Introduction To Industrial And Organizational Psychology PDF

**INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY** 1. The Field of Industrial and Organizational Psychology - May be known under different names depending on country - looks at how people behave at work and how their actions impact the organization\'s success and employee well-...

**INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY** 1. The Field of Industrial and Organizational Psychology - May be known under different names depending on country - looks at how people behave at work and how their actions impact the organization\'s success and employee well-being - Work on organizational psychology focuses on two main objects of research (individual and organization) 1. Work psychology: often referred to as "human resource management" 2. Organizational psychology: "organizational behavior) Human Resource Management - How people are employed, managed, and developed in organizations - Goals: - Supporting organization in achieving its objectives, Contributing to a high-performance culture, Ensuring availability of talented and skilled employees, Maintaining positive employee-management relationships, Providing satisfactory employee experience, Promoting the well-being of the employees, Achieving social legitimacy by applying an ethical approach to people management - Tasks to achieve these goals: - Human resource planning, Workflow analysis, job analysis, job description, job specifications, Recruitment and selection, Induction, training, and development, Career development, Job evaluation and compensation, Performance management Organizational Behavior - A field of study that aims to understand, explain, predict, and improve human behavior within organizations (delt with on three levels) 1. Micro level: focuses on individuals 2. Meso level: focuses on groups and teams 3. Macro level: focuses on entire organization - Topics organizational psychology typically deals with: - Individual differences and inclusion, Motivation, Communication, leadership, Group dynamics, Health and well-being, Organizational design, development, and culture 2. Milestones in the Development of Industrial and Organizational Psychology - Important historical steps in the development: - Scientific management, Classic bureaucracy, Principles of organization, Industrial psychology, The human relations movement, Neo-human relations, Systems approach, Contingency approach Scientific Management - maximizing efficiency and productivity through the scientific study of work movements - Taylor defended his methods against criticism, particularly from trade unions, who felt his techniques exploited workers - \"Taylorism\" was further developed by Frank Gilbreth, who, along with his wife, introduced motion study as a core element of work analysis in engineering - "scientific management is about maximizing efficiency and getting the most possible production out of employees" - He believed that more streamlined, objective, and effective work performance could be achieved through scientific study of specific movements of all work Classical Bureaucracy - "the effective organization of a large number of employees in a larger organizational structure" - Main features of a bureaucratic organization: - Selection and promotion (based of expertise rather than friendship), Hierarchy of authority, Rules and regulations, Division of labor, Written documentation, Separate ownership - Bureaucracy is superior to all other forms of administration (characterized by precision, speed, unambiguity, file knowledge, community, discretion, uniformity, tight subordination, savings in friction, material, and personal costs) - Henri Fayol (Industrial and management thinker) developed 14 management principles to be flexible and adaptable in application during the beginning of the 20^th^ century: 1. Division of work 2. Authority 3. Discipline 4. Unity of command 5. Unity of direction 6. Subordination of individual interest to the general interest 7. Remuneration 8. Centralization 9. Scalar chain 10. Order 11. Equity 12. Stability of tenure of personnel 13. Initiative 14. Esprit de dorps Industrial Psychology - The study of individual differences and the influence of working conditions and methods on the efficiency of employees The Human Relations Movement - Associated with the "Hawthorne studies" - Purpose of studies was to determine the behavior of people in the workplace and examine impact of varying working conditions on employee productivity - Further studies examined the consequences of changes on productivity (studies highlighted the social nature of humans and established the beginning of the human relations movement Neo-Human Relations - Takes more scientific approach to functionality of organizations - Connection between personality and leadership, Group dynamics, Work motivation Systems Approach - Findings of study promoted idea of organizations as open socio-technical systems - Each system has four characteristics: 1. Comprises several interdependent and interrelated subsystems 2. Is open and dynamic 3. Strives for equilibrium 4. Has multiple purposes, objectives, and functions, some of which are in conflict Contingency Approach - Emphasizes the fit between an organization's processes and situational characteristics - Does not assume that there are simple solutions to problems in organizations (problems depend on many factors) 3. Research Methods in Industrial and Organizational Psychology - The work of industrial and organizational psychologists should have a good theoretical and empirical basis - Requires developing and testing theories with the use of the scientific method (defining and controlling the variables used, analyzing data, testing hypothesis, verifying results) to gather information on various topics that affect life organizations - Used always dependent on nature of problem - Ethical aspects always play important role in psychological research Defining the Problem and Formulating Hypotheses - Formulating problem or research question always forms basis of every research process - questions arise from both practical experiences and research, often driven by changes in an organization\'s environment - next step is to formulate hypothesis