Introduction to Comparative Politics - PDF

Monday, 18 November 2024Monday, 18 November 2024Monday, 18 November 2024Introduction to Comparative Politics Friday, October 11, 2024 What is Ideology? Ideology seen as [a bad thing] in everyday politics; it's an objective thing which everyone has or carries with them. \~ What makes for a good S...

Monday, 18 November 2024Monday, 18 November 2024Monday, 18 November 2024Introduction to Comparative Politics Friday, October 11, 2024 What is Ideology? Ideology seen as [a bad thing] in everyday politics; it's an objective thing which everyone has or carries with them. \~ What makes for a good Society? Policies reflect ideology. a. Historically i. 'Science of ideas' (Destutt de Tracy 1796) ii. Derogatory term (closed system of ideas) b. In Modern Political Science i. System of thought ii. Coherent Ideas iii. about current political order or alternative possible orders. iv. model of ideal political society v. ideas to change current political system. **Liberalism** Liberalism is a dominant political ideology in most Western countries. An agreement on a right to life and individualism. Common elements of Liberalism might include, Freedom, Liberty, Reason, Equality, Individualism, and Government limited by constitution. Equality is in the sense of moral equality, the idea that everyone has an equal moral worth. Freedom and liberty, depends on obligations, protection by legal systems. Reason comes from the enlightenment history, moving toward having a reason for everything, a critical approach for doing things politically. *Rationality.* Progress is an idea that societies can change and can improve; access to education, and a more functioning society can be achieved as a result of development and progress of those in lower levels of society. Constitution and law is an important part, like the US it's founded on checks and balances. Power is limited, through federal systems and regional governments, each body must check and balance each other. Liberalism is derived from a wide range of factors; 1. Breakdown in Feudalism (Hierarchal Religious Order) 2. The Enlightenment (The scientific method, human rights and protection) i. John Locke -- argued individuals need to be protected by the government. Individuals should have rights against their leaders (1632 -- 1704) ii. John Stuart Mill -- Distrust of state, against the government. Doctrine of harm. (1806-1873) 3. US Declaration of Independence i. A liberal constitution that contrasts with old ideas of religion. "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness". 4. French Revolution i. Revolt against Louis XVI, emphasis on rights and obligations of the individual, protection, liberty and trust in the state. - Classical Liberalism - Modern Liberalism - Neo Liberalism - Conservatism - Modern Conservatism - Neoconservatism (Neo-Con's) i. Liberalism, Modern Liberalism, Patriotism, *Nationalism* i. Opportunity, Patriotic ideas that highlight equality, faith and reaffirmations of values and beliefs. i. Freedom and liberty, a society where Government can assist and provide for all walks of life. i. In 2004, The USA was in need of change and hope, Obama became the beacon for hope and opportunity. His background and ability to bridge common ground between him and his voters. - Have Obama's policies since then agreed with the speech? How and why? Friday, 18 October 2024 [Socialism] Common elements include; community, equality, class and common ownership. Focuses more on the individual and to protect community. Equality is less about differences in income and sex and ethnicity and more on outcomes. Equal access, income distribution, status are all highlighted within socialism. While socialism tends to prefer equality they recognise that classes exist, and analyse existing systems having two major classes: capitalist class, and workers class. Socialists view those to be in opposition to each other. Lastly, common ownership is an idea that everyone as a community should all have ownership rights, this is connected to equality. Key ideas - Historical Development - Revolutionary Socialism - Reformist Socialism - Revisionist Marxism - Marxism - Leninism was more extreme as he sought a communist party to lead the working class people. Working class people simply had no time or energy to revolt, thus spawning the creation of the party. The Bolshevik party spoke for the proletariats. Within the Soviet Union was a power struggle, Stalin took over and carried forward some of these ideas trying to make them concrete. He implemented ideas of centralisation, strengthening the party and focused on economic systems and growth. Collectivisation was forced by Stalin. "Soviet" meaning collective forced all the farmers to implement ideas of communism, leading to the state effectively owning everything and controlling economy. He turned into a dictator, created a "cult" of Stalinism and rose to power. In forcing people to do stuff, he controlled the empire, splitting up powerful groups and made sure he was the sole leader of the union. His policies were fatal in killing millions. This would oppose original socialist and Marxist ideas. 