Introductory Pharmaceutical Microbiology PDF

INTRODUCTORY PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY LH : 30, PH : 45 PROF. M.D.MUKHTAR, FNSM, mEHORECON, mASM Dept. of Microbiol. Faculty of Life Sciences, College of Natural and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bayero University, Kano. PMB 3011, BUK, Kano. Email: [email protected]. Tel: +2348062248947  OUR GOAL AS NSM The goal of the presentation is to emphasize on the theme of this conference “EMERGING MICROBIAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. In the history of industrial revolution the following World renown microbiologist are key: 1. ANTONIE VAN LEEUMENHOEK (1632 – 1723) DUTCH Commonly known as father of microbiology First to observe microorganisms Discovered single –celled organisms bacteria & protozoa First to use microscopes to observe living organisms Improved the design of microscope.2. LAZZARO SPALLANZANI (1729 – 1799): ITALIAN First to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation Introduced the technic of sterilization 3. EDWARD JENNER (1749- 1823) BRITISH Innovative contribution to Immunization Eradication of small pox Developed the procedure of vaccination (Vacca-a CON) 4. IGNAZ SEMMELWEIS (1818 – 1665) HUNGARIAN Father of Hand washing Standard Father of Infection Control A pioneer of Antiseptic procedures 5. LOUIS PASTEUR (1822-1895) - FRENCH French microbiologist Known a s father of modern microbiology Coined the term “Microbiology” cell, aerobic and Anaerobic Developed the Germ Theory of Disease Developed the principle of pasteurization Vaccination and Microbial FERMENTATION Discovery of causes and prevention of disease therapy saving lives today. Disproved the concept of spontaneous generation.6. JOSEPH LISTER (1822 – 1895) BRITISH SURGEON Father of modern surgery Introduced carbolic acid (Phenol) to sterilize surgical instruments and clean wounds. First to use Pasteur’s Principle On Humans Change the Approach of Medical Industry to Sanitation and Proper Hygiene 7. ROBERT KOCH (1843 – 1910) GERMAN PHYSICIAN Formulated Kotch’s Postulates (Disease and Infection) Proved Germ Theory Discovered Anthrax disease cycle Noble prize winner for research on Tuberculosis 8.. FANNY HESSE (Lady) (1850 – 1934) GERMAN AMERICA Mother of Microbiology Worked in KORCH’S laboratory in Germany Introduced the use of Agar for cell culture 9. MARTINUS BEIJERINCK (1851 – 1931) DUTCH Father of Virology First to discover Virus Founder of Environmental Microbiology Describe Nitrogen Fixation (Championed Agricultural Microbiology) Improved the design of microscope 10. ALEXANDER FLEMING (1881 – 1955) A genius for Technical ingenuity and original observation A pioneer in the discovery of Antibiotics Credited with the discovery of penicillin in 1928 Noble prize in medicine in 1945 Choose not to patent penicillin, claimed nature did it MICROORGANISMS ARE THE FIRST TO EVOLVE SINCE 3.5 billion years ago and have been responsible in preparing the biosphere, for us in every aspects of life. Food, shelter, water, air, boil, clothing medicine has always:- Cater faulted industrialization This could go back to the time even immemorial when man knew how to produce leaven bread in ancient Egypt, Greece and Arabia When man knew how to produce fermented drinks and food delicacies including condiments and supplements. When he knew how to prepare medications from soil, plant, animal, components or even their excreta or digestive tract waste matter etc. up to the present day more modern manufacturing with the help of sophisticated equipment and technologies The applied exploitation of microbes gave birth to microbial technology as a component of biotechnology in the 20th century and its entry into Nano- Biotechnology. In the 21 st century as an interface of basic microbiology, Applied microbiology/microbial technology and nano-science (Lateef et al., 2021). The unique attributes of microbes makes them the best “Actors” in the promotion of industrial revolution. - Ductility to virtually all environments - Simplicity in size, rapid biomass generation and high multiplication rates. - Diversity and tolerance to challenging environmental factors, - Efﬁcient and versatile metabolic machines - Controllable growth Amenable genetic manipulation (Microbial genomics). - These are exploited to advance the application of microbes that resulted in the today’s industrial revolution that promotes modernity and civilization we are witnessing today in all walks of life. Scope of Microbiology Since Microbes are ubiquitous, it means that microbiology extends to all aspects of microbial life: - The forms of microorganisms, reproduction Structure, physiology, metabolism, classiﬁcation and most importantly their economic importance a basis for microbes in the industrial revolution that sustained today’s human progress Microbes in various facets of human endeavour The various sectors of microbiology that enabled judicious industrial application of microorganisms include:  Medical Microbiology (Deals with diseases /Infection - Open ways for industries to develop diagnostic, medications /pharmaceuticals that helps to identify and plan measures to eliminate /control the activated agents  Pharmaceutical Microbiology: Facilitate the understanding and uses of microorganisms towards drug research, development and manufac turing whic h is billio ns o f Naira revenue generation pharm industry.  