about research question - usually derived from relevant theories and research related to them - comprehensive literature review is also important - relevant study variables emerge after hypothesis formulation - distinction is made between "independent variables" (variables one attempts to control to examine extend to which they change manifestation of dependent variables) and "dependent variables" - sometimes "control variables" are collected (not the focus of the study but can influence the dependent variable) Techniques and Settings - methods often applied in industrial and organizational psychology: - Laboratory experiments - allow full control over independent variables to study their effect on dependent variables, minimizing the impact of other factors - often criticized for being artificial and not reflecting real-life situations, a limitation addressed by field experiments - Field experiments - Use experimental and control groups - Conditions in experimental group are manipulated not in control group - Results of the two groups are compared - Field studies - conducted in real environments and often uses a mix of methods like questionnaires, interviews, observations, and document analysis - can be either descriptive (providing an overview of characteristics), explanatory (exploring relationships, like how pay affects motivation), or combination of both approaches - Questionnaires - gathering responses from many people at once, but often have low response rates, which can affect the validity of the study - incentives can help increase participation - Surveys are cost- and time-efficient, the questionnaires should use reliable + valid instruments - Interviews - three types of interviews: structured (with a fixed set of questions), semi-structured (with key questions but more flexibility), unstructured (allowing free discussion on various topics) - interviews collect qualitative data, which can be more or less structured depending on the type - can be used for exploratory purposes in the early stages of research - Observation - Allows researchers to draw conclusions about their thoughts and feelings - Can be used to validate self-reporting measures - Can be overt (those observed know about observation) or covert - Analyzing documents - can reveal key events and provide context for other data, but researchers must interpret them carefully and use them alongside other methods for a complete view - Case studies - Aim to examine activities or behavior of individuals or groups within an organization in detail - Can provide basis for further investigation - Action research - focuses on solving everyday problems by applying scientific methods to practical issues - involves employees as co-researchers, sharing findings for feedback and making plans flexible to incorporate new insights 4. Tasks and Competencies of Industrial and Organizational Psychologists - A distinctive feature of industrial and organizational psychologists is that they consider different levels in their thinking (individual team and organization levels) to explain individual thinking and actions Tasks - Explaining individual, group, and organizational behavior: - (industrial and organbinzational) Psychologists must be able to explain the functioning of individuals, teams, and organizations to stakeholders based on psychological theories and models - Stakeholders (manager, human resource development, health management) may bring concerns to psychologists which they then address using appropriate methods - Measuring behavior and predicting potential: - Psychologists observe and record employee behavior under controlled and systematic conditions using validated instruments that reflect the basis of their methodological training - They use test results in relation to the findings from the relevant literature to make valid decisions - Contributing to individual, group, and organization development: - Psychologists need to apply their knowledge to create effective interventions that positively impact individuals, teams, and organizations - They should anticipate and address potential resistance and misunderstandings, ensuring that their designs consider everyone\'s interests and provide benefits to all involved - Translating research findings and empowering potential users thereof: - psychologists advocate for psychology\'s findings, but many organizational decisions ignore this knowledge due to lack of awareness or cultural barriers - The challenge for these psychologists is to present their insights in a way that non-psychologists can easily understand Challenges - Fraudulent practitioners (damage general trust in consultants through their questionable actions) - Credentials and certification (often not enough to get sufficient information about them or their work) - Communication with management and other decision makers (a complex psychologists idea must be translated into simple and persuasive language) - Resistance to change (resistance should be accepted as a legitimate reaction and intervention should be adjusted accordingly) - Balancing act (psychologists must constantly deal with a balancing act between contradictory requirements of research and practice) Competencies - To fulfill all tasks optimally, psychologists must have varied competencies - There are nine central competencies, grouped into three clusters: 1. The first cluster: \"knowledge of theory and research\" - involves understanding psychological theories, research, and ethics 2. The second cluster: \"research and statistical skills" - includes using research methods, statistics, and critically evaluating studies 3. The third cluster: \"professional skills\" - focuses on applying psychological knowledge to real-life situations, career awareness, and effective communication skills A table of research papers Description automatically generated 2. **Job Analysis** 5. Definition and Purpose of the Job Analysis - Job analysis procedures identify specific tasks and responsibilities required for a job, including skills and environmental conditions - They can be classified by: 1. Specificity: General work activities or specific tasks 2. Source: Data from job incumbents, analysts, or experts 3. Descriptive Scale: Frequency, importance, difficulty, and