1. What were problems with Chavez\'s socialism that can be seen from this clip? 2. Try to read this article about recent elections in Austria. Does it suggest that the Austrian FPÖ party is fascist? Friday, October 25, 2024 Characters - Jones (Bourgeosie) - Old Major (Marx/Lenin) - Snowball (Trotsky) - Napoleon (Stalin) - Boxer, Benjamin etc. (Workers) - Citizen protests against rule - Interim government established - Lenin's Bolshevik Party - Soviet Union (USSR) established - Communist party dictatorship - Stalin takes power - Industralisation and agricultural collectivsation 1\. Do you think the animals stuck to the principles of Communism after the revolution? Yes, The animals initially tried to build a society based on the principles of equality, with the one of their laws "All animals are equal." They aimed to create a community where all animals worked together harmoniously, sharing responsibilities and ownership equally. \-\-- 2\. Was Snowball more interested in political power or in the animal's welfare? Snowball was primarily focused on the welfare of the animals and aimed to improve the lives of everyone on the farm. He proposed ideas, and did not shy away from fear. He mainly strived to increase productivity and ease the animals\' workload. His goal was a well-functioning, thriving farm where each animal contributed and benefited, showing his dedication to the animals' welfare over personal power. \-\-- 3\. How did Napoleon take and maintain power over the farm? Napoleon gained control by seizing an opportunity in the absence of strong leadership. He expelled Snowball from the farm, labeling him a traitor, and used propaganda to manipulate and intimidate the other animals. By creating a climate of fear, overworking his followers, and punishing dissenters, he effectively suppressed opposition. Napoleon replaced the original ideals of equality with authoritarian rule, betraying the principles of the first revolution. \-\-- 4\. Do you think Animal Farm was successful in terms of economic development? No, Animal Farm was not successful in terms of economic development. Although the animals continued to work hard, they were often misled into believing they were improving their conditions. They remained overworked and underfed. The original goals of prosperity and fairness were lost, as the resources and rewards were disproportionately taken by the pigs, creating a sense of disillusionment and betrayal among the animals. \-\-- 5\. What are the good and bad points of communism? Good Points: On a base level Communism aims to provide everyone with basic needs. Promoting a society where resources like healthcare, education, and housing are universally accessible. It envisions a classless society with shared ownership of property, cutting competition and reducing inequality. Bad Points: As seen in the film, In practice, communism often leads to widespread poverty and lack of motivation due to the absence of personal incentives. The system can stifle innovation and economic growth, and it has proven difficult to implement successfully on a large scale without resulting in authoritarian control. Marxist ideology is built on the idea that economic life is the basis of society. Kamala Harris' economic proposals and ideas are generally considered democratic (McKenna, 2024). Her competition in Donald Trump has been renowned for making, rash comments against his opponents in previous presidential races. Similar situations occurred during his 2016 campaign, Trump often called Hillary Clinton "Crooked Hillary," referencing past controversies involving her, like the private email server, as well as longstanding conspiracy theories about the Clinton Foundation (Jamieson, 2020). This seems to be a farfetched attempt at drawing comparison between the fact that her father once taught the subject of Marxism at Stanford University. The co-chairman of the Communist Party USA Joe Sims, strongly refuted the claim that Harris is Marxist. This appears to solely be an example of red-baiting by Donald Trump, who has little basis to his claim. McKenna, G. (2024, September 30). *Trump called Harris's father a "Marxist." There's another story*. Fortune. https://fortune.com/2024/09/30/harris-father-marxist-dean-nyu/ Jamieson, A. (2020, February 26). Trump calls Clinton "Crooked Hillary" -- should she ignore it or fight back? *The Guardian*. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/25/donald-trump-crooked-hillary-clinton-nickname-ignore-fight Bickerton, J. (2024, September 13). Is Kamala Harris a Marxist? we asked actual communists. *Newsweek*. https://www.newsweek.com/kamala-harris-marxist-we-asked-actual-communists-1953534 The ideology of the ruling party of my country of New Zealand is a sort of liberal conservatism. After their return to power in 2023, their policies reflected a shift toward conservative values tempered with liberalism. They try to promote individual freedom, personal responsibility and competitive enterprise. The political rivalry mirrors that of the UK. The Labour party, who governed for two terms, from 2017-2023 promotes democratic socialism, while the conservative party, National is more economically driven and catered towards the upper class citizen. *National Party*. (n.d.). Retrieved October 30, 2024, from https://policy.nz/2023/party-vote/parties/national-party Friday, 1 November 2024 What is democracy? Demos and Kratos -- "Rule of the people" it has a pejorative meaning. The meaning of modern democracy has changed. Abraham