Investment Analysis and Portfolio Management PDF

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This document is an introduction to investment analysis and portfolio management. It covers various topics like investment objectives, financial markets, types of investors, and fixed income securities. The document also provides insights into the time value of money and various interest rates.

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Test Details Sr. Name of Module Fees Test No. of Maximum Pass Certificate No. (Rs.) Duration Questions Marks Marks Validity...

Test Details Sr. Name of Module Fees Test No. of Maximum Pass Certificate No. (Rs.) Duration Questions Marks Marks Validity (in (%) (in years) minutes) 1 Financial Markets:A Beginners' Module 1500 120 60 100 50 5 2 Mutual Funds : A Beginners' Module 1500 120 60 100 50 5 3 Currency Derivatives: A Beginner's 750 60 50 100 50 5 Module ### 4 Equity Derivatives: A Beginner's 750 60 50 100 50 5 Module ### 5 Interest Rate Derivatives: A Beginner's 1500 120 60 100 50 5 Module 6 Securities Market (Basic) Module 1500 105 60 100 60 5 7 Capital Market (Dealers) Module * 1500 105 60 100 50 5 8 Derivatives Market (Dealers) Module ** 1500 120 60 100 60 3 9 FIMMDA-NSE Debt Market (Basic) Module 1500 120 60 100 60 5 10 Investment Analysis and Portfolio 1500 120 60 100 60 5 Management Module 11 NISM-Series-I: Currency Derivatives 1000 120 60 100 60 3 Certification Examination 12 NISM-Series-II-A: Registrars to an Issue 1000 120 100 100 50 3 and Share Transfer Agents - Corporate Certification Examination 13 NISM-Series-II-B: Registrars to an Issue 1000 120 100 100 50 3 and Share Transfer Agents - Mutual Fund Certification Examination 14 NSDL-Depository Operations Module 1500 75 60 100 60 # 5 15 Commodities Market Module 1800 120 60 100 50 3 16 AMFI-Mutual Fund (Basic) Module 1000 90 62 100 50 No limit 17 AMFI-Mutual Fund (Advisors) Module ## 1000 120 72 100 50 5 18 Surveillance in Stock Exchanges Module 1500 120 50 100 60 5 19 Corporate Governance Module 1500 90 100 100 60 5 20 Compliance Officers (Brokers) Module 1500 120 60 100 60 5 21 Compliance Officers (Corporates) Module 1500 120 60 100 60 5 22 Information Security Auditors Module 2250 120 90 100 60 2 (Part-1) Information Security Auditors Module 2250 120 90 100 60 (Part-2) 23 FPSB India Exam 1 to 4*** 2000 120 75 140 60 NA per exam 24 Options Trading Strategies Module 1500 120 60 100 60 5 * Candidates have the option to take the CMDM test in English, Gujarati or Hindi language. The workbook for the module is presently available in ENGLISH. ** Candidates have the option to take the DMDM test in English, Gujarati or Hindi language. The workbook for the module is also available in ENGLISH, GUJARATI and HINDI languages. # Candidates securing 80% or more marks in NSDL-Depository Operations Module ONLY will be certified as 'Trainers'. ## Candidates have the option to take the AMFI (Adv) test in English, Gujarati or Hindi languages. The workbook for the module, which is available for a fee at AMFI, remains in ENGLISH. ### Revision in test fees and test parameters with effect from April 01, 2010. Please refer to circular NSE/NCFM/ 13815 dated 01-Jan-2010 for details. *** Modules of Financial Planning Standards Board India (Certified Financial Planner Certification) i.e. (i) Risk Analysis & Insurance Planning (ii) Retirement Planning & Employee Benefits (iii) Investment Planning and (iv) Tax Planning & Estate Planning. The curriculum for each of the module (except FPSB India Exam 1 to 4) is available on our website: www.nseindia.com > NCFM > Curriculum & Study Material. PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: OBJECTIVES OF INVESTMENT DECISIONS......................................... 1 1.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 1 1.2 Types of investors....................................................................................... 1 1.2.1 Individuals............................................................................................. 1 1.2.2 Institutions............................................................................................ 2 1.2.2.1 Mutual funds................................................................................. 2 1.2.2.2 Pension funds................................................................................ 2 1.2.2.3 Endowment funds.......................................................................... 3 1.2.2.4 Insurance companies (Life and Non-life)............................................. 3 1.2.2.5 Banks............................................................................................. 3 1.3 Constraints................................................................................................. 4 1.3.1 Liquidity................................................................................................ 4 1.3.2 Investment horizons............................................................................... 4 1.3.3 Taxation................................................................................................ 5 1.4 Goals of Investors....................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER 2: FINANCIAL MARKETS........................................................................ 6 2.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 6 2.2 Primary and Secondary Markets.................................................................... 6 2.3 Trading in Secondary Markets....................................................................... 7 2.3.1 Types of Orders...................................................................................... 7 2.3.2 Matching of Orders................................................................................. 8 2.4 The Money Market....................................................................................... 9 2.4.1 T-Bills................................................................................................... 9 2.4.2 Commercial Paper.................................................................................. 9 2.4.3 Certificates of Deposit........................................................................... 10 2.5 Repos and Reverses................................................................................... 10 2.6 The Bond Market....................................................................................... 11 2.6.1 Treasury Notes (T-Notes) and T-Bonds.................................................... 11 2.6.2 State and Municipal Government bonds................................................... 11 2.6.3 Corporate Bonds.................................................................................. 11 2.6.4 International Bonds.............................................................................. 12 1 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com 2.6.5 Other types of bonds............................................................................ 12 2.7 Common Stocks........................................................................................ 13 2.7.1 Types of shares.................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER 3 FIXED INCOME SECURITIES............................................................. 15 3.1 Introduction: The Time Value of Money........................................................ 15 3.2 Simple and Compound Interest Rates.......................................................... 15 3.2.1 Simple Interest Rate............................................................................. 15 3.2.2 Compound Interest Rate....................................................................... 16 3.3 Real and Nominal Interest Rates................................................................. 18 3.4 Bond Pricing Fundamentals......................................................................... 19 3.4.1 Clean and dirty prices and accrued interest.............................................. 20 3.5 Bond Yields.............................................................................................. 20 3.5.1 Coupon yield........................................................................................ 20 3.5.2 Current Yield........................................................................................ 20 3.5.3 Yield to maturity................................................................................... 21 3.5.4 Yield to call.......................................................................................... 23 3.6 Interest Rates........................................................................................... 24 3.6.1 Short Rate........................................................................................... 24 3.6.2 Spot Rate............................................................................................ 24 3.6.3 Forward Rate....................................................................................... 25 3.6.4 The term structure of interest rates........................................................ 26 3.7 Macaulay Duration and Modified Duration..................................................... 28 CHAPTER 4 CAPITAL MARKET EFFICIENCY.......................................................... 32 4.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 32 4.2 Market Efficiency....................................................................................... 32 4.2.1 Weak-form Market Efficiency.................................................................. 32 4.2.2 Semi-strong Market Efficiency................................................................ 32 4.2.3 Strong Market Efficiency........................................................................ 33 4.3 Departures from the EMH........................................................................... 33 CHAPTER 5: FINANCIAL ANALYSIS AND VALUATION.......................................... 35 5.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 35 5.2 The Analysis of Financial Statement............................................................. 35 2 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com 5.2.1 Income Statement (Profit & Loss)........................................................... 