition (or Jelosie) or being angry with any man (be he never soe greate a man) will cause hym upon the Recepte of his Letter to cutt his bellie, which if he refuse to doe, not only he, but all the rest of their race shall feele the smart thereof.” Richard Cocks (English merchant) Note that “the Emperor” refers to the Tokugawa shogun here! Lee Butler, “The Sixteenth-Century Reunification” Various forces drove the country toward unification, and it is probably more correct to say that the unifiers jumped on board the incipient ship of state than to say that they personally built it and launched it. Among the factors that led to reunification, three – one material, one ideological, and one a matter of common practice of the era – stand out: population growth, the idea that Japan had previously been unified and that this was its normative condition, and the formation of communities and confederations. “The ideal of unity, of a well-organized central government that appointed and removed officials as required, endured.” (quoted from Karl Friday, ed. Japan Emerging) Lee Butler, “The Sixteenth-Century Reunification” The third factor that led toward reunification … was the Sengoku custom of forging communities and leagues. At their simplest, these took the form of self-governing villages in central Japan or the religious league of the Ikkō (single-minded) sect of Buddhism. On a broader scale they consisted of groups of villages banding together to provide mutual defense and mutual assistance, or associations of warriors doing likewise. Of course, one might argue that some of these, such as the Ikkō leagues, were ultimately divisive. And so they were, and yet taken as a whole, these groups reveal a clear push toward and desire for greater stability and unity, something that community members were willing to attain at the cost of a portion of their independence. Ikki Leagues in the Late Ashikaga / Warring States Period 一揆 Alliances or confederations formed horizontally by armed middling and small peasants, men of the provinces (kokujin 国人), rural samurai (jizamurai 地侍) and itinerant crafts- and salesmen. → Not under the rule of a lord. → Quest for a new social order through which rights to land and profession could be guaranteed. Ikkō ikki 一向一揆 (Single-minded leagues) which were based in a shared Pure Land salvationist belief and relied on temple networks for organization, were especially powerful. Oda Nobunaga 織田信長 (1534-1582) Son of deputy military governor in strategically located Owari Relies on new firearms in winning out against rivals 1568 March on Kyoto after called in by contender for shogunal succession and emperor 1571 Destruction of Enryaku-ji temple complex on Hiei-zan 1573 exiles recalcitrant shogun from capital 1575 defeats remaining main rival warlords at Nagashino 1580 destruction of Ishiyama Honganji in Osaka. Head temple of religiously inspired (True Pure Land) peasant warrior leagues Oda Nobunaga 織田信長 (1534-1582) Ruthless extirpation of opponents. Disregard of conventional taboos for sacred places and communities. Claim to act in the name of “the realm” Tenka fubu 天下布武 (Subdue the realm by military might) 1575-78 Accepts increasingly lofty court titles, which he then returns. (Not clear whether he planned to be reinvested with court titles after having established control by his own means.) 1582 Forced to commit suicide after surprise attack by trusted vassal Akechi Mitsuhide Tenka 天下 as used by Oda Nobunaga (Katsumata) As a political concept, the word tenka 天下 was already in use in the fourteenth century to designate the object of the political authority that had been vested in the Ashikaga shoguns. While acknowledging that authority to govern the tenka had been delegated to Yoshiaki as holder of the shogunal office, Nobunaga was also asserting that this authority was being delegated to himself, without whom the shogun was helpless. “Since the affairs of the realm (tenka) have in fact been put in Nobunaga’s hands, Nobunaga may take measures against anyone whatsoever according to his own discretion and without the need of the shogun’s agreement.” Tenka no tame, Nobunaga no tame 天下の為、信長の為 (Nobunaga is tenka) Nobunaga conceived of tenka 天下 both as a sphere of political control … and sought to instill in his followers the recognition that he was the tenka. Kokka 国家 “state” linked to Confucian rites and Buddhist ritual in early and medieval Japan new overtones in “early modern” Japan Society 社会 “society” central to political debate in “modern” Japan but also used to talk about “Tokugawa society,” “Yayoi society” and so on. Note that Fukuzawa’s Japanese text deriving “civilization” qua bunmei 文明 from kuni 国 based on the following English footnote to the American translation of François Guizot’s General History of Civilization in Europe (published in French in 1828): “To this improvement various social conditions combine; but as the political organization of society—the STATE—is that which first gives security and permanence to all the others, it holds the most important place. Hence it is from the political organization of society, from the establishment of the STATE (in Latin civitas), that the word civilization is taken. Civilization, therefore, in its most general idea, is an improved condition of man resulting from the establishment of social order in place of the individual independence and lawlessness of the savage or barbarous life.