Immunology- the study of how the body protects itself against infections microbial agents., lead to springing of high level of industries as relates to a and b above (Duwas, RS, 2018).  Agricultural Microbiology - Deals with the effects of microorganisms on Agriculture, plant diseases that affect crops/ veterinary microbial diseases and the likes. - This involves methods of ﬁghting the diseases as using microbes Bio pesticides, herbicides, insecticide as (uses Bacillus thurengiensis) and genetically engineered crops and animals species using microbial vectors (Timothy et al., 2021). Microorganisms are used to increase soil fertility and crops yield as in organic /bio fertilizer and genetically modiﬁed organisms GMO- crops and Animal (hybrid). - This support another radical industrial revolution nowadays. In Food and Diary Microbiology: Microbes are involved as starter cultures to make bread, cheese, yoghurt, beer, kunun zaki, fura da nono, daddawa, Iru, maggi etc. This pave the way for multitude of industries operating on daily bases today Industrial Microbiology - Enables a better understanding of th use of microbes to make products such bacteriocins (drugs) preservatives, food preservatives as Antibiotics (Penicillin-gentamicin, Bacitracin tetracycline imepenemes etc. - Vaccines steroids alcohols, Lactic acids, citric acids , gluconic aminoas drugs /food, itaconic acid used for paints and glues, enzymes (amylase, cleaners, softtrors) - Taq an enzymes from Thermobacillus aquaticus – “Archaea” forms the bases of PCR Technology which open gate for industrial revolution of today.  Environmental microbiology Provides an avenue of knowing, identifying and isolating microbes in soil, water, air and sediments covering the planet - Includes the involvement of microorganisms in artiﬁcial environments such as “bioreactors” in manufacturing industries. e.g. Biogas/biofuel generating plants. Aquatic Microbiology viii. The science that deals with microorganisms living in fresh or salt (marine ) water systems. Their application in renewable - Energy generation, Microbial Biomass generation, Algal biomass for single cell protein as well as their use in bioremediation of or even microbially chemically contaminated water /air /soil are other pathways that boosted our industrial revolution ix Geochemical Microbiology and Petroleum Microbiology Deals with the role of microorganisms in coal, gas and material formation - Talking about biogeochemical cycline of matter - Being considered towards involving microbes in this direction to avert the emerging problem of climate change - Generation of clean energy and - Improved mining and mineral prospecting x.Exomicrobiology (Space microbiology): Deals with the search and study of microorganisms in outa space. - Open the gate towards harnessing the possibilities of inhabiting /use of extra terrestrial environment for the next level industrial revolution.. xi. Microbial Biotechnology. - The manipulative of microbes at genetic and molecular levels. Generate useful products – relates to the exploitation of microbes to render goods and services for mankind – lead to industrial revolution were have witnessed The foregoing aff ir ms the general and compulsory involvement of microbes as catalyst for the observed industrial revolution. Climate change and pollution control Food industry (Single cell) Insecticides, herbicides, Pesticides Food Preservation Pharmaceutical industries- Drugs,- diagnostics involves genomics metabolomics proteomics glucuomics enzymes vitamins Renewable Energy industry, Microbial biotechnology Agricultural production (Soil fertility) OlI Industry petrol, gasoline ethanol, oil recovery, biosurfactants - This cut across all human endeavours from food to medicine and war-fare APPLICATION OF GE NE TIC E NGINE E R ING IN INDUSTRY History of Microbial Technology: In relation to microbes and industrial revolution. Biotech is a relationship of biochemistry, microbial and chemical engineering and industry characteristic of future century in as much as that of 20 th century controlled by Physics and chemistry. It is also a s pec if ic term fo r Bio tec hno lo gy that invo lves microbes. Some important events connected with microbial technology and industry  Microbial Technology had long history even before microbes are discovered – infact since the beginning of civilization. Traditional technology for leaven br e a d, p o r r i dg e , be e r, c h e e s e , f o o d condiment/seasoning, tanning, yoghurt, vinegrade.  