36 5.2.2 The Balance Sheet................................................................................ 36 5.2.3 Cash Flow Statement............................................................................ 37 5.3 Financial Ratios (Return, Operation and, Profitability Ratios).......................... 38 5.3.1 Measures of Profitability: RoA, RoE......................................................... 39 5.3.2 Measures of Liquidity............................................................................ 39 5.3.3 Capital Structure and Solvency Ratios..................................................... 39 5.3.4 Operating Performance......................................................................... 39 5.3.5 Asset Utilization................................................................................... 39 5.4 The valuation of common stocks................................................................. 40 5.4.1 Absolute (Intrinsic) Valuation................................................................. 40 5.4.2 Relative Valuation................................................................................. 44 5.5 Technical Analysis..................................................................................... 49 5.5.1 Challenges to Technical Analysis............................................................. 50 CHAPTER 6: MODERN PORTFOLIO THEORY......................................................... 51 6.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 51 6.2 Diversification and Portfolio Risks................................................................ 51 6.2.1 Portfolio variance - General case............................................................ 56 6.3 Equilibrium Module: The Capital Asset Pricing Module.................................... 57 6.3.1 Mean-Variance Investors and Market Behaviour....................................... 58 6.3.2 Estimation of Beta................................................................................ 63 6.4 Multifactor Modules................................................................................... 64 CHAPTER 7: VALUATION OF DERIVATIVES......................................................... 66 7.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 66 7.2 Forwards and Futures................................................................................ 66 7.3 Call and Put Options.................................................................................. 68 7.4 Forward and Future Pricing......................................................................... 68 7.4.1 Cost-of carry and convenience yield........................................................ 69 7.4.2 Backwardation and Contango................................................................. 70 7.5 Option Pricing........................................................................................... 70 7.5.1 Payoffs from option contracts................................................................. 70 7.5.2 Put-call parity relationship..................................................................... 72 7.6 Black-Scholes formula...................................................................................... 73 3 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com CHAPTER 8: INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT............................................................ 75 8.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 75 8.2 Investment Companies.............................................................................. 75 8.2.1 Benefits of investments in managed funds............................................... 76 8.3 Active vs. Passive Portfolio Management...................................................... 76 8.4 Costs of Management: Entry/Exit Loads and Fees.......................................... 78 8.5 Net Asset Value......................................................................................... 78 8.6 Classification of funds................................................................................ 79 8.6.1 Open ended and closed-ended funds....................................................... 79 8.6.2 Equity funds........................................................................................ 79 8.6.3 Bond funds.......................................................................................... 80 8.6.4 Index funds......................................................................................... 80 8.6.5 Money market funds............................................................................. 80 8.6.6 Fund of funds....................................................................................... 80 8.7 Other Investment Companies..................................................................... 80 8.7.1 Unit Investment Trusts (UTI)................................................................. 80 8.7.2 REITS (Real Estate Investment Trusts).................................................... 81 8.7.3 Hedge Funds........................................................................................ 81 8.8 Performance assessment of managed funds................................................. 81 8.8.1 Sharpe Ratio........................................................................................ 82 8.8.2 Treynor Ratio....................................................................................... 82 8.8.3 Jensen measure or (Portfolio Alpha)........................................................ 82 MODEL TEST................................................................................................. 82 4 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com Distribution of weights in the Investment Analysis and Portfolio Management Module Curriculum Chapter Title Weighs (%) No 1 Objectives of Investment Decisions 9 2 Financial Markets 13 3 Fixed Income Securities 12 4 Capital Market Efficiency 8 5 Financial Analysis and Valuation 23 6 Modern Portfolio Theory 10 7 Valuation of Derivatives 12 8 Investment Management 13 Note: Candidates are advised to refer to NSE's website: www.nseindia.com, click on 'NCFM' link and then go to 'Announcements' link, regarding revisions/updations in NCFM modules or launch of new modules, if any. Copyright © 2010 by National Stock Exchange of India Ltd. (NSE) Exchange Plaza, Bandra Kurla Complex, Bandra (East), Mumbai 400 051 INDIA All content included in this book, such as text, graphics, logos, images, data compilation etc. are the property of NSE. This book or any part thereof should not be copied, reproduced, duplicated, sold, resold or exploited for any commercial purposes. Furthermore, the book in its entirety or any part cannot be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise. 5 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com CHAPTER 1 : Objectives of Investment Decisions 1.1 Introduction In an economy, people indulge in economic activity to support their consumption requirements. Savings arise from deferred consumption, to be invested, in anticipation of future returns. Investments could be made into financial assets, like stocks, bonds, and similar instruments or into real assets, like houses, land, or commodities. Our aim in this book is to provide a brief overview of three aspects of investment: the various options available to an investor in financial instruments, the tools used in modern finance to optimally manage the financial portfolio and lastly the professional asset management industry as it exists today. Returns more often than not differ across their risk profiles, generally rising with the expected risk, i.e., higher the returns, higher the risk. The underlying objective of portfolio management is therefore to create a balance between the trade-off of returns and risk across multiple asset classes. Portfolio management is the art of managing the expected return requirement for the corresponding risk tolerance. Simply put, a good portfolio manager’s objective is to maximize the return subject to the risk-tolerance level or to achieve a pre-specified level of return with minimum risk. In our first chapter, we start with the various types of investors in the markets today, their return requirements and the various constraints that an investor faces. 1.2 Types of investors There is wide diversity among investors, depending on their investment styles, mandates, horizons, and assets under management. Primarily, investors are either individuals, in that they invest for themselves or institutions, where they invest on behalf of others. Risk appetites and return requirements greatly vary across investor classes and are key determinants of the investing styles and strategies followed as also the constraints faced. A quick look at the broad groups of investors in the market illustrates the point. 1.2.1 Individuals While in terms of numbers, individuals comprise the single largest group in most markets, the size of the portfolio of each investor is usually quite small. Individuals differ across their risk appetite and return requirements. Those averse to risk in their portfolios would be inclined towards safe investments like Government securities and bank deposits, while others may be risk takers who would like to invest and / or speculate in the equity markets. Requirements of individuals also evolve according to their life-cycle positioning. For example, in India, an individual 6 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com in the 25-35 years age group may plan for purchase of a house and vehicle, an individual belonging to the age group of 35-45 years may plan for children’s education and children’s marriage, an individual in his or her fifties would be planning for post-retirement life. The investment portfolio then changes depending on the capital needed for these requirements. 