time spent - Job analyses help with job planning, optimization, recruitment, and employee development 6. Methodical Approaches of the Job Analysis - Before starting job analysis, several questions need to be answered to determine its focus and how to proceed - Answers form basis for future procedure and methods applied - There are five basic methods used for job analysis: 1. Observation: Watching how tasks are performed, effective for simple, manual tasks but less so for mental activities 2. Interview: Gathering information directly from employees, can be structured or unstructured, and may involve multiple people for a complete view 3. Questionnaire: Collecting data from many people cost-effectively through questions about job tasks, requirements, and conditions 4. Critical Incident Technique: A type of interview focusing on behaviors crucial to job success, aiming to identify specific actions rather than opinions 5. Job Incumbent Diary: Employees keep detailed logs of their tasks and schedules, providing insights into high-thinking jobs but can be inconsistent. - Ideally, a combination of these methods is used to create a thorough job analysis 7. Procedure for Job Analyses - Job analysis is a systematic step by step approach  - Job description: written description of essential contents of a given job - Job title, Summary, Key performance areas, Equipment, Environment - Job specification: the competencies required for a job - Educational and training, Experience, Special skills, Physical and mental abilities, Emotional characteristics 8. Methods of Job Analysis - Well known job analyses procedures include the Job Diagnostics Survey (JSD), the Positions Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ), Critical Incident Technique (CIT) Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) - a self-report tool used to analyze jobs based on the job characteristics model - assesses a job\'s motivational potential by evaluating five core dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback - dimensions lead to three critical psychological states: the meaningfulness of the work, employee\'s sense of responsibility for outcomes, and their knowledge of how well they are performing A diagram of work activities Description automatically generated - assessment includes 83 questions across 16 scales, measuring five main job characteristics, two additional characteristics, critical psychological states, job satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation - also considers moderator variables like individual growth need strength and context satisfaction. Each question is rated on a seven-point scale 3. **Job Satisfaction and Work Motivation** 9. Job Satisfaction - "a set of cognitive and effective responses to the job situation" The Facet Approach Versus the Global Approach to Job Satisfaction - Job satisfaction can be measured in different ways - One method focuses on various aspects of a job, like relationships with colleagues, job security, working conditions, and salary, and averages individual evaluations - Another method looks at overall work experience for a broader view - The facet approach assumes all aspects are equally important and related, which can be problematic - The global approach is preferred for an overall measurement, but research supports the facet approach for predicting specific behaviors when attitudes and satisfaction are measured at the same level Antecedents of Job Satisfaction - there are several theoretical models that explain factors that are important antecedents of job satisfaction - Herzberg's two-factor theory (most well known theory of job satisfaction): predictions have not been supported in literature - Job characteristics model: - Assumes that five key job characteristics determine whether jobs lead to satisfaction and motivation - Characteristics: 1. Variety of skill 2. Identity of task 3. Importance of task 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback from work - Value-percept model (Locke): - The equation used to calculate job satisfaction involves three factors: desire, actual state, and importance - measures satisfaction by finding the gap between what one desires and what is actually experienced, then adjusts this gap by the importance of the job aspect to get the satisfaction score - Affective events theory: - explains how emotions at work affect job satisfaction and behavior. It identifies two parallel processes: 1. Interpersonal Process: Evaluates stable features of the work environment 2. Intrapersonal Process: Focuses on how fluctuating emotions and discrete events over time affect job satisfaction and responses - Dispositional basis for job satisfaction: - Not yet clarified if job satisfaction has dispositional basis - Meta-analysis (Judge et al.) showed that four constructs of self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, internal locus of control, emotional stability seem to be dispositional correlates of job satisfaction (second analysis supports results) - Meta-analysis findings on relationships: - Various analyses have reported significant relationships between different predictors and job satisfaction 1. Job characteristics (relationship between job characteristics and job satisfaction is moderate, ranging from r =.32 for task identity to r =.46 for autonomy) 2. Personality (Among the \"big five\" personality traits, neuroticism (ρ = −.29) and extraversion (ρ =.25) have the strongest correlations with job satisfaction) 3. Pay (pay level and pay satisfaction are only weakly related to job satisfaction) The Consequences of Job Satisfaction and Job Dissatisfaction - Job satisfaction affects performance, with correlations ranging from 0.17 to 0.31, and some studies suggest a causal effect - Job dissatisfaction is more strongly linked to psychological issues than physical health problems - job satisfaction is positively related to various indicators of subjective well-being, such as life satisfaction, happiness, and positive emotions 2. Work Motivation - Important elements of work motivation are intensity and persistence Theories of Motivation - Goal-setting theory: - well-researched concept that suggests specific and challenging goals lead to better performance compared