Also, it was in use even before 1919 when the term Biotenology was f ir st used evn though by 1869 Friendrich Miescher has already discovered DNA- New Technology by 1929- Antibiotics discovery by Fleming in London. Rekindle this technology.  Recall that by 1941 Beale and Tatum demonstrated that a gene codes for a single protein(Although recently this has been proved otherwise many proteins).  In 1944 a very proved that DNA is a genetic material. Stanley Miller experiment of 1950 – proved amino acid function.  In 1953 Watson and Crick proposed double helical DNA  Mas s illo n and S tah dem o ns trated that DN A replicates semi conservatively in 1958.  In 1961 Triplet nature of the genetic codes was discovered AGC, ATU.  In 1961 also messenger RNA was uncovered.  In1961 again Jacob and Monod proposed the operon model for gene regulation.  In 1970 Temin and Baltimo re repo r ted the discovery of reverse transcriptase in retroviruses.  In 1973 Type II restriction endonucleases were discovered  In 1974 Eukaryotic genes were cloned in bacterial plasmids. – Genetic engineering began.  In 1976 Retroviral oncogenes were identif ied as the causative agents of cellular transformation  By 1977 DNA sequencing became possible  Again in1977 interrupted gene were discovered and spacing mechanism for their removal from primary transcripts was deciphered  1979 cellular oncogenes were discovered by transfection.  In 1981 catalytic activity of RNA was discovered.  Again in 1981 transgenic mice and flies were obtained by introducing new DNA into the germ line. In 1997 A sheep was cloned from simetic cell genome, establishing the totipotency in animal cell. NB: This implies that by 1970 Genetic Engineering using bacterial Endonuclease (Restriction Enzymes) and Recombinant DNA technology is progressing in which man develops the techniques of progressing in which man develops the techniques which man develops the techniques of isolating a gene / plasmid from a donor and insert it with another – r e c i p i e n t t o e f f e c t t ra n s du c t i o n o r t o t a l transformation of the microbe HOW THE TECHNIQUE IS APPLIED An enzymes DNA ligase is used to bind /stitch two different DNA/plasmid of two different microbial species e.g. E.coli and Staph aureus in plasmid of E. coli to form a recombinant DNA molecule with transformed characteristics – Now called Chimera. The Chimeras are then introduced into fresh E.coli cells by alternate heating and cooling in calcium chloride (Thermocycline). When these E.coli are cultivated on fresh medium they produce its normal proteins and those normally found in S.aureus. This is genetic engineering using Microbial Technology Accordingly the following are relevant to industry and Agriculture NB:  By 1980s human genes could be inserted into bacterial plasmids e.g.. gene for hormone insulin  Antiv iral pro tein interfero n is pro duc ed by reengineered bacteria.  Gene for somatostatin – growth hormone for treating growth deﬁciencies in children.  Clothing factor VIII (cascagen) and the clothing substance –tissue plasminogen activator (TPA).  Vaccine for production genes in fungi and bacteria  Antibiotic production genes in fungi & bacteria  Herbicides by transformed tobacco plant  Viral genes into plant cell – for increased viral resistant Genes for bacterial insecticides from Bacillus arzai, Bacillus thurenginensis, BT. e.g. BT. Cotton, tomato.  Anticancer genes from Pseudomonas tumefacium BIOPROCESS /FERMENTATION TECHNOLOGY This is the core of microbial technology for the production of :  Foods e,.g. cheese, yoghurts, sauerkraut, fermented p ic kle s and s au s age s , s o y s au c e , Maggi and beverages – beers, wines and derived spirits.  Removal of obnoxious and unhealthy food wastes, in water purif ic ation, Effluent treatment and solid waste management (Bioremediation).  Bio process involve cocktail of enzymes catalyzing complex reactions within specif ic microorganisms under critical Physical and chemical conditions existing in their immediate environment which must be controlled in a condition such as the Bioreactor. New products from microbial fermentation  Essential Primary Metabolitess _ E.g. from Embden Meyerhoff Parnas Pathway Emp-glyclysis Pyruvic Acid Cycle, KREBS, ppp, Coripap, DC/4-hb Polysacchesdes amino acids- Acetic acid, Piruvate, acetone, alcohol, organic @, vitamins, perfumes, enzymes, citric acid, ethanol, butanol/alcohol, surfactants. - O r g a n o m e t a l l i c s – i n l e a d i n g o f c o p p e r, bicullumulated metals. PHARM ANTIBIOTICS - Diagnostic agents - Enzymes acid Enzymes Inhibitors - Monoclonal antibodies - Steroids - Vaccines Energy – Ethanol (Gasohol) Methane (Biogas) Food – Biomass - Dairy products - Fish, Meat - Beverages (Alcoholic, tea and coffee) - Bakers yeasts - Food additives (Antioxidants, colours, flavours stabilizers) - Noval food (Soy sauce, tempeh, Miso, Daddawa) - Mushroom products - Amino acids - Vitamins - Starch products - Glocose, fructose syrups - Functional modiﬁcation of proteins - Pectins - single cell proteins (SCP) Agriculture - Animal feed stuffs (SCP) and single cell proteins - Veterinary medicine/vacines - Ensilage and composing process - Microbial pesticides and Herbicidesa. - Nitrogen fxation bacteria, Archea and rhizobicin - Mycorrhizal inoculants - Plant cell and tissue culture - Embryo production - Development of disease resistant varieties of plant and animals.  