Lincoln (1863) said '...government of the people, by the people and for the people. There was no idea of universal suffrage until the 1960's. - Development of democracy - Athenian Greece - Roman republic - English Civil War - American republicanism - French Revolution The Development of Democracy began in Athenian Greece. The Roman republic, was a mixed system, some were elected by popular vote. Elected representatives were able to join the senate and have powerful positions. By using their popularity they could use their power to influence decisions. The English Civil war incited a struggle between the monarchy and Parliament, leading to a temporary overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. This conflict emphasized the power of representative government and set the stage for constitutional monarchy. Inspired by these ideas, American republicanism emerged, advocating for independence from British rule and establishing a system grounded in elected representation and checks on government power. The French Revolution, fuelled by similar calls for equality and popular sovereignty, marked another pivotal moment in the development of democracy by overthrowing the absolute monarchy and striving to create a government based on the rights of citizens. Elements of modern liberal democracy include the democratic element of being able to choose government. There is great accountability of government to citizens. It invites basic human rights and freedoms, meaning freedom of speech and critical media. Rule of law is the foundation for healthy communities of justice, opportunity and peace (William H. Neurom) There is a distinction between state and society, there should be room for individual rights. Balance differs with each country. [Universal Suffrage] Initially only property owners could vote. Universal usually meant 'male suffrage' Gradually in the UK, the amount of property required was reduced under public pressure. The First idea of universal (male) suffrage was in the French Revolution. Problems with democracy - Corporate Interest - \- Populism - Representation may be remote Authoritarian Regimes - Regime controlled by a ruling elite - Alternative terms 1. Autocracy (rule by one person) 2. Dictatorship (repressive system) - Features 1. Coercion 2. Patronage 3. Personalism 4. Corruption Hybrid Regimes - Tends to have appearance of democracy but features of authoritarianism - Usually elite groups manipulate political systems to maintain power - Other terms used -- liberal democracy Please respond by Friday 15th November, 17:30. \ \ 1. Have a look at this [report](https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/report/2024/SG-SDG-Progress-Report-2024-advanced-unedited-version.pdf). Do you think the UN development goals are realistic? The UN Development goals have been hindered drastically by COVID-19, it has increased poverty, conflicts and even climate change. Each of the 17 goals have new projections, making it ever more difficult to achieve the 2030 Agenda. While I am in favour of the goals, and what they are trying to accomplish, I don't believe all the SDG's will be achieved by the year 2030. 2\. Do you think development policies in your own country are more similar to the orthodox model, the alternative model, or something else? The development policies in New Zealand, are somewhat of a blended model. Within the policies are both orthodox economic policies and alternative values, especially around sustainability and inclusion. This mix is a special approach to development that values both growth and equity, New Zealand's development is often reffered to as 'Sustainable Development'. Friday, 15 November 2024 [Identity Politics ] Identity is primarily based on cultural, social, institutional and ideological contexts. Identity enables people to feel part of a social group but also to distinguish themselves from other groups. This is sometimes known as politics of difference. Identity may be based on gender, ethnicity, religion, citizenship and lifestyle choices etc. Identity politics ideas were developed by post-colonial theorists. International migration is an important reason for growth of identity politics, many states are now multicultural. There has been a surge in refugee numbers in the 80's and 90's. This growth of nation states lead groups within states to emphasise identities. Globalisation also leads people to feel a need to have some distinct identity. [Ethnic Identity] Ethnic Identity can be territorial, it's primarily linked to shared ancestry and one's integration to nation states. It can be described as a feeling of loyalty to a distinct group (e.g. Roma, Jews or in the case of a territorial area Chinese, Russian. Ethnic Identity is constructed by not only people in the group but also by outsiders. It's commonly confused with 'race' which is based on power relations -- racial identity is constructed by others usually based on physical differences for example skin colour. [Religious Identity] Religious Identity is people belonging to religion, this has been important through history. It's a feeling of belonging to certain religion, including values, traditions and history. Since the end of the Cold War, a lot of religious identities have been seen as more important. It has also become more prominent due to the increase