1.2.2 Institutions Institutional investors comprise the largest active group in the financial markets. As mentioned earlier, institutions are representative organizations, i.e., they invest capital on behalf of others, like individuals or other institutions. Assets under management are generally large and managed professionally by fund managers. Examples of such organizations are mutual funds, pension funds, insurance companies, hedge funds, endowment funds, banks, private equity and venture capital firms and other financial institutions. We briefly describe some of them here. Box No. 1.1: The Indian financial markets are also witnessing active participation by institutions with foreign institutional investors, domestic mutual funds, and domestic insurance companies comprising the three major groups, owning more than a third of the shareholding in listed companies, with the Government and promoters another 50%. Over the years the share of institutions has risen in share ownership of companies. 1.2.2.1 Mutual funds Individuals are usually constrained either by resources or by limits to their knowledge of the investment outlook of various financial assets (or both) and the difficulty of keeping abreast of changes taking place in a rapidly changing economic environment. Given the small portfolio size to manage, it may not be optimal for an individual to spend his or her time analyzing various possible investment strategies and devise investment plans and strategies accordingly. Instead, they could rely on professionals who possess the necessary expertise to manage thier funds within a broad, pre-specified plan. Mutual funds pool investors’ money and invest according to pre-specified, broad parameters. These funds are managed and operated by professionals whose remunerations are linked to the performance of the funds. The profit or capital gain from the funds, after paying the management fees and commission is distributed among the individual investors in proportion to their holdings in the fund. Mutual funds vary greatly, depending on their investment objectives, the set of asset classes they invest in, and the overall strategy they adopt towards investments. 1.2.2.2 Pension funds Pension funds are created (either by employers or employee unions) to manage the retirement funds of the employees of companies or the Government. Funds are contributed by the employers and employees during the working life of the employees and the objective is to provide benefits 7 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com to the employees post their retirement. The management of pension funds may be in-house or through some financial intermediary. Pension funds of large organizations are usually very large and form a substantial investor group for various financial instruments. 1.2.2.3 Endowment funds Endowment funds are generally non-profit organizations that manage funds to generate a steady return to help them fulfill their investment objectives. Endowment funds are usually initiated by a non-refundable capital contribution. The contributor generally specifies the purpose (specific or general) and appoints trustees to manage the funds. Such funds are usually managed by charitable organizations, educational organization, non-Government organizations, etc. The investment policy of endowment funds needs to be approved by the trustees of the funds. 1.2.2.4 Insurance companies (Life and Non-life) Insurance companies, both life and non-life, hold large portfolios from premiums contributed by policyholders to policies that these companies underwrite. There are many different kinds of insurance polices and the premiums differ accordingly. For example, unlike term insurance, assurance or endowment policies ensure a return of capital to the policyholder on maturity, along with the death benefits. The premium for such poliices may be higher than term policies. The investment strategy of insurance companies depends on actuarial estimates of timing and amount of future claims. Insurance companies are generally conservative in their attitude towards risks and their asset investments are geared towards meeting current cash flow needs as well as meeting perceived future liabilities. 1.2.2.5 Banks Assets of banks consist mainly of loans to businesses and consumers and their liabilities comprise of various forms of deposits from consumers. Their main source of income is from what is called as the interest rate spread, which is the difference between the lending rate (rate at which banks earn) and the deposit rate (rate at which banks pay). Banks generally do not lend 100% of their deposits. They are statutorily required to maintain a certain portion of the deposits as cash and another portion in the form of liquid and safe assets (generally Government securities), which yield a lower rate of return. These requirements, known as the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR ratio) and Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR ratio) in India, are stipulated by the Reserve Bank of India and banks need to adhere to them. In addition to the broad categories mentioned above, investors in the markets are also classified based on the objectives with which they trade. Under this classification, there are hedgers, speculators and arbitrageurs. Hedgers invest to provide a cover for risks on a portfolio they already hold, speculators take additional risks to earn supernormal returns and arbitrageurs take simultaneous positions (say in two equivalent assets or same asset in two different 8 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com markets etc.) to earn riskless profits arising out of the price differential if they exist. Another category of investors include day-traders who trade in order to profit from intra-day price changes. They generally take a position at the beginning of the trading session and square off their position later during the day, ensuring that they do not carry any open position to the next trading day. Traders in the markets not only invest directly in securities in the so- called cash markets, they also invest in derivatives, instruments that derive their value from the underlying securities. 1.3 Constraints Portfolio management is usually a constrained optimization exercise: Every investor has some constraint (limits) within which she wants the portfolio to lie, typical examples being the risk profile, the time horizon, the choice of securities, optimal use of tax rules etc. The professional portfolio advisor or manager also needs to consider the constraint set of the investors while designing the portfolio; besides having some constraints of his or her own, like liquidity, market risk, cash levels mandated across certain asset classes etc. We provide a quick outline of the various constraints and limitations that are faced by the broad categories of investors mentioned above. 1.3.1 Liquidity In investment decisions, liquidity refers to the marketability of the asset, i.e., the ability and ease of an asset to be converted into cash and vice versa. It is generally measured across two different parameters, viz., (i) market breadth, which measures the cost of transacting a given volume of the security, this is also referred to as the impact cost; and (ii) market depth, which measures the units that can be traded for a given price impact, simply put, the size of the transaction needed to bring about a unit change in the price. Adequate liquidity is usually characterized by high levels of trading activity. High demand and supply of the security would generally result in low impact costs of trading and reduce liquidity risk. 1.3.2 Investment horizons The investment horizon refers to the length of time for which an investor expects to remain invested in a particular security or portfolio, before realizing the returns. Knowing the investment horizon helps in security selection in that it gives an idea about investors’ income needs and desired risk exposure. In general, investors with shorter investment horizons prefer assets with low risk, like fixed-income securities, whereas for longer investment horizons investors look at riskier assets like equities. Risk-adjusted returns for equity are generally found to be higher for longer investment horizon, but lower in case of short investment horizons, largely due to the high volatility in the equity markets. Further, certain securities require commitment 9 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com to invest for a certain minimum investment period, for example in India, the Post Office savings or Government small-saving schemes like the National Savings Certificate (NSC) have a minimum maturity of 3-6 years. Investment horizon also facilitates in making a decision between investing in a liquid or relatively illiquid investment. If an investor wants to invest for a longer period, liquidity costs may not be a significant factor, whereas if the investment horizon is a short period (say 1 month) then the impact cost (liquidity) becomes significant as it could form a meaningful component of the expected return. 1.3.3 Taxation The investment decision is also affected by the taxation laws of the land. Investors are always concerned with the net and not gross returns and therefore tax-free investments or investments subject to lower tax rate may trade at a premium as compared to investments with taxable returns. The following example will give a better understanding of the concept: Table 1.1: Asset Type Expected Return Net Return A 10% taxable bonds (30% tax) 10% 10%*(1-0.3) = 7% B 8% tax-free bonds 8% 8% Although asset A carries a higher coupon rate, the net return for the investors would be higher for asset B and hence asset B would trade at a premium as compared to asset A. In some cases taxation benefits on certain types of income are available on specific investments. Such taxation benefits should also be considered before deciding the investment portfolio. 1.4 Goals of Investors There are specific needs for all types of investors. For individual investors, retirement, children’s marriage / education, housing etc. are major event triggers that cause an increase in the demands for funds. An investment decision will depend on the investor’s plans for the above needs. Similarly, there are certain specific needs for institutional investors also. For example, for a pension fund the investment policy will depend on the average age of the plan’s participants. In addition to the few mentioned here, there are other constraints like the level of requisite knowledge (investors may not be aware of certain financial instruments and their pricing), investment size (e.g., small investors may not be able to invest in Certificate of Deposits), regulatory provisions (country may impose restriction on investments in foreign countries) etc. which also serve to outline the investment choices faced by investors. 