Introduction to Sociology PDF

Chapter One: M eaning and Nature of Sociology 1.1 Definition In the early part of the nineteenth century, the study of society was institutionalized through the creation of the discipline of sociology. During this period, the French philosopher and socialist Auguste Comte coined the...

Chapter One: M eaning and Nature of Sociology 1.1 Definition In the early part of the nineteenth century, the study of society was institutionalized through the creation of the discipline of sociology. During this period, the French philosopher and socialist Auguste Comte coined the term “sociology”. Sociology is a new branch of social science, which primarily focused on society (social behavior). The term Sociology comes from the Latin “socius” meaning “companionship” and the Greek “logos”, meaning “science or study”. Literally, therefore, sociology means the study or the science of human society. Sociology can also be defined as referring to the formal study of how humans behave in groups. Sociology tends to focus on how human groups originate, how they are organized, and how they relate to one another. It is the scientific study of human societies and human behavior in the many groups that make up a society. Sociology studies human society at three levels: Society as a whole, Groups and associations, and Individuals within the social settings. It is not easy to give a clear and comprehensive definition of sociology since it covers a wide variety of human relationships. Different sociologists have given several definition of sociology, including: 1) “Sociology is a scientific study or science of society or of social phenomenon.” L. F. Ward 2) “It is the study of the relationship between man and his human environment.” H. P. Fairchild 3) “Sociology is the study of human interactions, and interrelations, and their conditions and consequences.” M. Ginsberg 4) “Sociology seeks to discover the principles of cohesion and of order within the social structure.” Mac Iver 5) “Sociology is a systematic study of the origin, growth and development of institution as operated by the physical, mental and moral forces.” A. Giddens 1.2 The Subject Matter of Sociology The subject matter of sociology is everywhere. This is why people sometimes wrongly believe that sociology just explains the obvious. But sociologists bring a uniq ue subject matter and perspective to understanding social behavior and social change. In general, there are three paths that are available for delineating the subject matter of sociology: 1. The historical path: whereby we seek through study of the classical sociological writings to find the central traditional concerns and interests of sociology as an intellectual discipline. The historical path offers us the opportunity to benefit from the wisdom of the past. In brief, we ask, “What did the founding fathers say?” 2. The empirical path: whereby we study current sociological work to discover those subjects to which the discipline gives most attention. In other words, we ask, “What are contemporary sociologists doing?” Sociology is an empirical discipline. This means that sociological conclusions are based on care ful and systematic observations. In this way, sociology is very different from ordinary common sense. 1  3. The analytical path: whereby we arbitrarily divide and delineate some larger subject matter and allocate it among different disciplines. Sociology is a scientific way of thinking about society and its influence on human groups. Observation, reasoning, and logical analysis are the tools of the sociologist, coupled with knowledge of the large body of theoretical and analytical work done by previous sociologists and others. Sociology is inspired by the fascination people have for the thoughts and actions of other people, but it goes far beyond casual observations. It attempts to build on observations that are objective and accurate to create analyses that are reliable and that can be validated by others. 1.3 The Sociological Imagination Sociologists talk about the connection between learning to understand and then change society as being the sociological imagination. C. Wright Mills (1916–62), a colorful and controversial professor at New York’s Columbia University, coined this term. Sociological imagination is an approach to the understanding of human behavior by placing it in its broader social context. To find out why people do what they do, sociologists look at social location, where people are located in history and on a particular society. Sociologists focus on such characteristics of people, as their job, income, education, gender, and race. The center of the sociological perspective lies the question “how people are influenced by society”. We usually think and speak of peoples’ behavior although it is caused by their sex, or their race, or some other factor transmitted by their genes. According to Mills, the sociological imagination is the ability to see the interrelationships between biography and history, or the connections between our individual lives and larger social forces at work shaping our lives (e.g., racism or political agendas). Mills urged us to understand that our own personal fortunes or troubles (e.g., gain/loss of a job, divorce) must be understood in terms of larger public issues (e.g., the health of the economy, societal changes in the institution of marriage). They cannot be fully understood outside of this social context. The sociological perspective helps us to escape from this narrow personal view by exposing the broader social context that underlies human behavior. It helps us to see the links between what people do and the social setting (social structure) that shapes their behavior. Mills felt that developing a sociological imagination will help us to avoid becoming “victims” of social forces and better control our own lives. By understanding how social mechanisms operate, we ca n better work to bring about change and influence history. Hence, as we learn