“ Note that Fukuzawa kuni 国 translates the English “state” (rather than “nation”) as the supposed English translation of civitas here. Kikutani Kazuhiro, The Birth of Shakai 社会 (Society): A History of Social Thought in Tocqueville, Durkheim, and Bergson (2011) Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. 1 “Among the new objects that attracted my attention during my stay in the United States, none struck my eye more vividly than the equality of conditions. I discovered without difficulty the enormous influence that this primary fact exerts on the course of society; it gives a certain direction to public spirit, a certain turn to the laws, new maxims to those who govern, and particular habits to the governed.” (p. 3) Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. 2 “Now it is easy to see that there is no society that can prosper without [common] beliefs, or rather there is none that could survive this way; for without common ideas there is no common action, and without common action men still exist, but a social body does not. Thus in order that there be society, and all the more, that this society prosper, it is necessary that all the minds of the citizens always be brought and held together by some principal ideas; and that cannot happen unless each of them sometimes comes to draw his opinions from one and the same source and unless each consents to receive a certain number of ready-made beliefs” (p. 407) Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. 2 “Christianity has … preserved a great hold (empire) over the American mind, and what I especially want to note is that it reigns not only as a philosophy that is adopted after examination, but as a religion that is believed without discussion.” (p. 404) “The Americans have a democratic social state that has naturally suggested to them certain laws and political mores.” (p. 399) “The Americans have a democratic social state and constitution, but they did not have a democratic revolution. They arrived on the soil they occupy nearly as we see them. That is very important.” (p. 404) The term kokka 国家 in the “Seventeen-Article Constitution” of 604 (jūshichijō kenpō 十七条憲法) 四曰、群卿百寮、以禮爲本。其治民之本、要在禮乎、上不禮、而下非齊。下無禮、以必有罪。是以、群臣禮有、位次不亂。百姓有禮、國家自治。 IV. The Ministers and functionaries should make decorous behavior their leading principle, for the leading principle of the government of the people consists in decorous behavior. If the superiors do not behave with decorum, the inferiors are disorderly: if inferiors are wanting in proper behaviour, there must necessarily be offences. Therefore it is that when lord and vassal behave with propriety, the distinctions of rank are not confused: when the people behave with propriety, the Government of the Commonwealth proceeds of itself. (English translation by W. G. Aston, 1896) … If the common people have rites the state will govern itself. (English translation by Kiri Paramore, 2017) Basic Categories of Confucianism The Five Relations (gorin 五倫) Father-son filial affection (filial piety) shin 親（ko 孝） Ruler-subject rightness/righteousness (loyalty) gi 義 (chu 忠) Husband-wife differentiation betsu 別 Elder-younger recognition of precedence jo 序 Friends-friend trust/faithfulness shin 信 The Five Constant Virtues (gojō 五常) Humanity/Benevolence jin 仁 Righteousness gi 義 Ritual Propriety rei 礼 Wisdom chi 智 Faithfulness shin 信 The “Eight Items” of the Great Learning (Text considered summary statement of Confucian teaching by Zhu Xi) “The Ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue through the kingdom, first ordered well their own States (治国). Wishing to order well their States they first regulated their Houses (済家). Wishing to regulate their Houses, they first cultivated their persons (修身). Wishing to cultivate their persons, the first rectified their hearts-and-minds (正心). Wishing to rectify their hearts-and-minds, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts (誠意). Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge （致知). Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things (格物).” →The Eight Items: 格物、致知、誠意、正心、修身、斉家、治国、平天下 (pacifying the Realm/All-under- Heaven) Introduction of Confucianism According to the Nihon shoki (720) “On the sixth day of the eighth month in the autumn of the fifteenth year a Prince from [the Korean state of] Paekche called Araki came before the court and presented two fine horses to the [Japanese] emperor… This Araki was very good at reading the [Confucian] classics… Hearing this, the emperor asked Araki, ‘Do you possess a fine Confucian professor [in Paekche]?” Araki replied: “There is one called Wani, he is excellent… In the spring of the sixteenth year Wani arrived. Prince Uji no Waki took him as his teacher. He learned various classics from Wani. There was none of them he could not master. Wani became the first keeper of the imperial books.” Allegedly this occurred in 284. More likely 402 CE or fictional account. Confucianism perceived as part of the status symbolism of East Asian interstate relations. “Formulation of Confucianism in Japan and formation of the Japanese state were concurrent and symbiotic