10 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com CHAPTER 2: Financial Markets 2.1 Introduction There are a wide range of financial securities available in the markets these days. In this chapter, we take a look at different financial markets and try to explain the various instruments where investors can potentially park their funds. Financial markets can mainly be classified into money markets and capital markets. Instruments in the money markets include mainly short-term, marketable, liquid, low-risk debt securities. Capital markets, in contrast, include longer-term and riskier securities, which include bonds and equities. There is also a wide range of derivatives instruments that are traded in the capital markets. Both bond market and money market instruments are fixed-income securities but bond market instruments are generally of longer maturity period as compared to money market instruments. Money market instruments are of very short maturity period. The equities market can be further classified into the primary and the secondary market. Derivative market instruments are mainly futures, forwards and options on the underlying instruments, usually equities and bonds. 2.2 Primary and Secondary Markets A primary market is that segment of the capital market, which deals with the raising of capital from investors via issuance of new securities. New stocks/bonds are sold by the issuer to the public in the primary market. When a particular security is offered to the public for the first time, it is called an Initial Public Offering (IPO). When an issuer wants to issue more securities of a category that is already in existence in the market it is referred to as Follow-up Offerings. Example: Reliance Power Ltd.’s offer in 2008 was an IPO because it was for the first time that Reliance Power Ltd. offered securities to the public. Whereas, BEML’s public offer in 2007 was a Follow-up Offering as BEML shares were already issued to the public before 2007 and were available in the secondary market. It is generally easier to price a security during a Follow-up Offering since the market price of the security is actually available before the company comes up with the offer, whereas in the case of an IPO it is very difficult to price the offer since there is no prevailing market for the security. It is in the interest of the company to estimate the correct price of the offer, since there is a risk of failure of the issue in case of non-subscription if the offer is overpriced. If the issue is underpriced, the company stands to lose notionally since the securities will be sold at a price lower than its intrinsic value, resulting in lower realizations. 11 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com The secondary market (also known as ‘aftermarket’) is the financial market where securities, which have been issued before are traded. The secondary market helps in bringing potential buyers and sellers for a particular security together and helps in facilitating the transfer of the security between the parties. Unlike in the primary market where the funds move from the hands of the investors to the issuer (company/ Government, etc.), in case of the secondary market, funds and the securities are transferred from the hands of one investor to the hands of another. Thus the primary market facilitates capital formation in the economy and secondary market provides liquidity to the securities. There is another market place, which is widely referred to as the third market in the investment world. It is called the over-the-counter market or OTC market. The OTC market refers to all transactions in securities that are not undertaken on an Exchange. Securities traded on an OTC market may or may not be traded on a recognized stock exchange. Trading in the OTC market is generally open to all registered broker-dealers. There may be regulatory restrictions on trading some products in the OTC markets. For example, in India equity derivatives is one of the products which is regulatorily not allowed to be traded in the OTC markets. In addition to these three, direct transactions between institutional investors, undertaken primarily with transaction costs in mind, are referred to as the fourth market. 2.3 Trading in Secondary Markets Trading in secondary market happens through placing of orders by the investors and their matching with a counter order in the trading system. Orders refer to instructions provided by a customer to a brokerage firm, for buying or selling a security with specific conditions. These conditions may be related to the price of the security (limit order or market order or stop loss orders) or related to time (a day order or immediate or cancel order). Advances in technology have led to most secondary markets of the world becoming electronic exchanges. Disaggregated traders across regions simply log in the exchange, and use their trading terminals to key in orders for transaction in securities. We outline some of the most popular orders below: 2.3.1 Types of Orders Limit Price/Order: In these orders, the price for the order has to be specified while entering the order into the system. The order gets executed only at the quoted price or at a better price (a price lower than the limit price in case of a purchase order and a price higher than the limit price in case of a sale order). Market Price/Order: Here the constraint is the time of execution and not the price. It gets executed at the best price obtainable at the time of entering the order. The system immediately executes the order, if there is a pending order of the opposite type against which the order can match. The matching is done automatically at the best available price (which is called as the 12 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com market price). If it is a sale order, the order is matched against the best bid (buy) price and if it is a purchase order, the order is matched against the best ask (sell) price. The best bid price is the order with the highest buy price and the best ask price is the order with the lowest sell price. Stop Loss (SL) Price/Order: Stop-loss orders which are entered into the trading system, get activated only when the market price of the relevant security reaches a threshold price. When the market reaches the threshold or pre-determined price, the stop loss order is triggered and enters into the system as a market/limit order and is executed at the market price / limit order price or better price. Until the threshold price is reached in the market the stop loss order does not enter the market and continues to remain in the order book. A sell order in the stop loss book gets triggered when the last traded price in the normal market reaches or falls below the trigger price of the order. A buy order in the stop loss book gets triggered when the last traded price in the normal market reaches or exceeds the trigger price of the order. The trigger price should be less than the limit price in case of a purchase order and vice versa. Time Related Conditions Day Order (Day): A Day order is valid for the day on which it is entered. The order, if not matched, gets cancelled automatically at the end of the trading day. At the National Stock Exchange (NSE) all orders are Day orders. That is the orders are matched during the day and all unmatched orders are flushed out of the system at the end of the trading day. Immediate or Cancel order (IOC): An IOC order allows the investor to buy or sell a security as soon as the order is released into the market, failing which the order is removed from the system. Partial match is possible for the order and the unmatched portion of the order is cancelled immediately. 2.3.2 Matching of orders When the orders are received, they are time-stamped and then immediately processed for potential match. The best buy order is then matched with the best sell order. For this purpose, the best buy order is the one with highest price offered, also called the highest bid, and the best sell order is the one with lowest price also called the lowest ask (i.e., orders are looked at from the point of view of the opposite party). If a match is found then the order is executed and a trade happens. An order can also be executed against multiple pending orders, which will result in more than one trade per order. If an order cannot be matched with pending orders, the order is stored in the pending orders book till a match is found or till the end of the day whichever is earlier. The matching of orders at NSE is done on a price-time priority i.e., in the following sequence: Best Price Within Price, by time priority 13 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com Orders lying unmatched in the trading system are ‘passive’ orders and orders that come in to match the existing orders are called ‘active’ orders. Orders are always matched at the passive order price. Given their nature, market orders are instantly executed, as compared to limit orders, which remain in the trading system until their market prices are reached. The set of such orders across stocks at any point in time in the exchange, is called the Limit Order Book (LOB) of the exchange. The top five bids/asks (limit orders all) for any security are usually visible to market participants and constitute the Market By Price (MBP) of the security. 2.4 The Money Market The money market is a subset of the fixed-income market. In the money market, participants borrow or lend for short period of time, usually up to a period of one year. These instruments are generally traded by the Government, financial institutions and large corporate houses. These securities are of very large denominations, very liquid, very safe but offer relatively low interest rates. The cost of trading in the money market (bid-ask spread) is relatively small due to the high liquidity and large size of the market. Since money market instruments are of high denominations they are generally beyond the reach of individual investors. However, individual investors can invest in the money markets through money-market mutual funds. We take a quick look at the various products available for trading in the money markets. 