Secondary metabolites (which do not appear to have o bv io us ro le in the metabo lis m o f the producer organism e.g. antibiotics.  To produce many forms of industrially useful enzymes. Exocellular enzymes: e.g. Amylase asparaginase, restriction endosudease et. From Archaea tolerant to 96oC.  Taq enzymes= Thermoaquaticus - Thiobacillus aquaticus Development of a Microbial Technology: Depends upon the understanding of the following:- 1. P r i n c i p l e s o f m i c r o bi a l g r o w t h t h a t e n a bl e s max imiz atio n o f c ellular gro wth, primary and secondary products under. a. Well def ined gaseous and nutritious conditions of the thermostat or the continuous culture in bioreactors /environment. b. Consideration is given to growth rate and growth constant (µ) as well as the c. G e n e t i c d i v e r s i t y a n d a d a p t a b i l i t y o f t h e microorganism towards designing a more promising Bioreactor.  Introduction:- recap the history from 1919 when the term was f ir st used although by author by 1869 Fredrich has discovered DN  Currently, the application of biotechnology is buttressed by recombinant DNA technology – the genetic engineering, monoclonal and polyclonal only badly production as well as bioprocess engineering. Insulin generated in 1982.  T h e i m p a c t o f bi o t e c h n o l o g y i s c l e a r l y harnessed in agriculture, medicine, energy generation and environmental protection design and remediation; pharmaceuticals, there genetics, forensic science, development and planning and ethics. Likewise, it is important in many industry applicative in the generation of edible product consumer goods, textile material worn by man. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION: - Commercialization of research results from other areas of biotechnology. It is now convincing that genetic engineering is the engine room of industrial development. This is in the sense that several applications of biotechnology have permeated several industries such as food production and processing, preservation or storage. These industries have proﬁted from development in agriculture, medicine and pharmaceutics. THE BIO-INDUSTRIES: These utilizes biomass (biological materials) as raw materials or biological agents such as whole cells enzymes organelles or parts Bio-industries include both service industries and product industries.  Traditional bio-industries: bakeries, alcoholics and fermented food and beverages have played vital roles in human civilization and welfare development.  Many metabolites are commercially produced by bio lo gic al agents :_ s uc h as mic ro o rganis ms , enzymes, plant and animal cells, tissues and higher plant and animals.  Products of Bio – industries are used on daily bases director indirectly.  The genetic modif ic ation of the biological agents through genetic engineering and biotechnology our bio – industries are made more efﬁcient. Eg: many promising products/metabolites of industries importance are eff ic iently produced by genetically modiﬁed microorganisms.  Improved production of bread, cheese, yoghurt, alc o ho l beverages, pharmac eutic als, o rganic chemicals, food and food additives, condiments, probiotics, agriculture produce and other products of bio – industries have been achieved by genetic modif ic ation of microorganism and bio-process improvements. Some Examples of Bio – Industries 1. Biotechnology Service Industries - provide suitable services using biotechnology products or techniques. Eg Diseases activities diagnostic kits and reagents (antigens, antibody, cell surface markers DNA, RNA probes, hormones, enzymes etc) as in the diagnosis and malaria, typhoid fever, AIDs, hepatitis, helminthes, parasites and Diabetes etc. In none disease conditions – pregnancy, forensic DNA f inger printing, propensity, crime detection species and strain identiﬁcation and conﬁrmation. - Production and genetically modiﬁed foods (GMOs) - Drug assay - Genotyping, - Environmental bio resource monitoring using DNA barcoding techniques, - Reproduction biotech and oil prospecting and recovery Preservation of endangered species. (Ogbonna, 2013). The industries are exempliﬁed thus:  Gene therapy service - Modiﬁes genes in gametes or sematic cells to prevent / treat genetic disease / disorder. - Insertion into the mono – specif ic location within the genome or through homologous re-combination, abortion of mal. Functioning gene or regulation of gene expression by either increasing the expression of needed gene or decreasing he expression of mal. Functioning gene; As in sickle cell anemia, tay – sac diseases, cystic f ib rosis, hemophilia, Duchene muscular dystrophy, severe combined immune def ic iency (Bubble boy syndrome), some types of cancer, some form of infertility problems.  