to easy goals or no goals. Goals guide actions and have four main effects: 1. Direction: Goals provide focus 2. Effort: Goals motivate more effort 3. Persistence: Goals encourage persistence 4. Task Strategies: Goals help in using relevant knowledge and strategies. - Self-determination theory: - Self-determination theory suggests that intrinsic motivation is driven by satisfying three basic psychological needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. When these needs are met, they lead to six motivational states: 1. Amotivation: No intention to act due to lack of value, result, or competence 2. External Regulation: Action is driven by external pressure 3. Introjected Regulation: Action is driven by internal pressure, though it feels imposed from outside 4. Identified Regulation: Action is based on personal appreciation and feels self-directed 5. Integrated Regulation: Action aligns with personal values and needs, and is felt as self-directed 6. Intrinsic Regulation: Action is enjoyable and satisfying in itself Implications of Motivation Theories - To ensure job satisfaction and effectiveness: - Personal Motives and Values: Provide a clear view of the job during hiring to match personal values and motives with the role - Goal Setting: Involve employees in setting specific and challenging goals, and provide regular feedback - Supporting Performance:: Managers should help employees achieve their objectives - Rewards and Discipline: Link rewards directly to performance to encourage desirable behavior, and use discipline to address undesirable behavior 4. **Work Design** 10. History of Work Design - Work design shapes the conditions under which employees perform their tasks - Early studies, like Taylor\'s scientific management and Gilbreth\'s time and motion studies, aimed to optimize work design, which improved efficiency but also led to stress and alienation - More recent theories adopt a humanistic approach, suggesting that job characteristics influence employees\' psychological states, attitudes, and behavior 11. Major Work Design Perspectives - There are six major approaches in work design: 1. Scientific management - Idea behind approach is to break work into discrete jobs which enables specialization and simplification, allowing workers to become highly skilled and efficient at performing particular tasks - Focus lays on how to increase efficiency and productivity of employees 2. Job enrichment approaches - aim to align work with employees\' higher needs and promote humane work design - Herzberg\'s motivator-hygiene theory suggests that people seek self-actualization through job factors that fulfill aspirations and hygiene factors that prevent dissatisfaction - job characteristics model links specific workplace features to psychological states that enhance work performance 3. Sociotechnical systems theory - Social and technical systems should be developed together for the best results. Key design recommendations include: - Tasks should be designed for autonomy while contributing to a larger whole - Employees need enough freedom to perform their tasks effectively - Employees should have control over their immediate work environment to achieve desired outcomes 4. Social information processing perspective - assumes that meaning is shaped by social context, where people adjust their attitudes and behaviors based on their surroundings - Social information is as important as working conditions - social environment affects individuals by helping them understand unclear situations in the organization and by highlighting certain information 5. Job demands-control support and job demands-resources models - Mainly used in stress research - Explains how stress can arise in interaction between work demands and control (buffer can act as a moderator) - Job demands-resources model expands view further an asserts that many other job resources in addition to autonomy and support can both buffer the development of stress and have positive effects themselves 6. Interdisciplinary model of job design - The interdisciplinary model of job design includes four theories, each focusing on different outcomes: - Mechanistic Model: Efficiency increases with simpler, specialized, and repetitive tasks - Motivational Model: Adding variety to tasks boosts motivation and job satisfaction - Perceptual Model: Reducing information processing demands lowers errors and mental overload - Biological Model: Reducing physical demands and improving posture decreases discomfort and fatigue 12. Models of Work Design - Five core job characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback from job) lead to three critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness of the work, experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work, knowledge of actual results of work activities) - States are linked to several desired outcome variables (high internal work motivation, high quality of work performance, high satisfaction with the work, low absenteeism and turnover) - In original model authors assumed that individual characteristic "growth need strength (GNS)" was a moderator of relationship between job characteristics and outcomes (assumed that the higher GNS the stronger the relationship should be) - Motivational potential score (MPS)  - assumption that jobs with a high MPS promote motivation better than those with a lower MPS cannot be empirically confirmed - Motivation is better predicted by a simple additive combination of the five job characteristics - Job characteristics model is empirically confirmed - The Job Demand-Control Model examines how job demands and the degree of control employees have over their work affect their stress and well-being. It categorizes jobs into four types based on the levels of demands and control: 1. Passive Job: Low demands and low control 2. Low Strain Job: Low demands and high control 3. High Strain Job: High demands and low control 4. Active Job: High demands and high control. - Three main hypotheses are formulated: 1. Strain Hypothesis: Stress increases with higher job demands 2. Learning Hypothesis: More learning and development occur in active jobs 3. Buffer Hypothesis: High control can reduce the negative effects of stress. - The Job