2.4.1 T-Bills T-Bills or treasury bills are largely risk-free (guaranteed by the Government and hence carry only sovereign risk - risk that the government of a country or an agency backed by the government, will refuse to comply with the terms of a loan agreement), short-term, very liquid instruments that are issued by the central bank of a country. The maturity period for T-bills ranges from 3-12 months. T-bills are circulated both in primary as well as in secondary markets. T-bills are usually issued at a discount to the face value and the investor gets the face value upon maturity. The issue price (and thus rate of interest) of T-bills is generally decided at an auction, which individuals can also access. Once issued, T-bills are also traded in the secondary markets. In India, T-bills are issued by the Reserve Bank of India for maturities of 91-days, 182 days and 364 days. They are issued weekly (91-days maturity) and fortnightly (182-days and 364- days maturity). 2.4.2 Commercial Paper Commercial papers (CP) are unsecured money market instruments issued in the form of a promissory note by large corporate houses in order to diversify their sources of short-term borrowings and to provide additional investment avenues to investors. Issuing companies are required to obtain investment-grade credit ratings from approved rating agencies and in some 14 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com cases, these papers are also backed by a bank line of credit. CPs are also issued at a discount to their face value. In India, CPs can be issued by companies, primary dealers (PDs), satellite dealers (SD) and other large financial institutions, for maturities ranging from 15 days period to 1-year period from the date of issue. CP denominations can be Rs. 500,000 or multiples thereof. Further, CPs can be issued either in the form of a promissory note or in dematerialized form through any of the approved depositories. 2.4.3 Certificates of Deposit A certificate of deposit (CD), is a term deposit with a bank with a specified interest rate. The duration is also pre-specified and the deposit cannot be withdrawn on demand. Unlike other bank term deposits, CDs are freely negotiable and may be issued in dematerialized form or as a Usance Promissory Note. CDs are rated (sometimes mandatory) by approved credit rating agencies and normally carry a higher return than the normal term deposits in banks (primarily due to a relatively large principal amount and the low cost of raising funds for banks). Normal term deposits are of smaller ticket-sizes and time period, have the flexibility of premature withdrawal and carry a lower interest rate than CDs. In many countries, the central bank provides insurance (e.g. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) in the U.S., and the Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation (DICGC) in India) to bank depositors up to a certain amount (Rs. 100000 in India). CDs are also treated as bank deposit for this purpose. In India, scheduled banks can issue CDs with maturity ranging from 7 days – 1 year and financial institutions can issue CDs with maturity ranging from 1 year – 3 years. CD are issued for denominations of Rs. 1,00,000 and in multiples thereof. 2.5 Repos and Reverse Repos Repos (or Repurchase agreements) are a very popular mode of short-term (usually overnight) borrowing and lending, used mainly by investors dealing in Government securities. The arrangement involves selling of a tranche of Government securities by the seller (a borrower of funds) to the buyer (the lender of funds), backed by an agreement that the borrower will repurchase the same at a future date (usually the next day) at an agreed price. The difference between the sale price and the repurchase price represents the yield to the buyer (lender of funds) for the period. Repos allow a borrower to use a financial security as collateral for a cash loan at a fixed rate of interest. Since Repo arrangements have T-bills as collaterals and are for a short maturity period, they virtually eliminate the credit risk. Reverse repo is the mirror image of a repo, i.e., a repo for the borrower is a reverse repo for the lender. Here the buyer (the lender of funds) buys Government securities from the seller (a borrower of funds) agreeing to sell them at a specified higher price at a future date. 15 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com 2.6 The Bond Market Bond markets consist of fixed-income securities of longer duration than instruments in the money market. The bond market instruments mainly include treasury notes and treasury bonds, corporate bonds, Government bonds etc. 2.6.1 Treasury Notes (T-Notes) and T-Bonds Treasury notes and bonds are debt securities issued by the Central Government of a country. Treasury notes maturity range up to 10 years, whereas treasury bonds are issued for maturity ranging from 10 years to 30 years. Another distinction between T-notes and T-bonds is that T- bonds usually consist of a call/put option after a certain period. In order to make these instruments attractive, the interest income is usually made tax-free. Interest on both these instruments is usually paid semi-annually and the payment is referred to as coupon payments. Coupons are attached to the bonds and each bondholder has to present the respective coupons on different interest payment date to receive the interest amount. Similar to T-bills, these bonds are also sold through auction and once sold they are traded in the secondary market. The securities are usually redeemed at face value on the maturity date. 2.6.2 State and Municipal Government bonds Apart from the central Government, various State Governments and sometimes municipal bodies are also empowered to borrow by issuing bonds. They usually are also backed by guarantees from the respective Government. These bonds may also be issued to finance specific projects (like road, bridge, airports etc.) and in such cases, the debts are either repaid from future revenues generated from such projects or by the Government from its own funds. Similar to T-notes and T-bonds, these bonds are also granted tax-exempt status. In India, the Government securities (includes treasury bills, Central Government securities and State Government securities) are issued by the Reserve Bank of India on behalf of the Government of India. 2.6.3 Corporate Bonds Bonds are also issued by large corporate houses for borrowing money from the public for a certain period. The structure of corporate bonds is similar to T-Notes in terms of coupon payment, maturity amount (face value), issue price (discount to face value) etc. However, since the default risk is higher for corporate bonds, they are usually issued at a higher discount than equivalent Government bonds. These bonds are not exempt from taxes. Corporate bonds are classified as secured bonds (if backed by specific collateral), unsecured bonds (or debentures which do not have any specific collateral but have a preference over the equity holders in the 16 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com event of liquidation) or subordinated debentures (which have a lower priority than bonds in claim over a firms’ assets). 2.6.4 International Bonds These bonds are issued overseas, in the currency of a foreign country which represents a large potential market of investors for the bonds. Bonds issued in a currency other than that of the country which issues them are usually called Eurobonds. However, now they are called by various names depending on the currency in which they are issued. Eurodollar bonds are US dollar-denominated bonds issued outside the United States. Euro-yen bonds are yen- denominated bonds issued outside Japan. Some international bonds are issued in foreign countries in currency of the country of the investors. The most popular of such bonds are Yankee bond and Samurai Bonds. Yankee bonds are US dollar denominated bonds issued in U.S. by a non-U.S. issuer and Samurai bonds are yen-denominated bonds issued in Japan by non-Japanese issuers. 2.6.5 Other types of bonds Bonds could also be classified according to their structure/characteristics. In this section, we discuss the various clauses that can be associated with a bond. Zero Coupon Bonds Zero coupon bonds (also called as deep-discount bonds or discount bonds) refer to bonds which do not pay any interest (or coupons) during the life of the bonds. The bonds are issued at a discount to the face value and the face value is repaid at the maturity. The return to the bondholder is the discount at which the bond is issued, which is the difference between the issue price and the face value. Convertible Bonds Convertible bonds offer a right (but not the obligation) to the bondholder to get the bond converted into predetermined number of equity stock of the issuing company, at certain, pre- specified times during its life. Thus, the holder of the bond gets an additional value, in terms of an option to convert the bond into stock (equity shares) and thereby participate in the growth of the company’s equity value. The investor receives the potential upside of conversion into equity while protecting downside with cash flow from the coupon payments.The issuer company is also benefited since such bonds generally offer reduced interest rate. However, the value of the equity shares in the market generally falls upon issue of such bonds in anticipation of the stock dilution that would take place when the option (to convert the bonds into equity) is exercised by the bondholders. 