in global migration. It does not always coincide with ethnic identity. This incites a desire for formal religious education. Religious 'fundamentalism' is a very strong religious identity, a belief that one religious identity is absolutely true over any others. [Case Study: Faith Schools in the UK] In the UK, 'Faith Schools' are relatively popular as the Government thinks that religious schools are more likely to get better exam results. The majority of schools are Anglican or Catholic, Church of England schools. [Multiculturalism] An acceptance within a society of groups with distinct identities or beliefs. Liberal multiculturalism is the tolerance of identity groups. Pluralist multiculturalism has a belief that diversity is a good thing for society. Co-existence and cooperation can come as a result of this, creating a melting pot of new cultures and ideas. There is also a cosmopolitan idea that all people are part of a world society anyway. Problems with multiculturalism might consist of the possibility of social breakdown as society breaks into groups. It could be difficult to reconcile liberal ideals of freedom with allowing anti-liberal groups (i.e with different ideas about human rights) to act freely. Ethnic and religious identity may conflict with nationalist ideas or values. In turn, imposing a national identity could also lead to tension and conflict. [Rights] Equality essentially means non-discrimination by ethnicity or religion. Positive discrimination sees affirmative action, examples might include employment, education and government programs. Some countries require ethnicity to be on your ID Card. In terms of religion, there is tolerance and an idea of individual equality. But this can cause tension with laws, for example, a requirement to wear a helmet on a bike may breach ones religion. There is a fundamental tension and clash of ideas of being tolerant and the idea of treating different groups of people fairly. The promotion of religion against non-discrimination of non believers can be seen in the UK promotion of faith schools. [Issues with Identity Politics] This emphasis on difference can lead groups to grow apart in societies. Another issue is that identity politics may promote conflict. It also assumes that individual identities are less important than group identities. This brings the idea of collectivism Wednesday, 27 November 2024 1. Government's must recognise and consider specific identity groups to ensure equal representation, access to resources and equal rights. This is necessary because without these considerations, governments risk perpetuating systematic inequalities and alienating portions of their population. 2. Religious schools are prevalent all around the world. While many function differently in the way religion is taught in relation to academia, it struggles to get official support from a government level. Exceptions may include, countries like the UK, where faith-based schools receive government funding under certain conditions. Indonesia also have religious state schools that play a significant role in the national education system and are supported by national state resources. Religious schools contribute to cultural preservation and diversity, offering education tailored to specific values and beliefs. It also offers a chance for quality education in underserved communities. I believe that religious schools should be supported as Government support can ensure equal access to such insitutions and help maintain high academic standards. Friday, 29 November 2024 [The State] The State has different facets, with different types of power. The sovereign part of the state means it has jurisdiction over all other institutions and groups in society. There is the public sector which makes decisions for collective interests. Legitimacy is also important, it's authority and ability to enforce rules has to been seen as valid and rightful by its citizens. A concept related to the state as Monopoly of means of coercion, which ties into legitimacy in the sense that a legitimate state is defined by its exclusive right to use or authorize the use of physical force within its territory. This is a fundamental characteristic of sovereignty and statehood. Worth mentioning is also the territorial unit, which refers to the geographic area which a state exercises authority and sovereignty. Identity, resources and conflict are central to the importance of territory to the state There are many [typical] branches of the state. The executive branch, implements and enforces laws. There is the legislative branch which debates, creates an enacts laws. The bureaucracy is responsible for implementing laws and policies. It consists of non-elected officials and public servants who manage day-to-day administration. The judiciary branch interprets laws, resolves disputes, and ensures laws comply with the constitution. It serves as a check on the other branches of government. The military branch defends the state against external threats, provides national security, and may assist in domestic emergencies. he police maintain internal order, enforce laws, and protect citizens\' rights. They serve as the state's primary institution for coercion at the domestic level. Regional governments manage local issues and provide services closer to the population. They