Reproductive Health Care Industries - Fertility testing services - In – vitro fertilization, “test – tube babies” - Sex choice - Pre- birth screening for genetic diseases.  Artiﬁcial Organs And Transplants Services - Generating scarce human tissues/organs as spare parts to replace dysfunctional or dead ones. The produced tissues can be transplanted by tissue engineer. - Some Bio- artiﬁcial organs are: - Artiﬁcial heart valves - Vascular tissues - Skins of human skin cells in collagen. - Blood versus, bladder, bones, bone morrow, - A r t i f ic i a l l i v e r , p a n c r e a s ( f o r i n s u l i n production/regulation - Cartilage and nerve cells. Transgenic pigs without sugar – producing genes that would be useful in man have been produced using gene knock-out techniques. Organs from these pigs are cheap and will save lives of many human patients waiting for human donors the stem cell culture techniques and tissue engineer is very much helpful in these services Biotechnology Production Industries  Fermented Foods And Condiments Industries Responsible for processing and conversion of raw materials to stable, useful and safe products for immediate consumption or long term preservation. The foods are usually microbiologically and chemically safe and enriched in nutrients and probiotics, proteins, vitamins, amino acids, minerals, hormous etc. - All the types of fermentation could be involved eg EMP – pathways, amino acid termination pathways, mineral fermentation pathway. Pentose phosphate pathways etc. - The digestibility of the food product is also high. Many industries are involved: Local Technologies Industries: - at small scale levels in the homes/domestic industries using indigenous/spontaneous microbial communities from the “raw materials or as contaminants of the utensil” used in the production. Consumption and production are at localized level. MEDIUM - LARGE SCALE INDUSTRIES - These utilizes referred technologies with restricted and well def ined starter cultures eg production of penicillin using penicellium chrysogenum f ingers in def in ed tanks with soy bean proteins, glucose, butters at deﬁned temperatures and pot. Other Examples: Leavened bread – using wheat flower and Baker’s yeast Garri – from cassava not by Corynebacterium manilotic, Geotricum candidum, Lactobacillus sp, Leuconostoc sp Foo – foo – natural fermentation of cassava by Bacillus sp , yeasts and lactic acid bacteria. Akamu (ogi) – natural fermentation of maize, millet and sorghum by Saccharomyces cerensiae, Candida virusei, Debaromyces hansenii, Rhodotorula sp. Soy sauce (soya) – from soy using Aspergilus dryzac, Pediococcus halophylus, Saccharomyces sp. Cheese from milk – Streptococcus thermophilus, lactobacillus vulgaricus, L. helvericus Miso from soybean, rice or dehulled barley by Aspergiths oryzae, koji, yeast, Lactobacillus sp. Used as sauce and food seasoning. Okpeyer/ogili form seeds of Citrullus vulgaris, seeds of Prosopsis africanus, Ricimus communis, naturally fermented by Bacillus sp, Micrococcus, Corynebacter sp Lactobacillus sps, Pseudomonas sp Pedococus, Enterococcus, Alkaligens and Lenconostio spp. used as condiments. Dawadawa – from seeds of Parkia biglobosa (African locust beans naturally fermented by species of Bacillus, Staphylococcus, Micrococcus Corynebacterianm Pediococcus, Alkaligens, Enterococcus, Leuconstoc as food condiment Microbial Biomass Industries These generate microorganism as starter cultures or as food biomass for use by other industries. E.g. baker’s yeast production by cultivation of yeast strains with desired qualities. - Bacteria starter culture industries eg Lactobacillus casei, L. Acidophilus, Streptocolus Thermophiles mixed as starter cultures for yoghurt industries. - Single cell protein (SCP) microbial biomass as food and feed additives, using microalga, fur and bacterial strains. They provide up to 80% of protein contents with vitamins and lipids. Alcoholic Beverage Industries - The f irst biotechnology industries in the world e.g. palm wine, pits, ogogoro (Kai – kai) and burukutu in organizing Non distilled and distilled alcoholic beverages. Pro duc ed in large s c ales us ing sophisticated technology. i. non – distilled: wine and beer from malted barker, syrup, sugar cane and search using beer yeast. ii. Distilled alcoholic beverages are produced using sugar cane grapes and other fruits. E.g. brandy and schnapps from fruits using microbial amylase the f inal products are distilled through distilleries at  Industrial production of useful metabolites - This involves careful selection of the microbial stains, notifying it for the massive production of the required metabolite by involving genetic screening and modiﬁcation of the desired qualities. - Various biological, chemical and physical conditions of the culture are manipulated to circumvent the regulatory mechanisms of the cells, to produce metabolites in excess of their requirements which may be primary or secondary types e.g: organic acids, amino acids, - Antibiotics, vitamins, polymer enzymes, food additives – flavor / taste enhancer. Colorant and bio preservatives, amino acids and pharmaceuticals; vaccines, toxins, antitoxins; growth homones, in such, interferous, erythropoeitin, this plasminogen activators, deoxyribonucleic etc.  