Demand-Control-Support Model adds social support to this framework, suggesting that jobs with high social support and low strain are the least stressful, while jobs with high demands and low support are the most stressful SMART Work Design - integrates previous research on work design - stands for work design factors stimulating, mastery, agency, relational, tolerable demands A screenshot of a computer Description automatically generated - helps employees get healthy, stay healthy, get most out of themselves 4. Job Crafting - Designing ones work in such a way that it matches their own ideas and abilities as much as possible - In original concept a distinction in made between task crafting (expanding ones own tasks), relational crafting (shaping relationships with social work environment), cognitive crafting (changing ones thought framework about the meaning of ones own work Strategies of Work Crafting 1. Increase structural resources: - Both seeking out learning opportunities for themselves to improve skills and consciously creating space by organizing work differently 2. Increase social resources: - Seeking feedback on their own or look to members of their own team as a source of learning and specifically pick thing up from them 3. Increase challenging requirements: - Taking responsibility for an interesting project that is not necessarily in their own area of responsibility - Looking for new tasks on their own initiative instead of waiting for other tasks to be assigned 4. Decrease obstructive demands: - Reducing cognitively, emotionally, socially stressful activities when possible (setting clear boundaries with colleagues) 5. **Mental Health And Work Stress** 1. Mental Health and Stress - WHO: "health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of diseases of infirmity" - Mental health: "a state of well-being in which an individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and is able to make a contribution to his or her community" - Stress is a reaction to the environment - According to Hans Selye, stress is a non-specific reaction to any type of demand - There is a difference between stress trigger, stressor, stress response (rat experiment) Important Steps in Stress Research - Hans Seyle (1907-1982) - known as the father of stress research - He introduced the term \"stress response\" and studied chronic stress - His General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) outlines three stages of stress response: 1. Alarm (preparing for fight or flight), 2. Resistance (sustaining response to stress), 3. Exhaustion (body becomes worn out). - Problems occur when stress reactions persist without recovery, leading to distress (negative stress responses) or eustress (positive stress responses) - Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908) - U-shaped figure describes the optimal relationship between arousal and performance - Humans are most effective when stress level is in middle range - Richard Lazarus (1922-2002) - challenged Selye\'s GAS theory by emphasizing individual differences in how people perceive and react to stress - He created the \"transactional stress model\" (argues that stress arises from how well a person matches their environment, with individuals perceiving situations differently) some view them as harmless, while others find them stressfu Conceptualization of Stress - Sonnentag and Frese: 1. The stimulus concept - Assumes that there are certain stimuli in the environment that are considered stressful - Approach excludes notion that not all individuals respond the same way to a stimulus 2. The reaction concept - Focuses on the physiological reactions that are crucial for stress - Approach does not take into account that the same psychological response can be elicited by different stimuli 3. The transactional concept - Assumes that stress is a product of the interaction between a person and a situation - Approach compensates for weaknesses of the other two approaches but is often insufficient methodologically implemented in research 4. The discrepancy concept - Assumes that stress is a result of a mismatch between individuals needs and what the environment offers 2. Stress Reactions  A white sheet with black text Description automatically generated 3. Theories of Stress Models That describe the Stress Process - Transactional stress model: - The transactional stress model suggests that stress isn't just caused by stressors but also by how we evaluate situations - We first unconsciously assess if a situation is challenging, threatening, or a loss. If it seems threatening, we then consciously assess if we have the resources to handle it (if not, we experience stress) - Stress can be managed through: 1. Problem-centered strategies: Changing or avoiding the stressful situation to solve the problem 2. Emotion-centered strategies: Reinterpreting the situation to make it seem less threatening, which helps reduce stress by changing our perspective - Cybernetic model: - explains stress through feedback loops that compare an employee\'s current state with desired state - Stress happens when there is gap between what an employee perceives and their goals - gap affects well-being: a negative gap increases stress, while a positive gap improves it - Coping strategies help manage stress, and the effect of the gap on well-being depends on how important and long-lasting the gap is Models that Explain Stress Reactions - Person-environment fit theory: - Based on assumption that an optimal balance between person and environment exists (P-E fit) - If there is imbalance/ misfit stress will occur - Demand-abilities fit: demands of environment and abilities and competencies of person should match - Needs-supplies fit: supplies of environment and needs of person should match - Vitamin model: - explains how work stressors affect employee well-being by using two types of work characteristics: 1. Constant Effect: Characteristics like salary and safety improve well-being up to a point, but additional increases don\'t make a difference 2. Curvilinear Effect: Characteristics like social support and job autonomy initially improve well-being but can cause a decline if they exceed a certain level - model uses Vitamin C as analogy for constant effects