may have varying degrees of autonomy, depending on whether the state is unitary or federal. Specialized institutions that carry out specific functions, such as environmental protection, public health, or intelligence. Theories of the state offer different perspectives on its role and function in society. The pluralist state, rooted in liberal thought (e.g., Hobbes and Locke), sees the state as a neutral referee in the social contract, though neopluralism acknowledges that some interests are more influential than others. The capitalist state, based on Marxist theory, views the state as a tool to support and sustain the capitalist system. The Leviathan state, often criticized by neoliberals, refers to a \"nanny state\" that continues to expand its power and influence over individuals. Lastly, the patriarchal state, highlighted by feminist theory, argues that the state\'s structure perpetuates the oppression of women. [Lecture Review 8] 1. Can you use the data to pick out one country with medium or lower state capacity and explain why it is so? Use the definition of the state we discussed in class.  In analysing the data using the Hanson-Sigman Index, a country with lower state capacity is Somalia. The definition of state being having the monopoly on legitimate force and administrative ability to implement policies and provide public services, Somalia's low state capacity stems from a variety of things. Because of fragmented governance with various regions operating semi-autonomously, regions work independently, underscoring the limitations of the central government. and security challenges, weak institutions, Because of this right now, Somalia is a fragile and weak state. Bastian Herre and Pablo Arriagada (2023) - "State Capacity" Published online at OurWorldinData.org. Retrieved from: \'https://ourworldindata.org/state-capacity\' \[Online Resource\] I believe that the state should intervene in family life or culture only in specific circumstances, such as when it is necessary to protect fundamental human rights or ensure public safety. Generally, the state should respect cultural autonomy and individual freedoms because overreach can lead to loss of trust and identity within communities. A good example to explain this is in my home country, they implemented New Zealand's *Anti-Smacking Law* (Section 59 of the Crimes Act 1961). The law removed the defense of \"reasonable force\" for disciplining children, essentially banning corporal punishment. This was a highly debateable issue, as many people viewed it as the state interfering in parenting practices. *Crimes Act 1961 No 43 (as at 01 October 2024), Public Act 59 Parental control -- New Zealand Legislation*. (2024, October 8). https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1961/0043/latest/DLM328291.html Friday, 6 December 2024 Government and Bureaucracy Overview of the State \- Roles of the State: Policy-making, law execution, management of bureaucracy, foreign and military affairs, crisis leadership, and symbolic roles. \- Branches: Government (executive), assemblies (legislature), judiciary, and bureaucracy. \-\-- Varieties of Executive 1\. Presidential System: \- Separate elections for executive and legislature. \- Fixed terms; formal separation of powers. \- President serves as head of state and government. \- Examples: USA, Russia, many Latin American nations. 2\. Prime-Ministerial System: \- Executive drawn from elected assembly; relies on party politics and coalitions. \- Symbolic head of state exists (e.g., monarch). \- Examples: UK, Japan, India, Australia. 3\. Semi-Presidential System: \- Both President and Prime Minister share executive duties. \- Power division outlined by a constitution. \- Examples: France, Russia. \-\-- Bureaucracy \- Weber\'s Ideal Bureaucracy: Rational, professional, hierarchical, objective. \- Criticisms: Seen as inefficient, perpetuating capitalism (Marxist view), associated with red tape. \- Roles: 1\. Administration: Policy execution, public information, granting licenses. 2\. Policy Advice: Data gathering, reporting on policies. 3\. Interest Integration: Managing interest groups during policy implementation. 4\. Political Stability: Ensures continuity amid government changes. \- Risks: Corruption, arrogance, conservatism. \-\-- Legislatures (Assemblies) \- Roles: \- Lawmaking, scrutinizing policies, representing electorates. \- May act as educational or propaganda tools for government. \- Systems: \- Unicameral: Efficient but lacks checks and balances. \- Bicameral: Enhances scrutiny and represents federal states but risks gridlock. \- Examples: \- UK: House of Commons (elected) and House of Lords (appointed). \- Japan: House of Representatives and House of Councilors (both elected). Judiciary \- Roles: \- Interprets constitutions and laws, reviews government actions, and maintains independence. \- Issues: \- Political appointments of judges. \- Ambiguity in laws leads to policymaking through judgments. Case Studies: UK and Japan 1\. UK: \- First-past-the-post electoral system. \- Prime Minister wields significant power; bureaucracy frequently reorganized. \- Evolved system without a formal written constitution. 2\. Japan: \- Mixed electoral system combining PR and first-past-the-post. \- Strong bureaucracy with roots in the US-imposed constitution, influenced by traditional practices. 