to use the sociological imagination, we readily apply it to our daily lives. In doing so, it provides us four general benefits, including: a. The sociological perspective becomes a way of thinking a 'form of consciousness’ that challenges familiar understandings of ourselves and of others, so that we can critically assess the truth of commonly assumptions. b. The sociological perspective enables us to assess both opportunities and the constraints that characterize lives. Sociological thinking leads us to see that, better or worse, our society operates in a 2  particular way. It helps us to see the pattern and order found in all societies. Moreover, in the game of we may decide how to play our cards, but it is society that deals us the hand. The more we understand the game, then, the more effective players we will be. Sociology helps us t understand what we are likely and unlikely to accomplish for ourselves and how we can pursue our goals most effectively. c. The sociological perspective empowers us to be active participants in our society. Without an awareness of how society operates, we are likely to accept the status quo. We might just think that this is how all societies are, or how all people behave 'naturally'. But the greater our understanding of the operation of society, the more we can take an active part in shaping social life. d. The sociological perspective helps us to recognize human differences and human suffering and to confront the challenges of living in a diverse world. 1.4 Significance of Sociology Some of significances of sociology, including the following (Indrani, 2003: 5-6):  Sociology as a scientific study of society is of great importance or a clear understanding and p lanning of society. Sociological knowledge is necessary to understand the diverse social experiences of a large variety of institutions and organizations as well as policies, for social betterments are made on that basis.  It provides knowledge of individual’s relation to society and such knowledge is necessary for every individual’s relation to fellow beings. Human understanding between individuals and different cultural groups is obtained by the scientific study of society. Sociology has changed our outlook with regard to the problems of deviance and crime, etc through the science of deviance, criminology, penology and criminal justice system.  Sociology has made great contribution to enrich human culture. Culture has been made richer by the contribution of sociology. Sociology has given a training to have rational approach to the questions concerning oneself, one’s religion, customs, moral and institutions. Sociology studies role of the institutions in the development of the individual. It is through sociology that scientific study of the great fundamental social institutions; the relation of the individual and society, the home and family, the school and education, the church and religion, the state and government, industry and work, etc is being made.  Sociology is useful as a teaching subject. It is being accorded as important place in the curriculum of colleges and universities because it keeps us up-to-date on modern situations; contributes in making good citizens; contributes to the solution of community problems; adds to the knowledge of the society; helps the individual to find his relations to society; and Identifies good government within the community. 3 1.5 The Scope of Sociology Macro and Micro sociology Some sociologists concentrate on the study of small groups and the patterns and processes of human social relations, i.e. face to face interactions between humans. This part of sociology is known as Micro sociology. Other most sociologists concentrate on large groups, events or societies as a w hole. This large scope sociology is known as macro sociology. Macro sociologists attempt to explain the fundamental patterns and processes of large-scale social relations. 1.6 The Relationship of Sociology with Other Disciplines There are different sciences dealing with different aspects of nature and human experience. The classification of knowledge into various sciences is broadly under three categories, including: the physical sciences, the material sciences and the social sciences. There are other socia l sciences also in addition to sociology which study society. Among them are Psychology, Anthropology, History, Economics, Political Science, and Philosophy, etc. As one of the social sciences, sociology shares the basic common element that all the social sciences attempt to understand human behavior. Accordingly, in the modern era, no sociologists can deny the utility of the other social sciences. In so doing, the social science may use each other’s methodology to understand human behavior. They differ fro m one another, however, in their unique approach, the concepts they use, the questions they pose, and the solutions they reach and suggest. For instance, if the social problem to be investigated is the problem of low productivity, the economist may suggest the improvement of the machinery, where as the sociologist may suggest the creation of good working conditions as solutions to the problem. In general, we can see as sociology has many similarities to the other social sciences. Like political scientists, sociologists study how people govern one another, especially the impact of various forms of government on people's lives. Like economists, sociologists are concerned with what happens to the goods and services of a society; however, sociologists focus on the social consequences of production and distribution. Like anthropologists, sociologists study culture; they have a particular interest in the social consequences of material goods, group structure, and belief systems, as well as in how people communicate with one another. Like psychologists, sociologists are also concerned with how people adjust to the difficulties of life. Given these overall similarities, then, what distinguishes sociology from the other social sciences? Unlike political scientists and economists, sociologists do not concentrate on a single social institution. Unlike anthropologists, sociologists focus primarily on industrialized societies. And unlike psychologists, sociologists stress factors external to the individual to determine what influences. 