17 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com Callable Bonds In case of callable bonds, the bond issuer holds a call option, which can be exercised after some pre-specified period from the date of the issue. The option gives the right to the issuer to repurchase (cancel) the bond by paying the stipulated call price. The call price may be more than the face value of the bond. Since the option gives a right to the issuer to redeem the bond, it carries a higher discount (higher yield) than normal bonds. The right is exercised if the coupon rate is higher than the prevailing interest rate in the market. Puttable Bonds A puttable bond is the opposite of callable bonds. These bonds have an embedded put option. The bondholder has a right (but not the obligation) to sell back the bond to the issuer after a certain time at a pre-specified price. The right has a cost and hence one would expect a lower yield in such bonds. The bondholders generally exercise the right if the prevailing interest rate in the market is higher than the coupon rate. Since the call option and the put option are mutually exclusive, a bond may have both option embedded. Fixed rate and floating rate of interest In case of fixed rate bonds, the interest rate is fixed and does not change over time, whereas in the case of floating rate bonds, the interest rate is variable and is a fixed percentage over a certain pre-specified benchmark rate. The benchmark rate may be any other interest rate such as T-bill rate, the three-month LIBOR rate, MIBOR rate (in India), bank rate, etc. The coupon rate is usually reset every six months (time between two interest payment dates). 2.7 Common Stocks Simply put, the shareholders of a company are its owners. As owners, they participate in the management of the company by appointing its board of directors and voicing their opinions, and voting in the general meetings of the company. The board of directors have general oversight of the company, appoints the management team to look after the day-to-day running of the business, set overall policies aimed at maximizing profits and shareholder value. Shareholders of a company are said to have limited liability. The term means that the liability of shareholders is limited to the unpaid amount on the shares. This implies that the maximum loss of shareholder in a company is limited to her original investment. Being the owners, shareholders have the last claim on the assets of the company at the time of liquidation, while debt- or bondholders always have precedence over equity shareholders. At its incorporation, every company is authorized to issue a fixed number of shares, each priced at par value, or face value in India. The face value of shares is usually set at nominal 18 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com levels (Rs. 10 or Re. 1 in India for the most part). Corporations generally retain portions of their authorized stock as reserved stock, for future issuance at any point in time. Shares are usually valued much higher than the face value and this initial investment in the company by shareholders represents their paid-in capital in the company. The company then generates earnings from its operating, investing and other activities. A portion of these earnings are distributed back to the shareholders as dividend, the rest retained for future investments. The sum total of the paid-in capital and retained earnings is called the book value of equity of the company. 2.7.1 Types of shares In India, shares are mainly of two types: equity shares and preference shares. In addition to the most common type of shares, the equity share, each representing a unit of the overall ownership of the company, there is another category, called preference shares. These preferred shares have precedence over common stock in terms of dividend payments and the residual claim to its assets in the event of liquidation. However, preference shareholders are generally not entitled to equivalent voting rights as the common stockholders. In India, preference shares are redeemable (callable by issuing firm) and preference dividends are cumulative. By cumulative dividends, we mean that in case the preference dividend remains unpaid in a particular year, it gets accumulated and the company has the obligation to pay the accrued dividend and current year’s dividend to preferred stockholders before it can distribute dividends to the equity shareholders. An additional feature of preferred stock in India is that during such time as the preference dividend remains unpaid, preference shareholders enjoy all the rights (e.g. voting rights) enjoyed by the common equity shareholders. Some companies also issue convertible preference shares which get converted to common equity shares in future at some specified conversion ratio. In addition to the equity and fixed-income markets, the derivatives market is one of India’s largest and most liquid. We take a short tour of derivatives in the 5th chapter of this module. 19 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com CHAPTER 3: Fixed Income Securities 3.1 Introduction: The Time Value of Money Fixed-income securities are securities where the periodic returns, time when the returns fall due and the maturity amount of the security are pre-specified at the time of issue. Such securities generally form part of the debt capital of the issuing firm. Some of the common examples are bonds, treasury bills and certificates of deposit. 3.2 Simple and Compound Interest Rates In simple terms, an interest payment refers to the payment made by the borrower to the lender as the price for use of the borrowed money over a period of time. The interest cost covers the opportunity cost of money, i.e., the return that could have been generated had the lender invested in some other assets and a compensation for default risk (risk that the borrower will not refund the money on maturity). The rate of interest may be fixed or floating, in that it may be linked to some other benchmark interest rate or in some cases to the inflation in the economy. Interest calculations are either simple or compound. While simple interest is calculated on the principal amount alone, for a compound interest rate calculation we assume that all interest payments are re-invested at the end of each period. In case of compound interest rate, the subsequent period’s interest is calculated on the original principal and all accumulated interest during past periods. In case of both simple and compound interest rates, the interest rate stated is generally annual. In case of compound interest rate, we also mention the frequency for which compounding is done. For example, such compounding may be done semi-annually, quarterly, monthly, daily or even instantaneously (continuously compounded). 3.2.1 Simple Interest Rate The formula for estimating simple interest is : I = P *R *T Where, P = principal amount R = Simple Interest Rate for one period (usually 1 year) T = Number of periods (years) 20 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com Example 3.1 What is the amount an investor will get on a 3-year fixed deposit of Rs. 10000 that pays 8% simple interest? Answer: Here we have P = 10000, R = 8% and T = 3 years I = P * R * T = 10000 * 8% * 3 = 2400 Amount = Principal + Interest = 10000+2400 = 12400. 3.2.2 Compound Interest Rate In addition to the three parameters (Principal amount (P), Interest Rate (R), Time (T)) used for calculation of interest in case of simple interest rate method, there is an additional parameter that affects the total interest payments. The fourth parameter is the compounding period, which is usually represented in terms of number of times the compounding is done in a year (m). So for semi-annual compounding the value for m = 2; for quarterly compounding, m = 4 and so on. Let us consider an interest rate of 10% compounded semi-annually and an investment of Rs. 100 for a period of 1 year. The investment will become Rs. 105 in 6 months and for the second half, the interest will be calculated on Rs. 105, which will come to 105*5% = 5.25. The total amount the investor will receive at the end of 1 year will become 105 + 5.25 = 110.25. The equivalent interest rate, if compounded annually becomes m  R ((110.25-100)/100)*100 = 10.25%. The equivalent annual interest rate is 1 +  –1.  m The formula used for calculating total amount under this method is as under: T *m  R A = P 1 +  –P  m Where A = Amount on maturity R = interest rate m = number of compounding in a year T = maturity in years Example 3.2 What is the amount an investor will get on a 3-year fixed deposit of Rs. 10000 that pay 8% interest compounded half yearly? 21 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com Answer: Here P = 10000, R = 8% and T = 3, m = 2. The total interest income comes to: T m  R *  Interest = P 1 +  –P   m  2 *3  0.08   = 10000 * 1 +   – 10000 = Rs.2653.20   2   Amount = Principal + Interest = 10000+2653.20 = 12653.20. Example 3.3 Consider the same investment. What is the amount if the interest rate is compounded monthly? Answer: Here P = 10000, R = 8% and T = 3, m = 12. The total interest income comes to: T m   R *  Interest = P 1 +  –P   m  12 *3  0.08   = 10000 * 1 +   – 10000 = Rs.2702.37   12   Amount = Principal + Interest = 10000+2702.37 = 12702.37. Continuous compounding Consider a situation, where instead of monthly or quarterly compounding, the interest rate is compounded continuously throughout the year i.e. m rises indefinitely. If m approaches infinity, ∞  R the equivalent annual interest rate is 1 +  – 1 , which can be shown (using tools from  ∞ differential calculus), to tend to [2.718r – 1] or e r – 1 in the limit, (where e=2.71828… is the base for natural logarithms). Further, for convenience, we use ‘r’ (in small letters) to represent continuously compound interest rate. Thus, an investment of Re. 1 at 8% continuously compounded interest becomes e 0.08 = 1.0833 after 1 year and the equivalent annual interest rate becomes 0.0833 or 8.33%. If the investment is for T years, the maturity amount is simply 1* e rT , where e = 2.718. Continuous compounding is widely assumed in finance theory, and used in various asset pricing models—the famous Black-Scholes model to price a European option is an illustrative example. Example 3.4 Consider the same investment (Rs. 10000 for 3 years). What is the amount received on 22 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com maturity if the interest rate is 8% compounded continuously? Answer: Here P = 10000, e = 2.718, r = 8% and T = 3 The final value of the investment is P * e rT. It comes to 10000 * e0.08 *3 = 12712.50. 