processes.” (Kiri Paramore) Introduction of Buddhism Reportedly occurred in 552, when a Paekche diplomatic mission presented a statue of the Buddha and several sutras to the Yamato court. Soga 蘇我 clan advises Emperor Kinmei to worship the gifts. Opposing faction warns of wrath of indigenous gods threat to indigenous belief system, which upheld the political and social order by legitimizing the clan (uji 氏) chieftain’s role as representative of the clan’s guardian spirit (uji-gami 氏神) Conflict breaks out in the 580s. Soga prove victorious. Court officially recognizes Buddhism. Construction of large burial mounds now ceases, as Buddhist temples coopt funeral rites Hōryūji est. by Shōtoku Taishi Empress Suiko and Shōtoku Taishi 592 Head of Soga clan orchestrates assassination of the emperor and replaces him with his niece Suiko 推古. Shōtoku Taishi 聖徳太子, also of Soga descent, serves as regent and co-ruler 581-618 Sui Dynasty in China, Reunification of Chinese Empire utilizing Buddhist, Daoist, and Confucian ideology. Centralized military, effective legal code, new state bureaucracy, large-scale public work projects Reforms under Shōtoku Taishi in Japan as well: 603 Introduction of cap ranks 604 “Seventeen-Articles Constitution” (mixture of Confucian and Buddhist maxims) Seventeen-Articles Constitution (604) 十七条憲法 I. Harmony is to be valued, and contentiousness avoided. All men are inclined to partisanship and few are truly discerning. II. Sincerely reverence the Three Treasures. The Buddha, the Law (Dharma) and the religious orders are the final refuge of all beings. III. When you receive imperial commands, fail not scrupulously to obey them. The lord is Heaven, the vassal is Earth. Heaven overspreads, and Earth upbears. IV. The ministers and functionaries should make ritual decorum their leading principle… If the common people have rites the state will govern itself. XI. Give clear appreciation to merit and demerit, and deal out to each its sure reward and punishment XV. To turn away from what is private, and to set our faces to what is public – this is the path of a minister (背私向公、是臣之道矣) Taika Coup and Reforms 大化の改新 Succession struggle after the death of Shōtoku Taishi in 622 and Empress Suiko in 628 Assassination of Soga chief in 645. Taika 大化 (Great Reform) chosen as the first era name. (Leader of this coup, Nakatomi Kamatari, ancestor of the Fujiwara clan.) Centralization of taxes, population registers, court appointment of governors etc. Imperial control of resources by announcing end to clan possession of land and people (Clan aristocracy still remained, but the authority and income of clans and their chieftains now derived from their position as officials of the court and central government.) Nihon shoki: “Now our hearts are one. There shall be one sovereign and ministers shall not oppose his rule.” Advent of the “Heavenly Sovereign” (Tennō 天皇) By 650, alliance between Tang China (618-907) and Korean state of Silla. Japanese come to the aid of Paekche, but are defeated in 663. Emperor Tenji 天智 (668-671) expands authority of imperial line against background of fear of Tang-Silla invasion(e.g. creation of the Council of State). Aided by Paekche refugees, including members of the royal house. Renewed infighting in the imperial line leads to civil war in 672. Tenmu 天武 (Heavenly Warrior) establishes himself in power, succeeded by his wife Jitō 持統. Beginning of compilation of the two chronicles Kojiki 古事記 and Nihon shoki 日本書紀. Jitō first to claim Tenmu’s descent from the Sun Goddess. Nihon 日本 as self-appellation of “Japan.” Assumption of the title tennō 天皇. Emperors asserted to be “living gods” → But close association with Buddhism continues. Tenmu often recognized as first ruler to officially sponsor Buddhism as a protector of the country and the imperial family. The Design of the Ritsuryō State (律令制) Series of Law Codes culminating in Taihō (702) and Yōrō Codes (718) hierarchical, nation-wide social and administrative system in which all power flowed from the emperor. Functional ministries. Officials ranked according to position. Taxes levied according to complex system. Basic assumption that all land belonged to the emperor. Military conscription of all able-bodied adult males. Permanent capitals following Chinese model, ultimately in Heijō (Nara) and Heian (Kyoto). Increasing Privatization of Power Fujiwara family dominates politics and culture of the Heian Court Taxable land assigned to monasteries and aristocratic families tax-free in return for political support By 1200 half of imperial tax land converted into shōen 荘園 (tax-free/”private” landed estates) From 11th century onward, “retired emperors” participate as heads of the imperial clan in scramble for income from “private estates” as well Disintegration of military conscript system since ninth century Court increasingly dependent on hired military men (samurai 侍 or bushi 武士) By 1150s, commanders of samurai bands most powerful men in Japan. Shōen Landed Estates 荘園 Provincial landed properties, home to cultivators engaged in agricultural production and obligated to pay part of their produce to local managers and absentee proprietors. Exempt from “public taxes.” Often right to deny entry to public officials. Complex system of “rights to income” (shiki 