Agro – And Allied Industries This produce materials used in agriculture e.g – Bio fertilizer, such as:- - Phosphate solubilizing bacterial Corynebacterian xerosis, Rhizobium inoculum - Bio – insecticides e.g. using Bacillus thurengiensis sp against Dipteran, Lepidoptera. Bacillus popithae against Japanese beetle Bacillus moitai gains fly lavae, Dipetera larvae. - Fungal sources:-Beaveria brassiana, B.tenella against Colorado beetle and other insects. - Metarhizum antisopliae, Hirsutella thompsoni against citrus mitis. - Verti cillum lecanii against Glasshouse aphids - Viral sources:- Cytophasmic polyhedross is virus – against dendrolimu spectabilis. - Nematode – nosema sp against grasshoppers - Glugea gasti against Boll weevil. - Animal and plant growth hormones, auxins, kinetin, gibberellin. Vaccines, Genetically modif ie d seeds, plant tissue culture for disease free seedlings (Callus), Animal feeds with probiotics swupplements etc. Analytical and diagnostic kits. Bio – analytical and bio sensors kit are produced using whole cells, enzymes or biological components with applications in diagnosis and research e.g. Elisa Kit , PCR kit, Genome Analysis kit etc. CONCLUSION Microbes have obviously been useful to human. They prepared, his biosphere adequately for his eff ic ient survival since 3.5 billion years ago even before his f irst appearance on earth in the recent time of only about 1million years ago. In fact their industrial usefulness has been felt even when their existence was not known. They will remain relevant in further revolutionizing human and industrial development on e a r t h. T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y p a ra l l e l e d w i t h t h e advancement of Biotechnologies related with the development of recombinant DNA Technology. This has rekindled interest in industrial Microbiology which expands the potential for new products and applications including renewable clean energy sources as well as desirable raw materials at industrial mega scale with very huge amount of revenue that gears the economic base of humanity at present. These are clear indicators that microbes are the unsurpassed technocratic stirrers of today’s and even future industrial revolution on earth and extraterrestrial spaces. CLASSIFICATION OF PROKARYOTES BASED ON BERGEYS MANUAL (2013) Prokaryotes are the primitive, simple unicellular organisms without structural organelles in their protoplasm. They are the f irst living things to evolve at some 2.5 – 3.5 billion years ago. The domain archeries and domain bacteria are prokaryotes. The domain archeries have no pathogenic representative known to man yet. They have wall less and pseudomonas layer walled representatives. - There are extreme halophiles, thermophiles and psychrophiles. Are responsible for the biogeocheries and cycling of matter and emery; soil formation, hydrocarbon petroleum (gas oil, coal) formation. - Some are strict anaerobes as segment or commensals in the Gastro-intestinal tract of animals etc. E.g. methanococcus, many are involved in the production of probiotics zenobates, vitamins, pharmaceutically important products etc. There are ﬁve phyla: - Euryrchaeota – e.g. Methanobacter, methanococcus, methanocercina, Archaeoglobus, Natronokader (Halophites) - Crenarchaeota – Desultunococus, Pyrodictuium, Sulfolobus, Thermothega. - Ko rarc he o at a (u nc u l t u rabl e ) – Ko m arc hae u al cryptophini candidatis - Thaumarchaeota – Nitrosopunilus aritmus, Nitrosphaen - Aigarcheata – Ca. Caldianchaeum subterramueg argensis - Based on LUCA – Last universal common ancestor Archaea and Eukanya evolved independently separate from Bacteria. Origin of the Earth:- This was said to have occurred since 4.5 billion years back. By 5.0 billion no earth, only spaces gases and radiations. Solar system and our earth arose from material making up a disc- shapes nebular cloud of dust and gases released by the “supernova” of a massive old star (so called old sun). Our new star – the sun began as a new star found within this cloud. Our new star – the sun began as – a new star found within this cloud. It began to compact, undergo nuclear fusion and release large Q of heat and light. Materials left in the nebular cloud began to clump and fuse due to collission and gravitational pull, forming tiny planets ﬁery hot dust. How might the ﬁrst cells have arisen: RNA,DNA Proteus Origin of cellular life maybe explained by: 1. Surface origin hypothesis- Development of primeval = Primordial soup during proterozoic era some 3.5 billion years ago. Organic / Biochemical evolution forming cellular membrane – autonomous cell. 2. Subsurface origin hypothesis= Cells miginating from below earth surface at hydrothermal springs on the ocean floor with less hostile conditions which more stable. The process involves; i. A steady supply of energy in the form of reduced inorganic compounds e.g. H2S2 may have been available at the spring sites. 