3.3 Real and Nominal Interest Rates The relationship between interest rates and inflation rates is very significant. Normally, the cash flow from bonds and deposits are certain and known in advance. However, the value of goods and services in an economy may change due to changes in the general price level (inflation). This brings an uncertainty about the purchasing power of the cash flow from an investment. Take a small example. If inflation (say 12%) is rising and is greater than the interest rate (say 10% annually) in a particular year, then an investor in a bond with 10% interest rate annually stands to lose. Goods worth Rs. 100 at the beginning of the year are worth Rs. 112 by the end of the year but an investment of Rs. 100 becomes only Rs. 110 by end of the year. This implies that an investor who has deposited money in a risk-free asset will find goods beyond his reach. An economist would look at this in terms of nominal cash flow and real cash flows. Nominal cash flow measures the cash flow in terms of today’s prices and real cash flow measures the cash flow in terms of its base year’s purchasing power, i.e., the year in which the asset was bought/ invested. If the interest rate is 10%, an investment of Rs. 100 becomes Rs. 110 at the end of the year. However, if inflation rate is 5% then each Rupee will be worth 5% less next year. This means at the end of the year, Rs. 110 will be worth only 110/1.05 = Rs. 104.76 in terms of the purchasing power at the beginning of the year. The real payoff is Rs. 104.76 and the real interest rate is 4.76%. The relationship between real and nominal interest rate can be established as under: Nominal Cash Flow Real Cash Flow = (1 + inflation rate) And 1 + nominal interest rate (1 + real int erest rate = 1 + inflation rate In our example, the real interest rate can be directly calculated using the formula: 1 + 0.10  Real interest rate =   – 1 = 0.0476 or 4.76%  1 +.05  23 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com 3.4 Bond Pricing Fundamentals The cash inflow for an investor in a bond includes the coupon payments and the payment on maturity (which is the face value) of the bond. Thus the price of the bond should represent the sum total of the discounted value of each of these cash flows (such a total is called the present value of the bond). The discount rate used for valuing the bond is generally higher than the risk-free rate to cover additional risks such as default risk, liquidity risks, etc. Bond Price = PV (Coupons and Face Value) Note that the coupon payments are at different points of time in the future, usually twice each year. The face value is paid at the maturity date. Therefore, the price is calculated using the following formula: C(t ) Bond Price = ∑ (1 + y) t t (1) Where C(t) is the cash flow at time t and y is the discount rate. Since the coupon rate is generally fixed and the maturity value is known at the time of issue of the bond, the formula can be re-written as under: T Coupon Face Value Bond Price = ∑ (1 + y) t t + (1 + y)T (2) Here t represents the time left for each coupon payment and T is the time to maturity. Also note that the discount rate may differ for cash flows across time periods. Example 3.5 Calculate the value of a 3-year bond with face value of Rs. 1000 and coupon rate being 8% paid annually. Assume that the discount rate is 10%. Here: Face value = Rs. 1000 Coupon Payment = 8% of Rs. 1000 = Rs. 80 Discount Rate = 10% t=1 to 3 T=3 80 80 80 1000 Bond Price = + 2 + 3 + = 950.26 1 + 0.1 (1 + 0.1) (1 + 0.1) (1 + 0.1)3 Now let us see what happens if the discount rate is lower than the coupon rate: 24 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com Example 3.6 Calculate the bond price if the discount rate is 6%. 80 80 80 Bond Price = + 2 + = 1053.46 1 + 0.06 (1 + 0.06) (1 + 0.06)3 Since the discount rate is higher than the coupon rate, the bond is traded at a discount. If the discount rate is less than the coupon rate, the bond trades at a premium. 3.4.1 Clean and dirty prices and accrued interest Bonds are not traded only on coupon dates but are traded throughout the year. The market price of the bonds also includes the accrued interest on the bond since the most recent coupon payment date. The price of the bond including the accrued interest since issue or the most recent coupon payment date is called the ‘dirty price’ and the price of the bond excluding the accrued interest is called the ‘clean price’. Clean price is the price of the bond on the most recent coupon payment date, when the accrued interest is zero. Dirty Price = Clean price + Accrued interest For reporting purpose (in press or on trading screens), bonds are quoted at ‘clean price’ for ease of comparison across bonds with differing interest payment dates (dirty prices ‘jump’ on interest payment dates). Changes in the more stable clean prices are reflective of macroeconomic conditions, usually of more interest to the bond market. 3.5 Bond Yields Bond yield are measured using the following measures: 3.5.1 Coupon yield It is calculated using the following formula: Coupon Payment Coupon Yield = Face Value 3.5.2 Current Yield It is calculated using the following formula: Coupon Payment Coupon Yield = Current Market Price of the Bond The main drawback of coupon yield and current yield is that they consider only the interest payment (coupon payments) and ignore the capital gains or losses from the bonds. Since they consider only coupon payments, they are not measurable for bonds that do not pay any interest, such as zero coupon bonds. The other measures of yields are yield to maturity and 25 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com yield to call. These measures consider interest payments as well as capital gains (or losses) during the life of the bond. 3.5.3 Yield to maturity Yield to maturity (also called YTM) is the most popular concept used to compare bonds. It refers to the internal rate of return earned from holding the bond till maturity. Assuming a constant interest rate for various maturities, there will be only one rate that equalizes the present value of the cash flows to the observed market price in equation (2) given earlier. That rate is referred to as the yield to maturity. Example 3.7 What is the YTM for a 5-year, 8% bond (interest is paid annually) that is trading in the market for Rs. 924.20? Here, t= 1 to 5 T=5 Face Value = 1000 Coupon payment = 8% of Rs. 1,000 = 80 Putting the values in equation (1), we have: 5 80 1000 924.20 = ∑ (1 + y ) 1 t + (1 + y )5 Solving for y, which is the YTM, we get the yield to maturity for the bond to be 10%. Yield and Bond Price: There is a negative relationship between yields and bond price. The bond price falls when yield increases and vice versa. Example 3.8 What will be the market price of the above bond (Example 3 7) if the YTM is 12%. t= 1 to 5 T=5 Face Value = 1000 Coupon payment = 8% of 1,000 = 80 Putting the values in equation (1), the bond price comes to: 26 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com 5 80 1000 Bond Price = ∑ (1 + 0.12) 1 t + (1 + 0.12)5 = 901.20 Further, for a long-term bond, the cash flows are more distant in the future and hence the impact of change in interest rate is higher for such cash flows. Alternatively, for short-term bonds, the cash flows are not far and discounting does not have much effect on the bond price. Thus, price of long-term bonds are more sensitive to interest rate changes. Bond equivalent yield and Effective annual yield: This is another important concept that is of importance in case of bonds and notes that pay coupons at time interval which is less than 1 year (for example, semi-annually or quarterly). In such cases, the yield to maturity is the discount rate solved using the following formula, wherein we assume that the annual discount rate is the product of the interest rate for interval between two coupon payments and the number of coupon payments in a year: T Coupon Face Value Bond Price = ∑ t y t + 1 + y  T (3) 1 +     2  2 YTM calculated using the above formula is called bond equivalent yield. However, if we assume that one can reinvest the coupon payments at the bond equivalent yield (YTM), the effective interest rate will be different. For example, a semi-annual interest rate of 10% p.a. in effect amounts to 2 1 + 0.10    = 1.1025 or 10.25%.  2  Yield rate calculated using the above formula is called effective annual yield. Example 3.9 Calculate the bond equivalent yield (YTM) for a 5-year, 8% bond (semi-annual coupon payments), that is trading in the market for Rs. 852.80? What is the effective annual yield for the bond? Here, t= 1 to 10 T = 10 Face Value = 1000 Coupon payment = 4% of 1,000 = 40 Bond Price = 852.80 27 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com Putting the values in equation (3), we have: 10 40 1000 852.80 = ∑ 1 y t + 1 + y  10 1 +     2  2 Solving, we get the Yield to Maturity (y) = 0.12 or 12%. The effective yield rate is 2 2 1 + y  – 1 = 1 + 0.12     – 1 = 0.1236 or 12.36%  2  2  3.5.4 Yield to call Yield to call is calculated for callable bond. A callable bond is a bond where the issuer has a right (but not the obligation) to call/redeem the bond before the actual maturity. Generally the callable date or the date when the company can exercise the right, is pre-specified at the time of issue. Further, in the case of callable bonds, the callable price (redemption price) may be different from the face value. Yield to call is calculated with the same formula used for calculating YTM (Equation 2), with an assumption that the issuer will exercise the call option on the exercise date. Example 3.10 Calculate the yield to call for a 5-year, 7% callable bond (semi-annual coupon payments), that is trading in the market for Rs. 877.05. The bond is callable at the end of 3rd year at a call price of Rs. 1040. Here: t= 1 to 6 T=6 Coupon payment = 3.5% of 1,000 = 35 Callable Value = 1040 Bond Price = 877.05 Putting the values in the following equation: T Coupon Callable Value Bond Price = ∑ t y t + 1 + y  T 1 +     2  2 we have: 28 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com 6 35 1000 877.05 = ∑ 1 y t +  + y 6 1 +  1   2  2 Solving for y, we get the yield to call = 12% 3.6 Interest Rates While computing the bond prices and YTM, we assumed that the interest rate is constant across different maturities. However, this may not be true for different reasons. For example, investors may perceive longer maturity periods to be riskier and hence may demand higher interest rate for cash flow occurring at distant time intervals than those occurring at short time intervals. In this section, we account for the fact that the interest demanded by investors also depends on the time horizon of the investment. Let us first introduce certain common concepts. 