職) Initially created as: Sources of operating expenses for religious institutions Incentive for land reclamation Later: commendation to power brokers in capital The Kenmon System of Codependent Rulership (Kuroda Toshio) “The elite formed three large power blocs (kenmon 権門) that performed administrative, military, and religious duties, respectively, in a codependent arrangement of shared rulership. The court nobility (kōke or kuge 公家), consisting of the imperial family and the capital aristocracy, held the administrative and ceremonial responsibilities of the state. The emperorship remained above the system as the untouchable symbol of the state, ensuring its survival through ages of both peace and turmoil. Accordingly, the emperor made all central appointments, including the shogun (from the Kamakura period onward) and monks to lead important ceremonies at the court, even so such rights were at time in name only… The main responsibility of the warrior aristocracy (buke 武家) was keeping the peace and physically protecting the state. From the late eleventh century, these duties were entrusted increasingly to prominent warrior leaders from the Minamoto 源, Taira 平, and other central warrior houses.” Buddhism and the State under the Kenmon System “The third member of the ruling triumvirate [i.e. the temple-shrine complexes], supplied the state and its members with spiritual protection through a panoply of religious services and rituals. These ceremonies were also important as status markers since they supported a vertical differentiation between rulers and ruled through participation in and sponsorship of magical and expensive rituals. In contrast to the other two blocs, however, the religious establishment had no clear apex, but consisted instead of a handful of elite temples supported and patronized by various factions in the capital.” The idea of Buddhism as “protecting the state” (chingo kokka 鎮護国家) also gave rise to the idea of promoting peace and defending the state in the sense of defending the people. Rise of new forms of popular Buddhism including popularization of Esoteric Buddhism (Tendai and Shingon, confined to elite during Heian). Kamakura Shogunate (1192-1333) Struggle over imperial succession in 1156 leads to fighting between warriors in capital. Taira no Kiyomori 平清盛 establishes himself in control. 1180-1185 Genpei 源平 War between Minamoto and Taira. Minamoto no Yoritomo 源頼朝 emerges victorious. 1192 appointed as shogun. Establishes military government (later called bakufu 幕府) in Kamakura. Right to appoint “provincial governors” (shugo 守護) and “stewards” (jitō 地頭) to private estates  Parallel structure of shogunal rule (“Dual Polity”) with imperial clan dominating civil affairs in Kyoto while shogunal government in Kamakura commands newly empowered warrior network. Institutions of Kamakura Governance Crisis of leadership after Yoritomo’s death in 1199. Power wielded by Hōjō Masako (Yoritomo’s widow) until her death in 1225 (“the nun shogun”) and subsequently Hōjō clan as regents. 1221 Attempt at uprising by ex-emperor Go-Toba against Hōjō ends in failure. → expanded powers to place warriors on landed estates and in selection of future emperors. Second generation of Hōjō leaders (Yasutoki and Shigetoki) famous for formulations of governing ethos. 1232 Goseibai shikimoku: Fifty-one article law code as a guide to adjudicating disputes involving warriors, emphasizing fairness and equity based on thorough understanding of context → (dōri 道理 “common sense” or “reasonableness” as norm) Challenges of Kamakura Governance Shogunate rewarded its retainers with rights to income from land. (No clearly defined warrior “class” yet. “Warriors” essentially land managers, tax collectors, bureaucrats, police etc.) Minamoto Yoritomo had gained adherents by promising “job security” But as enemies defeated, no further land and posts to distribute to vassals. Conflicts between landholders over income rights. Problem of inheritance. Land increasingly passed on to one heir (leaving siblings empty-handed.) Increasing independence of “stewards” (at times becoming land proprietors themselves.) Famines and warriors without inheritance causing rise in banditry and piracy. Failed Mongol Invasions (1274 and 1281) as beginning of the end of Kamakura rule. The Kenmu Restoration 建武中興 Hōjō benefited from defeat of Mongols in the short run. However, no lands to distribute for military service. At the same time, split in the imperial line: Descendants of two emperors alternate. 1318 Godaigo becomes emperor, seeks to reassert power of court. 1331 Exiled to Oki island by Hōjō 1333 Escapes. Ashikaga Takauji sent by Hōjō to quell uprising, but switches over to Godaigo. Collapse of Hōjō rule. Significance: End of dual government. Ashikaga Takauji seeks to control warriors from Kyoto. Also: Precedent for “restoration” of imperial rule. Samurai fighting and dying for Godaigo later become paragons of “imperial loyalty” in prewar and wartime school textbooks. Ashikaga Shogunate (1338-1573) 1336 Ashikaga Takauji turns on Godaigo. Godaigo escapes and establishes “Southern Court” in Yoshino. → Imperial schism until 1392: “Northern and Southern Court” 1338 Ashikaga Takauji establishes shogunate in Kyoto Ashikaga ultimately fail to gain firm grip on the land. Solid control only over the capital region. 