2. The Domain Bacteria: Divided into 15 phyla This is made up of up to 90% benef ic ial species while only less than 10% are Pathogenic to man, animals and plants. Unclassiﬁed – Thermovibrio Phylum: Thermotogae: Class; Thermotogic: 1. Order Romi….. 2. Family, Thermotogaceae; genus Thermotogas. 3. Phylum: Deinococcus – Thermus Class: Dienococcuci Order: Dienococcales Family: Dienococcaceae Genus: Dienococcus Order: Thermales Genus: Thermus aquaticus 1. Phylum: Chrysiogenetes 2. Phylum: Chloroflexi Class: Chlorofelxi Order: Chloroflexales Family: Chlorofexaceae Genus: Chloroflexus 1. Phylum: Cyanobacteria Class: Cyanobacteria Genus: Gleocapsa Prochlorococcus Synchococcus Spinilina Mabaena flasaque 1. Phylum: Chlorobi Class: Chlorobia Order: Chlorobiales Family: Chlorobiaceae Genus: Chlorobium sp. Phylum: , , Proteobacteria – Most Gram – negative chemoheterotroplul bacteria; assumed to have arisen    from a common photosynthetic ancestor. They are the largest taxonomic group of bacteria However few are now photosynthetic. Their relationship is based on rRNA studies. Based on LUCA – Last universal common ancestry. NB: The name Proteobacteria was taken from the Greek Mythological term “God proteaus: “Who could assume many shapes”. Are separated into ﬁve classes: α1, B, Class - 1 - alphaproteobacteria Survive in low nutrient environment They can ﬁx Nitrogen E.g. Pe lagibac te r u biq u e – whic h is m o s t abundant bacteira on earth (in Ocean/Marine). Very small, just a little above 0.3µm Has few genes of just 1354 genes. -Azospirllum – can ﬁx Nitrogen -Acetobacter -Gluconobacter} Acetobacteer (Oxidize ethanolic acetic acid). Rickettsia porvazekii} can cause Tick spotted fever. Rickettsia typhi - Echelichia – causes Echelichiosis – which destroys white blood cells and is toxic. - Caulobacter} are budding bacteira (Not binary tissues - Hyphomicrobium} Exist in less nutrients water bath Bioﬁlm. - Rhizobium leguminocerae - Bradyhizobium (symbionts) - Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Crown gall disease/tumor) can insert “plasmid” to other plant cells useful as tool in Biotechnology. - While: Bartonella henselae (Gram – negative bacillus) cajuses cat scratch fever disease in man. - Brucella brucella (coccobacitli) – causes brucellosis in mammals (e.g. rabbit and pig). - Nitrobacter is nitrifying bacteria by oxidizing ammonia. NH4+ oxidizing NO2- - NO3 - Wolbachia – must common infectious bacteria genus in the wo rld as intrac ellular parasite o f insec ts (endosymbiosis). 1. Order: a. Order: Rhadospirallales Family – Rhodospirallaceae e.g. Azospirillum Magnetospirillum Rhodospirillum Family 2: Acetobacteraceae e.g. Acetobacgter gluconacetobacter Stella a. Order 2: Rickettsiales: Family; Rickettsiaceae e.g. Rikettsia, Family: Anaplasmotoceae Unclassiﬁed: e.g. Pelagibacter a. Order 3: Rhodobactereae Family: Rhodobacteriaceae e.g. Paracoccus a. Order 4: Caulobacterales Family: Caulobacteriaceae e.g. Caulobacter a. Order 5: Rhizobiales Family: Rhizobiaceae e.g. agrobacterium tumerfacium, Rhizobium leguminocerae Family: Bartenellaceae e.g. Bartonella hensillae Family: Brucellaceae e.g. Brucella felus Family: Beijerinkiaceae e.g. Beijerinkia Family: bradyrhizobiaceae e.g. Bradyrhizobium Nitrobacter Rhodopseudomonas Family: Hyphomicrobiaceae a. Class: Bekproteabacteria = 6 orders b. Order 1: Buckholderiales Family: Burkholderiaceae e.g. Burkholderia Capravidus Ralstonia Family: Alkaigenaceae, e.g. Alkaligens, Bordetella pertusis Order 2: Hydrogenophilales Family: Hydrogenophilaceae e.g. Thiobacillus thioxidans (H2SO4 former) Order 3: Methylophilales Family: Methylophilaceae e.g. Methalophylus Order 4: Nisseriales Family: Nieseriaceae e.g. Aquaspirillum Niesseria Order 5: Nitrosomonales Family: Nitrosomonaceae e.g. Nitrosomonas family: Spirallacea e.g. Sprillum Order 6: Rhodocyclales Family: Rhodocyclaceae e.g. Propionibacter Zooglea Class III: Gammaproteubacteria (has 10 orders). 1. Order 1: Chromatiales Family: Chromatialeae e.g. Chromacium Thiocapsa. Family: Ectothiarhedospiraceae e.g. Ectothiorhodospira. 