Introduction to Microprocessors and Microcontrollers PDF

### **Introduction to Microprocessors and Microcontrollers** - **Course Focus**: - Microprocessor and microcontroller architecture and programming. - Interfacing techniques, memory systems, and bus standards. - Developing assembly and high-level programs for these systems. #...

### **Introduction to Microprocessors and Microcontrollers** - **Course Focus**: - Microprocessor and microcontroller architecture and programming. - Interfacing techniques, memory systems, and bus standards. - Developing assembly and high-level programs for these systems. ### **Microprocessor** #### **What is a Microprocessor?** - An integrated circuit (IC) that functions as a computer's CPU. - Performs arithmetic, logic, and control operations. - **History**: - 1971: Intel 4004 (4-bit, first microprocessor). - 1974: Intel 8080 (8-bit, universal). - Intel 8086 introduced the **x86 architecture**, used in modern PCs. - **Moore\'s Law**: Transistor density doubles every two years. #### **Components of a Microprocessor** - **ALU**: Handles arithmetic (add, subtract) and logic (AND, OR). - **Control Unit**: Manages execution of instructions. - **Registers**: High-speed storage for temporary data: - Examples: Program Counter (PC), Accumulator, Instruction Register. - **Buses**: - **Data Bus**: Transfers actual data (bidirectional). - **Address Bus**: Identifies memory locations (unidirectional). - **Control Bus**: Sends control signals (e.g., interrupts, clock). #### **Types of Microprocessors** 1. **Based on Architecture**: - **Von Neumann**: Shared memory for data/instructions. - **Harvard**: Separate memory for data/instructions. - **CISC**: Complex instructions, fewer clock cycles per task (e.g., x86). - **RISC**: Simpler instructions, executed faster (e.g., ARM, MIPS). 2. **Based on Applications**: - General-purpose: Found in PCs (Intel Core, AMD Ryzen). - Embedded: Used in devices like washing machines. - Digital Signal Processors (DSPs): Optimized for audio/video processing. - GPUs: Specialized for rendering graphics and parallel processing. - Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs): Designed for a single task. #### **2.4 Key Technical Parameters** - **Clock Speed**: Measured in GHz; determines execution speed. - **Cores**: Number of CPUs in the chip; more cores = better multitasking. - **Cache**: Fast memory close to the CPU; stores frequently accessed data. - **Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)**: Interface between hardware and software. - **Manufacturing Process**: Smaller transistor size = faster, efficient chips (measured in nm). ### **Microcontroller** #### **What is a Microcontroller?** - A compact computer on a single chip, containing: - CPU, RAM, Flash Memory, I/O peripherals. - **Uses**: Embedded systems, IoT devices, robotics. #### **Components of a Microcontroller** - CPU, Memory (RAM and Flash), Timers, ADC/DAC converters, I/O interfaces. - **Peripheral Interfaces**: UART, SPI, I2C for communication. #### **Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller** **Feature** **Microprocessor** **Microcontroller** ------------------ ----------------------------------- -------------------------------- **Integration** Needs external memory Self-contained chip **Applications** PCs, data centers IoT, sensors, appliances **Performance** High clock speed, general-purpose Low clock speed, task-specific **Cost** Expensive Inexpensive #### **Common Types of Microcontrollers** 1. **8-bit**: Toys, remote controls. 2. **16-bit**: Medical devices, automotive systems. 3. **32-bit**: Gaming consoles, industrial automation. 4. **RISC-Based**: Efficient and fast (e.g., ARM Cortex). 5. **FPGA-Based**: Customizable for specific applications. ### **SAP-1 Architecture** #### **What is SAP-1?** - Simplified computer architecture for teaching. - Based on **Von Neumann architecture**. - **Components**: - Registers (Accumulator, Program Counter, etc.). - ALU: Adds and subtracts 8-bit data. - RAM: Stores instructions/data. - Control Unit: Executes basic instructions (LDA, ADD, SUB, OUT, HLT). #### **How SAP-1 Works?** - **Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle**: - **Fetch**: PC sends address to MAR; data fetched into IR. - **Decode**: CU identifies instruction. - **Execute**: ALU performs operations or transfers data. ### **Modern Processors** #### **Desktop Processors** 1. **Intel Core i9-14900K**: - 24 cores, hybrid architecture (P-cores + E-cores). - 6.0 GHz max turbo speed. - DDR5 memory and PCIe 5.0 support. 2. **AMD Ryzen 9 7950X3D**: - 16 cores, 3D V-Cache for gaming. - TSMC 5nm process, PCIe 5.0. 3. **Apple M3 Max**: - 3nm process, up to 40-core GPU, unified memory. #### **Mobile Processors** 1. **Dimensity 9300**: - All-big-core design, 4 Cortex-X4 cores. - Supports 4K, 180Hz refresh rate. 2. **Snapdragon 8 Gen 3**: - 1 Cortex-X4, 3 Cortex-A720 performance cores. - AI capabilities and gaming optimizations. 3. **Apple A18**: - TSMC 3nm process, 16-core Neural Engine. ### **Development Boards** 1. **Arduino Uno**: - Beginner-friendly, based on ATmega328P. - 16 MHz clock, 14 digital I/O pins, 6 analog inputs. 2. **ESP32**: - Dual-core processor, WiFi + Bluetooth, 34 GPIO pins. 3. **STM32**: - High-performance, supports multiple communication interfaces. 4. **Raspberry Pi Pico**: - Dual-core ARM Cortex M0+, 26 GPIO pins, PIO state machines. ### **Trends in Microprocessor Industry** 1. **Quantum Computing Integration**: Combining classical and quantum computing. 2. **AI Chips**: Neural engines for machine learning tasks. 3. **Advanced Manufacturing**: Transition to 3nm and 2nm processes. 4. **Energy Efficiency**: Performance-per-watt improvements. 5. **Enhanced Security**: Hardware encryption, real-time threat detection.