1392 End of imperial schism. Height of Ashikaga power under third shogun Yoshimitsu. (“Palace of Flowers” in Muromachi. Hence “Muromachi period”) 1402 Beginning of tally trade with Ming China. Yongle Emperor addresses Yoshimitsu as “King of Japan.” Shugo as Precursors of Daimyō 守護から大名へ Shugo (provincial military governors) primary link between Ashikaga shoguns and provinces Ashikaga shoguns dependent on these military governors for crushing resistance of forces aligned with Southern Court until 1392 For this purpose, shugo received permission to exact half of the revenues collected from local estates (hanzei “half tax”) from 1352. → Military governors increasingly independent from center. Third Shogun Yoshimitsu hosts military governors in the capital, where they partake in culture of the capital. But increasing tensions: Autocratic Sixth Shogun Yoshinori killed by military governor in 1441 While Eighth Shogun Yoshimasa patronizes culture (“Silver Pavilion”), political order disintegrates. Aesthetics and Arts Spreading impact of Buddhism noticeable not least in arts and literature themes of evanescence and non-attachment Nō (Noh) drama as representative works of the period use of sparse prose to narrate tales of dead warriors, priests, and officials returning as ghosts But also comical intermezzos (Kyōgen) and gaudy architecture (“Golden Pavilion”). Ink paintings, tea ceremony, tatami rooms, gardening etc. often seen as instances of Zen aesthetics. However, this is a simplification owing much to Western ideas about “Zen” and “Japanese Culture.” Warlords patronize culture to bolster their claim to legitimacy and leadership. Much of what is considered distinctive about Japanese aesthetics today originates in this period. The Period of Warring States 戦国時代 (late 15th – late 16th century) By the middle of the 15th century, warrior leaders were far less preoccupied with securing the shogun’s approval than with finding reliable sources of local support. 1467-77 Ōnin Civil War Rival clans take their fight to the capital. Widespread destruction of Kyoto. Effective (although not nominal) end to Ashikaga shogunal rule Political order disintegrates. Country divided up between “warlords.” 1543 Portuguese shipwrecked off Tanegashima Introduction of muskets. From 1549, arrival of Jesuit missionaries. Portuguese traders. Sengoku (Warring States) Daimyō 戦国大名 Term used by historians by contrast to the earlier “shugo [military provincial governor] daimyo.” Far more powerful within their realms than earlier local power. Need for survival in all-out warfare. New military tactics, greater armies, more efficient administration of economic resources, military consolidation of holdings, strategic marriages, land surveys, new forms of taxation, absolute loyalty by vassals, detailed stipulation of obligations, legal codes, exchange of hostages, castle towns. Early modern uses of the term kokka 国家 (Katsumata) New overtones by the end of the Warring States Period “For instances where daimyo ordered temples and shrines within their domain to offer prayers and ceremonies for the safety of kokka 国家, the word did not imply all of Japan but only the consolidated sphere of a daimyo’s political control.” “The basis or rule over the country is not attained by being appointed shugo by the shogun. Control [of the kokka] is achieved when the daimyo, by his own efforts, brings peace to the kokka by establishing the laws of the kuni 国 (land).” Kuni 国 and ie 家 frequently used separately: Okuni, oie no tame 御国御家の為 The word kokka 国家 expressed the idea of the union of the daimyo house (ie 家) and the kuni 国 that served as the sphere of political control.  It embraced both the private aspect of control over the ie 家 and the public aspect of rule over the kuni 国 as composite object of political control. Three characteristics of warring-states period kokka 国家 1. Autonomy or integrity of the sphere of political control. Numerous prohibitions against the formation of ties with other domains. Imposition of unified standards, including coin selection edicts. 2. Inhabitants of the domain, not merely the daimyo’s direct retainers, were seen by the daimyo as constituent members of the kokka 国家 made up of a sphere of territorial authority and of the people who resided within that sphere (kokumin 国民) 3. Use by daimyo of the concept of kokka 国家 as an ideology of political control for the purpose of legitimizing their authority over the territory (ryōgoku 領国): purpose of maintaining the peace, security, and social order of this kokka 国家. Warring-states daimyo who had carved out their domains and enforced their authority over the inhabitants of these domains by force of arms and with little heed to legitimacy, were able to claim legitimacy for their rule as a “public” or “official” authority (kōgi 公儀 or kubō 公方). The “Kyoto Orientation” of the Sengoku daimyo Even as many Sengoku daimyo sought to portray themselves as absolute rulers of their realms, they were also eager to maximize their ties to the faltering Ashikaga shogunate and imperial court. Peasants who challenged samurai government appealed to the more distant governance of earlier times in which the military had not come to stand between