1. Order 2: Xanthomonadales Family: Xanthomonadaceae e.g. Xanthomonas 1. Order 3: Thiotrichales Family: Thiotrichaceae e.g. Beggitoa thiomagarita Family: Framcosellaceae e.g. Francisella 1. Order 4: Legionellales Family: Legionellaceae e.g. Legionella Family: Coxiellaceae e.g. Coxiella 1. Order 5: Pseudomonadales F a m i l y : Pseudomonadaceae e.g. Azotobacter Azotobacter Pseudomonas Family: Moraxellaceae e.g. Acinetobacter Moraxella 1. Order 6: Vibrionales; Family Vibrionaceae, e.g. Alivibrio 1. Order 7: Aeromonadales Family: Aeromonadaceae e.g. Aeromonas 1. Order 8: Exterobacteriales Family: enterobacteriaceae Genera: Citrobacter (Cifmendi) e.g. Exterobacter (E. aerogenes Erminia (Erminia sp) Echerichia (E. coli) Klebsiella (K. pneumoniae) Pantoea (Pantoea sp.) Plesiomonas (Plesumonas sp.) Proteus (Proteus vulgaris) Salmonella (S. typhi) Serratia (Serratia mersesens) Shigella (Sh. Flexineri, S. boydii, S. dysentery) Yersinia (Y. Pstis)  Order 9: Pasteurellales Family: Pasteurellaceae e.g. Haemophilus (H. pneumoneae) Pasteurella (P. tsutsugamishi) Mannheimia (Mannheismia sp.) Unclassiﬁed: Casorella Class 4: - - Class Deltaproteobacteria Order: Desulfovibrionales  Family: Desulfovibrionaceae e.g. Desulfovibrio Order: Bdelovibrionales Family: Bdelovibrionaceae e.g. Bdelovibrio (Bd. Sp.) Order: Myxococcales Family: e.g. Myxococcus (Myxococcus sp.) Class 5: - Epsilonproteobacteria Order: Compylobacterales Family: e.g. Compylobacter (C. jejuni) Phylum Firmicules: 2 classes (4 orders). 1. Class: Bacilli a. Family: Bacillales i. Order: Bacillales Family: Bacillaceae e.g. Bacillus sp. (Baccilus anthracis, B. fumilus. Geobacillus. (Geobacillus sp.) Family: Listeriaceae e.g. Listeria (L. monocytogenes) Family: Paenibacillaceae e.g. Paenibacillus (P. sp.) Family: Staphylococcaceae e.g. Staphylococcus (Staph aureus, Staph. Faecea) Family: Thermoactinomycetacea e.g. Thermoactinomyces i. Order: Lactobacillales Family: Lactobacillaceae e.g. Lactobacillus casei, Pediococcus sp. Family: Leuconostaceae e.g.: Leuconostoc Family: Streptococcaceae e.g. Lactococcus Streptococcus (Strep futida) a. Class: Clostridia (2 orders) i. Order: Clostridiales Family: Clostridiaceae e.g. Clostridium sp. (Cl. Tetani) Family: Peptococus e.g. Desultolomoculun unclassiﬁed: e.g. Epalopiscium i. Order: Thermoanaerobacteriales Family: Thermoanaeobacteriaceae e.g. TGhermoanaerobacterium Phylum: Tenericules (3 orders) 1. Order: Mycoplasmatales Family: Mycoplasmataceae e.g. Mycoplasma gondii Ureaplasma sp. 1. Order: Entomoplasmatales Family: Sporplasmataceae e.g. Spiroplasma 1. Order: Anaeroplasmatales Family: Erysiphelothrichidae e.g. Erysiphelothrix rhusiopathae Phylum: Actinobacteria (1 class only 2 orders, 10 families) Class: Actinobacteria 1. Order: Actinomycetales Family: Actinomyetaceae e.g. Actinomyces actinoadura Arcanobacterium Suborder: Micrococcinae Family: Micrococcaceae e.g. Micrococcus Family: Bevibacteriaceae e.g. Brevibacterium Family: Cellulomkonadaceae e.g. Tropheryma Family: Corynebacteriaceae e.g. Trophryma Family: Corynebacteriaceae e.g. Corynebacterium dipathau. Family: Mycobacteriaceae e.g. Mycobacterium sp., M. okoe, M. avium, M. bovis, M. tuberculosis, M. aﬁzam, M. lepray, Family: Nocardiaceae e.g. Nocardia asteroids, N. abscesse, N. otitidiscarium, N. faccinica, N. nova, N. madurae. Rhodococcus Family: Micromonosporacea e.g. Micromonospora pestis Family: Streptomycetaceae e.g. Streptomyces somoaliensis Family: Frankiaceae e.g. Frankia sp. 1. Order: Biﬁdobacteriales Family, Biﬁdobacteria e.g. Biﬁdobacterium sp. Phylum: Planctomycetes 1. Order: Planctomycetales Family: Planctomycetaceae e.g. Gemmata sp. Phylum: Chalmydiae 1. Order: Chlamydiales Family: Chlamydiaceae e.g. Chlamydia trichomatis chlamydophila sp. Phylum: Chalmydiae 1. Order: Chlamydiales Family: Chlamydiaceae e.g. Chlamydia trichomatis chlamydophila sp. Phylum: Spirochaetes Class: Sporochaetes 1. Order: Spirochaetes Family: Spirochaetacea e.g. Treponema pallidum Family: Leptospiracea Phylum: Bacteriodetes (3 classes) Class: Bacteriodates 1. Order: Bacteriodales F a m i l y : Porphyromenadaceae e.g. Porphyromonas Family: Prevotellaceae e.g. Prevotella Class: Flavobacteria 1. Order: Flavobacteriales Family: Flavobaceriaceae F a m i l y : Flavobacteriaceae Class: Sphingobacteria 1. Order: Aphinfovacteriales Family: Flexibacteriaceae e.g. Cytophaga Phylum: Fusobacteria Class: Fusobacteria 1. Order: Fusobacteriales Family: Fusobacteriaceae e.g. Fusobacterium sp. Streptobacillus sp. References Duwas Rabi Suaj(2018)ed. Elements of Microbiology 2nd Ed. Bayero Univeristy Press ISBN 998-998-54522-2-8 Pp187 TETFUND, Nigeria. Gerard, J.Tortora, Berdell R. Funke, Christine,L.Case. (2013) eds. Microbiology Introduction 11th ed. Pearson Publishers Boston USA.Pp.799-815 Lateef A. Evariste, BUK (2021) eds. Mcrobials Nanobiotechnology Principles and Applications Pp424pp Springer Native ISBN978-981-33-4776-2 SINGAPORE PTE Ltd. 152 Bench Road. No 21-401/04/Gaateway East, Singapore 189721 Michael, T.Madigan, John,M. Martinko, Paul, V.Dunlop, David, P.Clark (2015)eds. Brock Biology of Microbiology 12 th ed. Pearson International edition San Francisco CA 94111.Pp 737-759. Ogbonna, J, Enweani, I.B et al (2013) eds. Fundamental of Industrial Medical Biotechnology. A publication of the Biotechnology Society of Nigeria. Universal Academic Services. Printed in China. Pp. 119 Chapter 678 Timothy O. Adejumo, Ralf T. Vogele (2021) eds. Biopesticides Botanicals and microorganisms for improving Agriculture and human health, Lagos Verlag Berlin Gm BH ISBN 978-3-8325-5264-0 Pp290 Thank You

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