and Vitamin D for curvilinear effects - Stress mainly occurs when curvilinear characteristics are too high, whereas constant characteristics do not have this negative impact - Job demand-control model: - suggests that stress results from the interaction between job demands and job control - Stress is low when job demands are low and job control is high, but stress increases when job demands are high and job control is low - Job control can help mitigate the negative effects of high job demands, meaning more control reduces the stress associated with demanding jobs - Job demand-resources model: - developed to explain burnout, extends the job demand-control model by focusing on two main points: 1. high job demands lead to exhaustion, and 2\. lack of resources reduces work commitment - model has been updated to include pos. outcomes (improved performance and work engagement) - now examines how demands and resources interact, with resources helping to reduce stress and encourage job crafting - Research supports that high demands increase burnout, while adequate resources reduce burnout and enhance engagement - Hindering demands lower engagement, whereas challenging demands improve it 4. Stress Intervention - Interventions use four different approaches: 1. Stressor reduction: - Stressor is addressed directly 2. Resource increases: - At individual level: strengthen efficacy beliefs - At organizational level: health circles should be introduced 3. Strain reduction: - At individual level: decreasing strain can be realized by educating individual on how to relax - At organizational level: rest periods could be introduced 4. Lifestyle changes: - At individual level: stress can be reduced by providing individuals with exercise program - At organizational level: stairs inside building could be presented more prominently 6. **Training and Development** 5. Development is More Than Just Training - Kraiger and Culbertson distinguish between training, which focuses on acquiring knowledge and skills for current or upcoming jobs, and development, which involves gaining attributes useful for the future - Training and development serve three main functions: building, further developing, and consolidating competencies - Large organizations have traditionally invested heavily in formal education and training. However, recent research emphasizes more integrative learning approaches, including informal learning and self-regulated learning, which are more learner-centric - Workplaces should be seen as learning environments where learning is essential. Common learning forms at work include: 1. Formal Learning: Structured and controlled training (e.g., courses, seminars) 2. Informal Learning: Unstructured, spontaneous learning (e.g., observing colleagues, solving problems) 3. Self-Regulated Learning: Individuals set their own learning goals and manage their progress (e.g., independent study, online tutorials) - Other learning types include experiential, transformational, situated, work-based learning, and deliberate practice 6. Instructional Principles - Workplace instruction research deals with how learning formats (training) must be designed to promote learning - Five core instructional principles that are empirically confirmed: 1. Organize content in meaningful ways 2. Optimize sequencing of material 3. Engage learner in own learning 4. Conduct effective practice 5. Develop past initial mastery (repeating what was learned over and over) 7. Training and Development Process - Learning aims to build or maintain competencies which in turn increase performance - It is also about qualifying people for jobs that require a specific educational qualification - Evaluation of training and development cycle consist of three phases: 1. Identification of training and development needs 2. Composition and design of the training and development program 3. Evaluation of the training and development program Phase 1 - Measures should be used that can best contribute to achievement of goals - Conducting needs assessment (systematic analysis of the specific training activities needed by jobholders and an organization to achieve their goals) - Can be conducted on different levels: 1. Organization 2. Job 3. Person - Organizational analysis, job analysis, and person analysis differ in focus, data sources, and methods. The process begins by asking questions, which are then addressed using various methods and data, such as existing records, surveys, and interviews A table of data Description automatically generated with medium confidence Phase 2 - A needs analysis identifies training and development requirements, which are then used to set specific, measurable objectives - objectives outline what the organization, department, or individual should achieve after training - Training methods can be categorized into onsite and offsite options, each offering various approaches  Phase 3 - Training and development success is measured by how effectively a program achieves its goals, evaluated through outcome-based assessments - Kirkpatrick\'s model assesses training success across four levels: 1. Reaction: Measures participant satisfaction and perceived usefulness of the training 2. Learning: Assesses the extent of knowledge acquisition, behavior change, and attitude shifts during training 3. Behavior: Evaluates how well learned skills are applied on the job 4. Results: Looks at the impact of training on performance outcomes, such as team performance and organizational metrics - Phillips and Phillips later added a fifth level, \*\*Return on Investment (ROI)\*\*, which compares the cost of training to its benefits. - They recommend comprehensive evaluations, including pre- and post-training measurements, to assess all levels of the model 7. **Teams** 8. Definition: Groups Versus Teams - \"Team\" and \"group\" are often used interchangeably, but they\'re not the same - A group is a collection of people who interact, depend on each other, see themselves as part of the group, have stable relationships, and work toward a common goal - A team is a specific type of group with a small number of people who have complementary skills, share a common purpose and goals, and follow a unified approach - Team members can hold each other