3.6.1 Short Rate Short rate for time t, is the expected (annualized) interest rate at which an entity can borrow for a given time interval starting from time t. Short rate is usually denominated as rt. 3.6.2 Spot Rate Yield to maturity for a zero coupon bond is called spot rate. Since zero coupon bonds of varying maturities are traded in the market simultaneously, we can get an array of spot rates for different maturities. Relationship between short rate and spot rate: Investors discount future cash flows using interest rate applicable for that period. Therefore, the PV of an investment of T years is calculated as under: (Initial Investment) PV (Investment) = (1 + r1 ) (1 + r2 )...(1 + rT ) Example 3.11 If the short rate for a 1-year investment at year 1 is 7% and year 2 is 8%, what is the present value of a 2-year zero coupon bond with face value Rs. 1000 : 1000 1000 P = = = 865.35 1.07 * 1.08 1.1556 For a 2-year zero coupon bond trading at 865.35, the YTM can be calculated by solving the following equation: 1000 865.35 = (1 + y 2 )2 The resulting value for y is 7.4988%, which is nothing but the 2-year spot rate. 29 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com 3.6.3 Forward Rate One can assume that all bonds with equal risks must offer identical rates of return over any holding period, because if it is not true then there will be an arbitrage opportunity in the market. If we assume that all equally risky bonds will have identical rates of return, we can calculate short rates for a future interval by knowing the spot rates for the two ends of the interval. For example, we can calculate 1-year short rate at year 3, if we have the 3-years spot rate and 4-years spot rate (or in other words are there are 3-year zero coupon and a 4-year zero coupon treasury bonds trading in the market). This is because, the proceeds from an investment in a 3-year zero coupon bond on the maturity day, reinvested for 1 year should result in a cash flow equal to the cash flow from an investment in a 4-year zero coupon bond (since the holding period is the same for both the strategies). Example 3.12 If the 3-year spot rate and 4-year spot rates are 8.997% and 9.371% respectively, find the 1-year short rate at end of year 3. Given the spot rates, proceeds from investment of Re. 1 in a 3-year zero coupon bond will be 1* 1.089973 = 1.2949. If we reinvest this (maturity) amount in a 1-year zero coupon bond, the proceeds at year 4 will be 1.2949*(1+r3). This should be equal to the proceeds from an investment of Rs. 1 in a 4-year zero coupon bond, assuming equal holding period return. Proceeds from investment of Re. 1 in a 4-year zero coupon bond is 1*1.093714 = 1.4309 Solving, 1.2949 * (1 + r3 ) = 1.4309 r3= 0.11 or 11%, which is nothing but the 1 year short rate at the end of year 3. Future short rates computed using the market price of the prevailing zero coupon bonds’ price (or prevailing spot rates) are called forward interest rates. We use the notation fi to represent the 1-year forward interest rate starting at year i. For example, f2 denotes the 1-year forward interest rate starting from year 2. 3.6.4 The term structure of interest rates We have discussed various interest rates (spot, forward, discount rates), and also seen their behaviour, and connections with each other. The term structure of interest rates is the set of relationships between rates of bonds of different maturities. It is sometimes also called the 30 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com yield curve. Formally put, the term structure of interest rates defines the array of discount factors on a collection of default-free pure discount (zero-coupon) bonds that differ only in their term to maturity. The most common approximation to the term structure of interest rates is the yield to maturity curve, which generally is a smooth curve and reflects the rates of return on various default-free pure discount (zero-coupon) bonds held to maturity along with their term to maturity. The use of forward interest rates has long been standard in financial analysis such as in pricing new financial instruments and in discovering arbitrage possibilities. Yield curves are also used as a key tool by central banks in the determination of the monetary policy to be followed in a country. The forward interest rate is interpreted as indicating market expectations of the time- path of future interest rates, future inflation rates and future currency depreciation rates. Since forward rates helps us indicate the expected future time path of these variables, they allow a separation of market expectations for the short, medium and long term more easily than the standard yield curve. The market expectations hypothesis and the liquidity preference theory are two important explanations of the term structure of interest in the economy. The market expectation hypothesis assumes that various maturities are perfect substitutes of each other and that the forward rate equals the market expectation of the future short interest rate i.e. fi = E(ri ) , where i is a future period. Assuming minimal arbitrage opportunities, the expected interest rate can be used to construct a yield curve. For example, we can find the 2-year yield if we know the 1-year short rate and the futures short rate for the second year by using the following formula: (1 + y2 )2 = (1 + r1 ) * (1 + f2 ) Since, as per the expectation hypothesis − f2 = E(R2 ) , the YTM can be determined solely by y current and expected future one-period interest rates. Liquidity preference theory suggests that investors prefer liquidity and hence, a short-term investment is preferred to a long-term investment. Therefore, investors will be induced to hold a long-term investment, only by paying a premium for the same. This premium or the excess of the forward rate over the expected interest rate is referred to as the liquidity premium. Therefore, the forward rate will exceed the expected short rate, i.e. f2 > E(r2 ) , where f2 – E(r2 ) represent the liquidity premium. The liquidity premium causes the yield curve to be upward sloping since long-term yields are higher than short-term yields. Example 3.13 Calculate the YTM for year 2-5 if the 1-year short rate is 8% and the future rates for years 2- 5 is 8.5% (f2), 9% (f3), 9.5% (f4) and 10%(f5) respectively. 31 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com Answer: y1 = r1 = 8% (1 + y2 )2 + (1 + r1 ) * (1 + f2 ); y2 = 2 (1.08 * 1.085) = 1.0825 , i.e. y2 = 8.25% (1 + y3 )3 + (1 + y2 )2 * (1 + f3 ); y3 = 3 (1.08252 * 1.09) = 1.0850 , i.e. y3 = 8.50% (1 + y 4 )4 + (1 + y3 )3 * (1 + f4 ); y 4 = 4 (1.08503 * 1.095) = 1.0875 , i.e. y4 = 8.75% (1 + y5 )5 + (1 + y 4 )4 * (1 + f5 ); y5 = 5 (1.08754 * 1.10) = 1.09 , i.e. y5 = 9.00% It can be seen that because of the liquidity premium, the future interest rate increases with time and this causes the yield curve to rise with time. Box No. 3.1: Relationship between spot, forward, and discount rates Recall that discount factors are the interest rates used at a given point in time to discount cash flows occurring in the future, in order to obtain their present value. So how do spot rates, forward rates, and discount rates relate to each other? A discount function (dt,m) is the collection of discount factors at time t for all maturities m. Spot rates (st,m), i.e., the yields earned on bonds which pay no coupon, are related to discount factors according to: dt , m = e m*–S1m and 1 St , m = – 1ndt , m m The estimation of a zero coupon yield curve is based on an assumed functional relationship between either par yields, spot rates, forward rates or discount factors on the one hand and maturities on the other. Par yield curves are those that reflect return on bonds that are priced at par, which just means that the redemption yield is equal to the coupon rate of the bond. There is a different forward rate for every pair of maturity dates. The relation between the yield-to-maturity (YTM) and the implied forward rate at maturity is analogous to the relation between average and marginal costs in economics. The YTM is the average cost of borrowing for m periods whereas the implied forward rate is the marginal cost of extending the time period of the loan, i.e. it describes the marginal one-period interest rate implied by the current term structure of spot interest rate. Because spot interest 32 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com rates depend on the time horizon, it is natural to define the forward rates ft,m as the instantaneous rates which when compounded continuously up to the time to maturity, yield the spot rates (instantaneous forward rates are thus rates for which the difference between settlement time and maturity time approaches zero). m 1 St , m = – m ∫ f (u) du , or we can sayy 0 m   0 ∫ dt , m = exp  f (u)du   Thus, knowing any of the four means that the other four can be readily computed. However, the real problem is that neither of these curves is easily forecast able. 3.7 Macaulay Duration and Modified Duration The effect of interest rate risks on bond prices depends on many factors, but mainly on coupon rates, maturity date etc. Unlike in case of zero-coupon bonds, where the cash flows are only at the end, in the case of other bonds, the cash flows are through coupon payments and the maturity payment. One needs to average out the time to maturity and time to various coupon payments to find the effective maturity for a bond. The measure is called as duration of a bond. It is the weighted (cash flow weighted) average maturity of the bond.

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