them and the court, and frequently claimed for themselves the standing of imperial servants. Consequently the warriors had to insist that their control over the countryside derived from the imperial court as well as from the authority of the shogun. The Three Unifiers Oda Nobunaga Toyotomi Hideyoshi Tokugawa Ieyasu Account of Japan by a Foreign Observer in the 1570s “The second defect of this nation is the meagre loyalty which the people show towards their rulers. They rebel against them whenever they have a chance, either usurping them or joining in with their enemies. Then they about-turn and declare themselves friends again, only to rebel once more when the opportunity presents itself; yet this sort of conduct does not discredit them at all…” Alessandro Valignano (Jesuit Missionary) → gekokujō 下剋上 “The low overthrow their superiors” Account of Japan by a Foreign Observer in 1620 “This government of Japan may well be accompted the greatest and powrefullest Terrany, that ever was heard of in the world, for all the rest are as Slaves to the Emperor (or greate commander as they call him), whoe upon the leaste suspition (or Jelosie) or being angry with any man (be he never soe greate a man) will cause hym upon the Recepte of his Letter to cutt his bellie, which if he refuse to doe, not only he, but all the rest of their race shall feele the smart thereof.” Richard Cocks (English merchant) Note that “the Emperor” refers to the Tokugawa shogun here! Lee Butler, “The Sixteenth-Century Reunification” Various forces drove the country toward unification, and it is probably more correct to say that the unifiers jumped on board the incipient ship of state than to say that they personally built it and launched it. Among the factors that led to reunification, three – one material, one ideological, and one a matter of common practice of the era – stand out: population growth, the idea that Japan had previously been unified and that this was its normative condition, and the formation of communities and confederations. “The ideal of unity, of a well-organized central government that appointed and removed officials as required, endured.” (quoted from Karl Friday, ed. Japan Emerging) Lee Butler, “The Sixteenth-Century Reunification” The third factor that led toward reunification … was the Sengoku custom of forging communities and leagues. At their simplest, these took the form of self-governing villages in central Japan or the religious league of the Ikkō (single-minded) sect of Buddhism. On a broader scale they consisted of groups of villages banding together to provide mutual defense and mutual assistance, or associations of warriors doing likewise. Of course, one might argue that some of these, such as the Ikkō leagues, were ultimately divisive. And so they were, and yet taken as a whole, these groups reveal a clear push toward and desire for greater stability and unity, something that community members were willing to attain at the cost of a portion of their independence. Ikki Leagues in the Late Ashikaga / Warring States Period 一揆 Alliances or confederations formed horizontally by armed middling and small peasants, men of the provinces (kokujin 国人), rural samurai (jizamurai 地侍) and itinerant crafts- and salesmen. → Not under the rule of a lord. → Quest for a new social order through which rights to land and profession could be guaranteed. Ikkō ikki 一向一揆 (Single-minded leagues) which were based in a shared Pure Land salvationist belief and relied on temple networks for organization, were especially powerful. Oda Nobunaga 織田信長 (1534-1582) Son of deputy military governor in strategically located Owari Relies on new firearms in winning out against rivals 1568 March on Kyoto after called in by contender for shogunal succession and emperor 1571 Destruction of Enryaku-ji temple complex on Hiei-zan 1573 exiles recalcitrant shogun from capital 1575 defeats remaining main rival warlords at Nagashino 1580 destruction of Ishiyama Honganji in Osaka. Head temple of religiously inspired (True Pure Land) peasant warrior leagues Oda Nobunaga 織田信長 (1534-1582) Ruthless extirpation of opponents. Disregard of conventional taboos for sacred places and communities. Claim to act in the name of “the realm” Tenka fubu 天下布武 (Subdue the realm by military might) 1575-78 Accepts increasingly lofty court titles, which he then returns. (Not clear whether he planned to be reinvested with court titles after having established control by his own means.) 1582 Forced to commit suicide after surprise attack by trusted vassal Akechi Mitsuhide Tenka 天下 as used by Oda Nobunaga (Katsumata) As a political concept, the word tenka 天下 was already in use in the fourteenth century to designate the object of the political authority that had been vested in the Ashikaga shoguns. While acknowledging that authority to govern the tenka had been delegated to Yoshiaki as holder of the shogunal office, Nobunaga was also asserting that this authority was being delegated to himself, without whom the shogun was helpless. “Since the affairs of the realm (tenka) have in fact been put in Nobunaga’s hands, Nobunaga may take measures against anyone whatsoever according to his own discretion and without the need of the shogun’s agreement.” Tenka no tame, Nobunaga no tame 