2. The bureaucracy should be independent enough to conduct itself professionally, but still remain in line with the values and policies of the executive branch. 3. In New Zealand, the judiciary is highly effective, maintaining independence and public trust. The unicameral legislature allows for efficient decision-making and strong public representation. Local governments also excel at addressing community-specific needs. Friday, December 13, 2024 Regional and local government - State Government (Federal Systems) - Provincial Governments (Regional) - Local Governments (cities, towns) Division of power is relatively clearly defined as examples in the U.S the constitution defines the powers of the federal government, any other power lies within the state. Local systems that reflect the national system (governor, assembly) State Governments (federal systems) - Often federal systems are used by countries which are either large, contain groups of people with historically distinct identities and may have been externally threatened. - Typical features within a state might be that they are often represented in a second chamber of government, they tend to have powers defined by constitution. They might legislate in their defined areas independently of central government. Examples might include USA and Germany. They might also have issues with federalism. - Local interests have strong voice in government - Increased checks and balances - May slow down implementation of legislation - But powers of central government expanding [Regional Governments] These have a wide variation in amount of power, devolution may be in response due to ethnic concerns. This devolved government may have tax raising and legislative powers. Examples may include Spain, UK, Belgium and Italy and the de facto devolution in. China. [Local Governments] These are common in all systems, but are more significant as they are the only regional voice in unitary systems. They tend to administrate geographical regions and are under control of central government. Some may have limited tax-raising power. Local governments are often directly elected and can be influential in government. [Civil Society] Private, non-profit and non-violent groups. Often NGOs, NPOs, interest groups, charities, associations. Some groups to pressure government policy appeared in Europe and USA in 18^th^ and 19^th^ centuries. Most appeared after the 1960s rights and liberation movements. There are a wide variety of groups with social and political goals. Varying degrees of access to governments and international organisations. There is a variety of support or toleration by governments. [NGO's] There are a variety of these, they have to raise money and focus on social good. Friday, December 20 2024 Media quite literally means in the middle, it's meant to be a filter of information. This may introduce biases or change information. Media is a production of knowledge, information and entertainment. "Mass Media" refers to media produced for lots of people, examples might include TV, Newspaper, Internet. 'New' Media have changed in nature, this has increased output and audience fragmentation. Media is part of society, there are political actors who sometimes have either indirect or direct infkuence. Friday, 17 January 2025 1\. Globalisation empowers states in different ways, like enhancing economic opportunities or enabling diplomatic influence through multilateral organizations. There is variation between stronger and weaker states, developed nations may better globalisations pressures, while weaker ones may struggle. In my opinion, most nation-states are become weaker with globalisation as economic interdependence and global challenges reduce their autonomy. Sometimes international cooperation will often take precedence over domestic priority. However, globalization also offers opportunities for states to strengthen through access to markets and collective problem-solving, making the impact uneven. 2.In my home country New Zealand, globalisation has significantly impacted politics through trade, migration, and environmental concerns. As a trade-dependent nation, global markets shape economic policies and trade agreements like CPTPP. Migration has brought cultural diversity, influencing debates on identity and social cohesion. Environmental globalization, such as international climate change agreements, has also driven policy shifts in renewable energy and sustainability efforts. *6 Pros and cons of globalization in business to consider*. (2021, April 1). Business Insights Blog.  *New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade CPTPP*. Retrieved January 17, 2025, [Populism and Globalisation] Globalisation is about connections, technology, communication, trade and movement of people. It is underscored by neo-liberalism. Thursday, 23 January 2025 [Comparative Politics Final Quiz 24/1] Topics: 7\. Identity Politics 8\. The State 9\. Government and Bureaucracy 10\. Regions and Civil Society 11\. Media 12\. Globalisation of Politics 13\. Populism and Globalisation [Topic Overview(s)] 7\. Identity is based on different context, helps people feel a part of a group. Identity politics ideas were developed by post-colonial theorists. There was a growth in refugee numbers in 80s and 90s. Different forms of identity lead to loyalty to different groups and where people see themselves. This brings the idea of Multiculturalism, an acceptance within a society of groups with distinct identities or beliefs. Different views tolerate and proclaim multiculturalism to be positive and prove diversity to be a good thing. This might incite problems like social breakdown as society may break into groups. Rights are also within identity politics, ideas like equality and freedom arise, as they call for non-discrimination. Issues with identity politics might be the emphasis on difference, and the idea of collectivism, that assumes individual identities are less important than group ones. 8\. The State The State is multifaceted, it has different types of power. These powers vary from Sovereign, Public, Legitimate powers. Another concept is monopoly of means of coercion, which ties into legitimacy in the sense that legitimate state is defined by its exclusive right to use or authorize the use of physical force within its territory. The State also has the physical territorial unit, which refers to the geographic area which a state exercises authority and sovereignty. There are the typical branches of state, such as the executive, legislative, bureaucratic, military, police as well as regional governments, institutions and agencies. There are different theories of the state, such as Pluralist, Capitalist, Leviathan state and Patriarchal State. The role of state his often minimal, and is mostly developmental. States can also have different distribution of power, some centralised states, have taxes allocated by the central government. Also most laws are made and enforced by central government. On the other hand federal states have regional governments that can collect taxes, make laws while the central government mostly deals with defence, external affairs and national issues. 9\. Government and Bureaucracy The Government and Bureaucracy are made up of different branches. The most important is the executive body, which oversees policy making, proposal and execution of laws, as well as management of foreign affairs and military, among other things. There are different levels within the executive branch, such as presidential, prime ministerial, semi-presidential and cabinet. Cabinet being a team that works with the President or Prime Minister on important issues. Presidential is a format where the President is head of both state and Government, examples include USA and Russia. The Executive and Legislative branches are elected separately. Prime Ministerial is a format where the elected official is head of government and has less clearly defined powers. Examples include UK, NZ, and Japan. This branch usually has a head of state such as the Queen. Semi-Presidential is a fusion, where both the President and Prime Minister lead the executive branch, the powers are usually divided by constitution. An example might be France, or Russia. Bureaucracy is argued by German sociologist as the most efficient and rational way human activity can be organised. They carry out administration, policy advice and integrate various interests. They have different assemblies and usually consist of representatives. Unicameralism sees all members and reps belong and vote in a single chamber, usually more effective. Bicameralism is where there are two chambers, which increases checks and balances on executive and on lower (stronger) chamber, thus improving the scrutiny of legislation. There are also different electoral systems, such as the US with an FFP system lor NZ with an MMP system. The judiciary branch's role is to interpret laws, constitutions and be independent of government. 10\. Regions and Civil Society Federal systems are used by countries which are typically large, or contain groups of people with historically distinct identities. These countries may also have been externally threatened. These states' typical features consist of having to tend to powers defined by a constitution, often represented in a second chamber of government. They also legislate in their defined areas independently of central government. Examples of such federal systems include USA, Germany. Regional governments have a wide variation of power. This is a result of devolution, which may be in response to ethnic concerns. A devolved government may have tax rising and legislative powers. Examples include UK, Belgium and Italy. Common in all systems, are Local governments which tend to only administrate geographical regions, and are under control by the central government. They can however, by influential in government. Civil Society is understood to be the third sector of society, distinct from government and business. This includes private, non-profit, non-violent groups. NGOs, NPOs, interest groups, charities and associations all fall within this category. These are a wide variety of groups with social and political goals, with varying degrees of access to governments and international organisations. This also cites a variety of support or toleration by governments. NGOs, or non-government organisations often have a variety of interests, they advocate to governments for social or environmental causes. They fund raise from a variety of outlets. Some issues that might arise with these groups are that they might not be public accountable, and may have competition between state and non-state organisations. Centralisation and Decentralisation have different issues. The control of all things in one central place, or Centralisation has a broad spread of prosperity, issues also consist of national unity, equality and uniformity. Decentralisation, the transfer of control of an activity or organisation to several local offices results in participation, responsiveness and legitimacy. 