4 Chapter Two: Origin and Development of Sociology 2.1 Early Origins and Development of Sociology Sociology is specifically the offspring of the 18 th and the 19th century philosophy and has been viewed as a reaction against the frequently non-scientific approaches of classical philosophy to social phenomenon. Today's sociology is not something, which has been raised like a phoenix from its ashes, rather it has undergone through several stages of developments. Different philosophers and religious authorities of ancient and medieval societies made countless observations about human behaviors. However, they do not test or verify these observations scientifically, even though these observations often became the bases for moral codes of that time. Sociology, as a distinctive way of thinking about society, was concurrent with the rise of modernity; partly, means the rise of scientific way of thinking. The idea of modernity originated as an account of the kind of institutions, ideas and behavior that grew out of the decline of medieval society in Europe. In the most basic sense, modernity is the mode of our time (here and now). It is also an attitude of critical reflection on the past and critical distance from the future. Therefore, modernity evokes the idea of radically changing time. 2.2 Factors That Contributed To the Development of Sociology There are various social currents that put momentum in the development of sociology in the 19 th Century, including: a) Political Revolution One of the most influences behind the emergence of sociological thought was the political modernity (the rise of the national law and democracy), following different revolutionary movements, starting with the French revolution in1789. This revolution was quite different from rebellions of the previous times. In the French revolution for the first time in history there took place the overall dissolution of social order by the movement guided by secular ideas. The rise of the state was the leading consideration for numerous legal and political writers in the 17 th and 18th centuries. The idea of French philosophers (Voltaire Montesquieu and Rousseau) included the percept (teaching, principle) that “all people are equal before the law and are innocent until proved guilty.” They also argued that illness and misfortune are not symptoms of divine maledictions, but have natural and social causes. Throughout the 18 th and 19th centuries, these ideas led numerous projects to reform and national administration of the institutions of social life, including the foundation of statute, schools, hospitals, prisons, and police force. B) Socio-economic Modernity: the rise of capitalism, industries, cities, etc. The industrial revolution was as important as politica l revolution for the emergence of social thinking (sociological theory), mainly in the 19 th and 20th centuries. This industrial revolution was not a single event, but many interrelated developments that culminated in the transformation of the western world from predominantly agricultural to an overwhelmingly industrial system. Majority of the peasant left 5 their farms behind for the industrial occupation offered by the growing factories. Bureaucracies arose to provide many service needed by industry and the emerging capitalist economic system. It is usually traced to the Great Britain in the late 18 th century and spread in the 19th century throughout the Western Europe and the USA. The industrial revolution is sometimes presented as a set of technical innovations. But these technical innovations are only part of the much broader sets of social and economic changes. People began to migrate from the surrounding areas to nearby urban centers. Industrialization and urbanization were at the heart of the transforma tions that have irreversibly dissolved most traditional forms of society. The impacts of these transformations on many societies were both negative and positive changes. However, what attracted the attention of many early theorists were not the positive consequences but the negative effect of such changes (chaos and disorder especially in France) they were united to restore order of society. This interest in the issue of social order, therefore, became the major concern of early social analysis. Sociology came in to being as though caught up in the initial series of changes brought about by the two great revolutions, and sought to understand the conditions of their emergence and their likely consequences. The idea of free- market economy emerged. This system profited a few while impoverished the majority who worked for long hours for wage. A reaction against the industrial system and against capitalism in general followed and led the labor movement as well as various radical movements aimed at overthrowing the capitalist system. The industrial revolution, capitalism and the reaction against them all involved an enormous upheaval in western societies. This upheaval affected sociologists greatly. K. Marx, E. Durkheim, and M. Weber spent their lives studying these problems to develop programs that would help to solve them. c) The Rise of Socialism K. Marx was an active supporter of the overthrown of capitalist system and its replacement by socialist system. However, Weber and Durkheim were opposing to socialism. They fear socialism more than they did capitalism. In fact, in many cases, the rise of sociological imaginations in the early times was a reaction against socialism. Generally, processes of industrialization and urbanization, and ideas of democracy and enlightenment were all central considerations for the 18 th and 19th century social thinkers. d) Intellectual Factors The emergence and