天下の為、信長の為 (Nobunaga is tenka) Nobunaga conceived of tenka 天下 both as a sphere of political control … and sought to instill in his followers the recognition that he was the tenka. Toyotomi Hideyoshi 豊臣秀吉 (1537-1598) Son of foot soldier Meteoric rise in Nobunaga’s army 1582 Revenges Nobunaga’s death by defeating Akechi Mitsuhide Wins pledge of allegiance from Tokugawa Ieyasu 1585 Appointed Kanpaku 関白 (Imperial Regent) but transfers imperial honors to nephew, Hidetsugu 秀次. Henceforth known as Taikō 太閤 (Retired Imperial Regent) Completes military unification of Japan: 1587 Subdues warlords of Kyushu (claiming imperial mandate) 1590 Subdues Hōjō 北条 of Kantō (Eastern Japan) Toyotomi Hideyoshi 豊臣秀吉 (1537-1598) Discontinuation of Nobunaga’s ‘reign of terror’ as a means of control. Delegation of rule over subject areas to leading vassals, including defeated rivals. However, increasingly megalomaniac and paranoid. Forced suicide of tea master Sen no Rikyū in 1591 Gruesome public execution of nephew and heir with his entire household in 1595 following the birth of own son Hideyori. Invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597 Dies of natural causes while son and heir only five years old Toyotomi Hideyoshi 豊臣秀吉 (1537-1598) Structure of Administrative Rule “culminating stage in the transformation of Japanese Institutions from the medieval to the early modern” Land surveys of tax potential (Taikō kenchi 太閤検地)) Plots rated for productivity and size. Individual responsible for tax payment named. Tax amount stated in units of rice (kokudaka 石高) rather than cash (kandaka 貫高). Samurai moved to castle towns. Income (stipends) paid by the lord and calculated in rice equivalents (koku 石) Separation of warriors and farmers. “Swordhunt” of the countryside Adoption of kokudaka as opposed to kandaka system Appears at first sight as backward step from monetarization. However this was a more ambitious effort to quantify total production. Productivity, in an agrarian society is a much more stable measure than fluctuating market prices. Measure of status. Also, rice highly marketable in cities like Osaka and Kyoto. (Hideyoshi, rather than the farmers, would thus cash in on marketing rice.) Complete abolition of “private estates” under Hideyoshi. Oaths of Loyalty Linked to Prestige of Imperial Court Oath exacted from vassals before the Emperor in Hideyoshi’s newly built Jurakudai castle in 1588: “We shed tears of gratitude that His Majesty has honored us with his presence. If any evil person should interfere with the estates and lands of the Imperial House or with the fiefs of the Court Nobles, we will take firm action. Without equivocation we commit not only ourselves but our children and grandchildren as well. We will obey the command of the Regent [Hideyoshi] down to the smallest details. If any of the above provisions should be violated even in the slightest, then may punishments of … [names of Shinto and Buddhist deities].. be visited on us.” Like Nobunaga, Hideyoshi stressed the idea of tenka, and even went so far as referring to himself as tenka. However, Hideyoshi based his claim to rule the country on his appointment to the office of kanpaku 関白 by the emperor. Oath by Senior Daimyo before Hideyoshi’s Death in 1598: “ITEM: I will serve Hideyori. My services to him, just like my service to the Taikō (i.e. Hideyoshi) shall be without negligence. ADDENDUM: I will know no duplicity or other thoughts at all. ITEM: As for the laws and Hideyoshi’s orders as they have been declared up to the present time. I will not violate them in the slightest. ITEM: In as much as I understand it to be for the sake of kōgi 公儀, I will discard personal enmities toward my peers and will not act in my own interests.” Mary Elizabeth Berry on the term Kōgi 公儀 Kōgi 公儀 associates “public interest,” “common good,” “corporate interest” Emerges in the Warring States period to symbolize “wide-ranging but co- ordinated efforts to eliminate lawless violence predicated upon private interest, personal justice, the habitual resort to arms, and the failure of superior mechanisms of law enforcement,” characteristic of the unification regimes. The term kōgi 公儀 “condemned the entire constellation of ideas and actions that splintered authority and gave license to violence.” “Kōgi 公儀 was the antithesis to these ideas and actions.” Mary Elizabeth Berry on Kōgi 公儀 (continued) However: “the term is misconstrued insofar we associate it with a public body, a collective citizenry, invited into a dynamic relationship with the ruler” It signifies “integration of the daimyo elite, the formation of a corporate commitment to the political settlement” “The regalia of power – insignia, seals, martial trappings – was the regalia of a governing household rather than a nation.” “Commoners participated merely as kneeling witnesses of whatever processions ensued.” Tokugawa Ieyasu 徳川家康 (1543-1616) 1580s Controls five provinces after Nobunaga’s death. Allies himself with Toyotomi Hideyoshi. 1590 Moved to the Eastern Provinces (Kantō) after defeat of the Hōjō at Odawara. 1590s Builds fortress in new location: Edo (today’s Tokyo). Consolidates administrative control over Kanto. 