accountable, which can boost involvement and decision-making - Teams are a special type of group Types of Teams - Work Teams: Groups of employees working together - Multi-Team Systems: Two or more teams coordinating to achieve a common goal - Top Management Teams: Senior executives working together (e.g., CFO, CIO) - Cross-Functional Teams: Members from different functional areas or companies working on a specific task - Project Teams: Formed to complete a defined project - Venture Teams: Focus on innovation and are often exempt from regular company rules - Quality Circles: Small groups dedicated to improving quality and effectiveness - Self-Managed Teams: Small groups with responsibilities previously held by a supervisor, including planning, scheduling, and problem-solving - Virtual Teams: Teams that work together remotely, often across different locations 9. Team-Building Tuckman´s Theory of Group Development - Group development process: - Forming (testing boundaries and tasks), Storming (conflict and emotional reactions to tasks), Norming (developing cohesion and establishing norms), Performing (functional roles and task execution), Adjourning, to represent the dissolution of a group - Gersick (1988) criticized the model for assuming a fixed, linear progression for all groups and not considering alternative development paths or cycles (She and others also questioned whether the model properly addresses how groups evolve over time or react to external factors) Problems with Team-Building and How to Overcome Them - Problems: - Treating team members individually, Using extreme autocracy or democracy, Lack of an enabling organizational structure, No support for former teams, Incorrect assumptions that individuals always prefer teamwork - Role of Leaders: - Leaders are crucial in addressing and overcoming these team-building problems - Key Questions to Address: - What kind of team should be formed?, How should the team be structured?, How and when should the team be coached? - Characteristics for Team Effectiveness: - Teams should truly work together, not just be labeled as a team, Teams need a clear, compelling direction, The team's structure should support collaborative work, The organizational context should support the team\'s tasks - Best Times for Coaching: - When the team starts, Midway through the work, After the work is completed 10. Diversity in Teams - Team diversity varies based on characteristics like personality, age, gender, race, and culture - diversity can lead to conflicts, it can also enhance group performance - gender diversity can moderate risk-taking - Teams with similar tenure tend to perform well, but \"tenure diversity\" might hinder performance unless effective team development strategies are used 11. Leadership in Teams - Leadership in teams involves three main tasks: 1\. Facilitating team functioning: Helping the team solve problems and conflicts 2\. Inspirational guidance: Coaching team members to improve performance by clarifying expectations 3\. Managing external boundaries: Representing the team to external contacts 8. **Leadership** 12. What is Leadership? - A form of social influence exerted by hierarchically superior persons (leaders) on the employees assigned to them - Influence must be exercised in the spirit of shared goals - Influence can be exerted by any member of the organization: "distributed leadership" 13. Leadership Versus Management - Can be distinguished with respect to focus, person, inspiration A white text with black text Description automatically generated  14. Traits, Personal Characteristics, and Skills - Until the 1930s, leadership research centered on the \"great man theory\" (suggested that successful leadership depended on the inherent traits of exceptional male leaders) - When research yielded inconsistent results, the focus shifted to studying leadership behaviors - Later, interest in the role of personality traits in leadership returned when some links between traits like intelligence, confidence, and extraversion and leadership success were found 15. Behavioral Styles - In the 1930s, Kurt Lewin and colleagues studied how different leadership styles---autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire---affected children\'s behavior in groups - democratic leadership improved group morale, while autocratic leadership increased productivity - Later studies confirmed that the effectiveness of a leadership style depends on the criteria used to measure it. Additionally, leadership can be understood through two aspects: consideration (focus on employee welfare) and initiating structure (focus on task completion) 16. Contingency Theories - Contingency theories of leadership build on behavioral theories by considering leaders\' behavioral styles as key to success - Unlike behavioral approaches, they suggest no one leadership style is universally best - leadership effectiveness depends on how well a leader\'s style fits a specific situation - Fiedler´s Model: - He assumed that "employee versus task orientation" was the key leadership style variable - He viewed "consideration" and "initiating structure" as two ends of the same continuum (rather that independent) - The less task-oriented a leader is, the more employee-oriented is the leader A diagram with blue lines and black text Description automatically generated - Contingency theory approaches consider the specific situation when determining the most effective leadership style - Situational moderator variables that determine which leadership style is most successful: - Relationship between leader and followers (positive or negative) - Task structure (very structured or very unstructured) - Positional power of the leader (very consolidated or very fragile) - Leader-member-exchange Theory (LMX): - Focus is placed on individual differences, relationship between leader and follower, development of this relationship - Assumes that leader has unique relationships with their followers and treats ech group member in a unique way - Mostly looks at dyadic leader-follower relationship to make predictions (characteristics of employee may influence effectiveness of leadership behavior) 17. Charisma, Transformational, and Transactional leadership - Characteristics of charismatic