development of sociology was speeded up by a large number of intellectual movements and contributions. The movements include the rise of political economy, utilitarianism, liberalism, positivism, Marxism, functionalism, and action theory. The idea of positivism, which was predominantly proposed by A. Comte as a scientific study of social phenomena, was the corner stone of sociological thoughts for the most parts of sociology’s early history. The subsequent writers were either expanding on or modifying this idea only. 6 e) Colonization (exposure to different cultures) The late 19th century was a period of extensive colonization. Some European countries got colony in North America, Africa, South America, and Asia. This colonialism resulted in cross-cultural contacts among peoples of these different continents of the world. During this time, academic curiosity was increased and many scholars began to study this cross-cultural contact. f) Secularization Before the 19th century sacred outlooks dominated western European thinking. This sacred outlook made many aspects of human society; including government believe to have been predetermined by God. However, secularism has become one of the principles of industrial societies and people became to think differently g) The demand for sociological inquiry in planning Governments needed to have social policies so as to solve different socia l problems like homelessness, crime, unemployment, etc. Therefore, governments used the applications of sociological understandings to get rid of the social problems through appropriate social policy formulation. 2.3 Founding Fathers of Sociology As it has already been noted, philosophers and religious authorities of ancient and medieval societies made countless observations about human behavior. Their observations were not tested or verified scientifically; nevertheless, they often became the foundation o f moral codes. In the 19th century European theorists including Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber and Karl Marx made pioneering contributions to the development of a science of human behavior, sociology. These classical sociologists profile and major works have been demonstrated in the following pages. 2.3.1 Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Comte was a French social theorist who lived in a period when France was at a great chaos as a result of the French Revolution. He was the man who coined the word “sociology” from Latin ‘Socius’ and the Greek “Logos” to apply to the science of human behavior. A Biographical Sketch Auguste Comte was born in Montpelier, France, on January 19, 1798. His parents were middle class, and his father eventually rose to the position of official local agent for the tax collector. Although a precocious student, Comte never received a college-level degree. He and his whole class were dismissed from the Ecole Poly technique for their rebelliousness and their political ideas. Auguste Comte died on September 5, 1857. 7 All the sciences, according to him, share an over-all framework of logic and method; all seek to uncover universal laws governing the particular phenomena with which they deal. If we discover the laws governing the human society, Comte believe, we will be able to shape our own destiny in much the same way as science has allowed us to control events in the natural world. Positive Philosophy is his well-known book and in this book and other of his writings he showed the possibility of the scientific study of society. He advocated positivism in that social phenomena could be studied scientifically and proposed methods of studying it through observation, experimentation, comparison and history. By using positive (scientific) methods, Comte believed, it is possible to study and provide solutions to existing social problems. The collective facts of history and society are subject to laws and not to individual volition (free will), according to Comte. Comte treated society as divided in to two: social statics and social dynamics. Social statics refers to the investigations of the laws of action and reaction of the different parts of the social system. The parts of the society can’t be studied separately as if they had an independent existence. Instead, they must be seen as a mutual relation forming a whole that compels us to treat them in a combination. If social statics is the study of how the parts of the society are interrelated, social dynamics was the focus on the whole societies as the unit of analysis and to show how societies develop and change through time. Comte was convinced that all societies moved through certain fixed stages of development, and they progressed to an ever-increasing perfection. There are three stages of development in laws of human thought: theological, metaphysical, and the positive. These stages characterize the development of both knowledge and society. The Three Stages in the Laws of Human Development In 1830, he published the first volume of ‘positivism’. In this book and other his writings he showed the possibility of the scientific study of the society. Comte is the first to create positivism, which is defined as the belief that social phenomena could be treated scientifically; and he proposed methods of observation, comparison, history, and experiment. Positivism is a core idea in his sociology that he named as a queen of sciences. In his positivist explanation, he formulated three stages of the laws of human development. According to his laws of the three stages, Comte made analogy of human evolution with individual evolution as follows: Individual evolution human evolution Childhood-------------------------------------------theological Adolescence----------------------------------------metaphysical Adulthood------------------------------------------scientific (positivistic) According to Comte, human race (society) is evolved from the three stages of evolution: theological, metaphysical, and scientific illustrated as: 8  Theological stage (