11\. Media The Media, directly translates to 'in the middle' it's a filter of information. This filter may introduce biases, or otherwise change information. It's a production of knowledge, information and entertainment. Mass media refers to TV, newspapers, radio and internet. This reaches a large proportion of the population. New media have changed its nature, with increased output and audience fragmentation. Media can also act as political and social actors, with an increase in atomisation (self-interested and sufficient) of societies, and increased influence on the political system. Media can also be seen as economic actors, has huge media groups have developed. The development of mass media can be seen from the late 19^th^ century, with the rise of newspapers and urban population. This only grew exponentially with the rise of films, radio, television, and finally the internet at the end of the 1990s. There are different models and theories of mass media. Models include the Pluralist, Dominant-Ideology, Elite Values and the Market models. The Pluralist model is positive about media and is about diversity and competition, usually ignoring powerful interests, with a hint of government bias. The Dominant-Ideology model claims that mass media is conservative, and interests are aligned with the elites, Marxism influences the claim that media is owned by few global corporations and promote globalisation to open new markets and spread consumerist ideas. Noam Chomsky shares this model of propaganda and ideology and claims that populations are manipulated and consent for economic, social and political policies. The Elite values model has strong emphasis on the power of editors, senior journalists and broadcasters rather than owners. According to different models elites are typically anti-socialist, politically liberal and male-dominated. Media goes hand in hand with democracy as free press is supposed to safeguard democracy by promoting public debate, and providing mechanism for public to take part in government. However, if the media is biased and only promotes interests of owners or elite groups it does not fulfil this role. 12\. Globalisation of Politics Globalisation is an increase in 'interconnectedness' between societies around the world. This is not a new phenomenon -- but the number and speed of links and their rate of growth is exponential. There are waves of globalisation, these are typically driven by technology advances, more specifically in transportation and communication. These can be political, economic and social, increasing awareness among people of other situations and events around the world. Globalisation has a large effect on domestic politics, events in other countries affect domestic policy making, an example being financial crisis in the US has affected most other countries. Global media also may influence policies, media may place pressure on politicians as the public can predict disasters ahead. Media also often compare social policies, such as education rankings, unemployment etc. Also from a public perspective, ideas and values come from outside countries, things such as human rights, consumerism and language cross borders. People may also move between countries frequently for certain reasons. Political identity may also change due to globalisation, people may have more identities, relating to regional and national identity. People may also have dual citizenship or be immigrants. Organised crime and terrorism may also spike due to globalisation, imported fundamentalism may directly affect society. Globalisation may be in retreat, which sees growth slowing and the rise of nationalism and protectionism. Also a steep rise in inequality and populism. 13\. Populism and Globalisation Globalisation revolves around connections, technology, communication, trade and the movement of people. It reflects social change (modernisation theory) and is also related to neoliberalism, with the presence of free trade, private enterprise and international organisations. Related is National Identity, defined by national territory and political identity, this includes citizenship and relationship between individual and the state. Cultural identity is defined by the education system, media discourse and values, languages, religions etc. Sometimes arisen from globalisation is inequality. Inequality can be seen from different standpoints, such as economic, geographic and social status. Populism refers to the identification of the people, specifically the co-opting of who are the people and who are not. It's an exclusivist idea and a conservative idea of nationalism, generally against immigration and often. It's a repeated narrative of the people versus the elites. Populists favour people power, and ridicule experts and institutions. This tends towards authoritarian methods and leadership by charismatic figures. Examples include, Trump.