leaders: - High power motive, High self-confidence, String conviction in one´s own ideas, High verbal skills - Behaviors charismatic leaders typically exhibit: - Convincing others of one´s own competence, Expressing ideological goals, Linking tasks to commonly shared values, Setting a positive example, High expectations and trust in employee performance, Stimulating "re-framing" for problems (e.g., presenting crisis as special opportunity), Taking unusual approaches to solving problems - Transformational leadership includes: - Charisma (idealized influence), Inspirational motivation (vision), Intellectual stimulation - Individual consideration (e.g., a mentor), Leadership styles can be clearly distinguished from purpose-driven transactional leadership style 18. Servant, Authentic, and Ethical - Servant leadership is one of the newer leadership constructs: putting the needs of followes and stakeholders first - Characteristics of servant leaders: - Listening, Empathy, Healing, Awareness, Persuasion, Conceptualization, Foresight, Stewardship, Commitment to the growth of others, Building community - Servant leadership and transformational leadership both emphasize vision, influence, trust, and service - servant leadership focuses more on prioritizing others\' needs and can better explain variations in leadership effectiveness 9. **Organizational Culture And Organizational Change** 19. Organization Change and Development - Organizational changes can be categorized into two dimensions: 1. Unplanned vs. Planned: Unplanned changes are more common but less desirable, often triggered by external factors beyond the organization\'s control. Planned changes are intentional and preferred 2. Revolutionary vs. Evolutionary: Revolutionary changes question existing practices entirely, while evolutionary changes occur gradually and are less common. - Organizational development involves using social and behavioral science interventions to enhance change. Kurt Lewin contributed to this field by: 1. Introducing the concept of planned change 2. Showing that findings from lab experiments on group behavior can apply to real-world settings 3. Advocating for democratic principles and participation to manage interpersonal conflicts Stages in Organizational Development 1. Anticipating Change: Identify the need for change, often triggered by external factors affecting the organization 2. Developing the Consultant-Client Relationship: Establish trust and communication with a consultant who will assess the organization\'s readiness for change 3. Organizational Diagnosis: Systematically identify and define problems using tools like questionnaires and interviews to guide intervention strategies 4. Interventions: Address issues through: - Individual: Sensitivity training, stress management, coaching - Teams: Role analysis, team building, role negotiation - Organization: Survey feedback, job design, quality circles. 5. Self-Renewal, Monitoring, and Stabilizing: Ensure changes are maintained, visible, and sustainable even after the consultant leaves 20. Organizational Culture What is Organizational Culture? - Organizational culture and climate are different concepts - Climate refers to the shared perceptions of the current state of the workplace, while culture involves the underlying values that guide behavior and set the organization apart - Edgar Schein (2010) describes organizational culture as having three layers: observable artifacts and behaviors, proclaimed values, and deeply held basic assumptions Layers of Organizational Culture - Schein´s model (three layers)  - Artifacts are visible signs of an organization\'s culture, including symbols, language, narratives, and practices - Values like innovativeness and friendliness shape these artifacts and influence employee behavior - Deeply ingrained assumptions, which members don\'t usually question, affect the organization\'s values and visible behaviors 10. **Learning Organization** 21. What is a Learning Organization? - The study of a \"learning organization\" examines how structures and resources support learning within an organization - \"organizational learning\" is more precise, referring to how knowledge gained by members benefits the organization - This learning is evident when valuable knowledge leads to new practices, guidelines, or innovations - often includes \"double-loop learning,\" where the organization not only adapts based on feedback but also reassesses and changes its core processes 22. Learning Climate and Learning Culture - Learning Climate: - how organizational policies and practices support and encourage employee learning - Key components include a supportive environment, concrete learning processes, and empowering leadership - Relevant factors are empowerment to learn, learning opportunities, supportive structures, and leadership reinforcement - not always clearly defined or empirically tested, but tools like the Learning Climate Scale (LCS) can help measure aspects like facilitation, appreciation, and error avoidance - Learning Culture: - Represents the organization's overall emphasis on learning - Viewed at several levels: observable behaviors, organizational values, and deep-seated assumptions about learning - Important values include valuing continuous learning, providing valid information, clear accountability, encouraging transparency, and focusing on problem-solving - The Dimensions of the Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ) measures learning culture across seven dimensions at individual, team, and organizational levels: 1\. Continuous Learning: Learning is integrated into work with ongoing opportunities for development 2\. Inquiry and Dialogue: Employees can share viewpoints, engage in feedback, and experiment 3\. Collaboration and Team Learning: Teamwork and cooperation are encouraged and rewarded 4\. Systems to Capture Learning: Learning progress is tracked and made visible 5\. Empower People: Employees are involved in vision development and encouraged to pursue their learning goals 6\. Provide Strategic Leadership for Learning: Leaders model and strategically support learning 7\. Connect to Organization: Employees see the benefits of their work and engage with external sources for improvement