1598 Appointed one of the five guardians for five-year old Hideyori at the death of Hideyoshi 1600 Battle of Sekigahara. Ieyasu comes to dominate all of Japan. Eight-year old Toyotomi Hideyori removed to Osaka Castle. 1603 Awarded title of shogun (1605 retires but stays in control. Consolidation of Tokugawa Power 1615 Defeat of forces rallied around Toyotomi Hideyori at Osaka Castle (Battle of Osaka). Destruction of the Toyotomi house. → Important turning point: As long as Toyotomi Hideyori remained in Osaka, the legitimacy of Tokugawa rule remained vulnerable to challenge. Ieyasu was among those who had sworn “I will serve Hideyori … for the sake of kōgi 公儀.” “Code for the Imperial Court and Court Nobility” and “Code for the Warrior Households” setting down rules for court and daimyo 1616 Death of Ieyasu Kōgi 公儀 as (Self-)Appellation of the Shogunate During the Tokugawa period the shogunal government in Edo was generally referred to as gokōgi 御公儀, a term that, since it appears in the official documents in the era, can be taken to be the one that the shogunate adopted to refer to itself. → The terms bakufu 幕府 (literally “tent government” or “military headquarters”) and han 蕃 (commonly used in textbooks to refer to the shogunal government and domains respectively) were almost never used until the end of the Tokugawa period. These were terms applied by the imperial loyalists who sought to topple the Tokugawa government with the aim of delegitimizing it as the supreme authority. → The term kōgi 公儀 originally derived from references to ceremonial functions in the court and Kamakura shogunate. compare gishiki 儀式 (“ceremony”) or reigi 礼儀 (“etiquette”) Mary Elizabeth Berry on the term Kōgi 公儀 Kōgi 公儀 associates “public interest,” “common good,” “corporate interest” Emerges in the Warring States period to symbolize “wide-ranging but co- ordinated efforts to eliminate lawless violence predicated upon private interest, personal justice, the habitual resort to arms, and the failure of superior mechanisms of law enforcement,” characteristic of the unification regimes. The term kōgi 公儀 “condemned the entire constellation of ideas and actions that splintered authority and gave license to violence.” “Kōgi 公儀 was the antithesis to these ideas and actions.” Mary Elizabeth Berry on Kōgi 公儀 (continued) However: “the term is misconstrued insofar we associate it with a public body, a collective citizenry, invited into a dynamic relationship with the ruler” It signifies “integration of the daimyo elite, the formation of a corporate commitment to the political settlement” “The regalia of power – insignia, seals, martial trappings – was the regalia of a governing household rather than a nation.” “Commoners participated merely as kneeling witnesses of whatever processions ensued.” Tokugawa Ieyasu 徳川家康 (1543-1616) 1580s Controls five provinces after Nobunaga’s death. Allies himself with Toyotomi Hideyoshi. 1590 Moved to the Eastern Provinces (Kantō) after defeat of the Hōjō at Odawara. 1590s Builds fortress in new location: Edo (today’s Tokyo). Consolidates administrative control over Kanto. 1598 Appointed one of the five guardians for five-year old Hideyori at the death of Hideyoshi 1600 Battle of Sekigahara. Ieyasu comes to dominate all of Japan. Eight-year old Toyotomi Hideyori removed to Osaka Castle. 1603 Awarded title of shogun (1605 retires but stays in control. Consolidation of Tokugawa Power 1615 Defeat of forces rallied around Toyotomi Hideyori at Osaka Castle (Battle of Osaka). Destruction of the Toyotomi house. → Important turning point: As long as Toyotomi Hideyori remained in Osaka, the legitimacy of Tokugawa rule remained vulnerable to challenge. Ieyasu was among those who had sworn “I will serve Hideyori … for the sake of kōgi 公儀.” “Code for the Imperial Court and Court Nobility” and “Code for the Warrior Households” setting down rules for court and daimyo 1616 Death of Ieyasu Kōgi 公儀 as (Self-)Appellation of the Shogunate During the Tokugawa period the shogunal government in Edo was generally referred to as gokōgi 御公儀, a term that, since it appears in the official documents in the era, can be taken to be the one that the shogunate adopted to refer to itself. → The terms bakufu 幕府 (literally “tent government” or “military headquarters”) and han 蕃 (commonly used in textbooks to refer to the shogunal government and domains respectively) were almost never used until the end of the Tokugawa period. These were terms applied by the imperial loyalists who sought to topple the Tokugawa government with the aim of delegitimizing it as the supreme authority. → The term kōgi 公儀 originally derived from references to ceremonial functions in the court and Kamakura shogunate. compare gishiki 儀式 (“ceremony”) or reigi 礼儀 (“etiquette”) Code for the Imperial Court and Court Nobility, 1615 (Kinchū narabi ni kuge shohatto 禁中並公家諸法度) 1. Of all of the emperor’s various accomplishments, learning is the most important. If an emperor does not study, he will not clearly know the ancient way; [never yet has such an emperor] been able to establish great peace through his rule. 7. Appointments of warriors in functions and ranks of the imperial bureaucracy must be considered separate from those of the court aristocrats who are actually fulfilling such positions. 10. Each of the various h

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