AFIT 101: Introduction to Aviation PDF

Air Force Institute of Technology Faculty of Air Engineering Aircraft Engineering Department AFIT 101: Introduction to Aviation COURSE HANDOUT LECTURER: Bilal Yakubu Commercial Pilot (with Instrument Rating)...

Air Force Institute of Technology Faculty of Air Engineering Aircraft Engineering Department AFIT 101: Introduction to Aviation COURSE HANDOUT LECTURER: Bilal Yakubu Commercial Pilot (with Instrument Rating) MSc. Applied Aviation Safety BSc. Aeronautical Science 1. History of Aviation One of the most notable persons to make attempt after the Chinese is Bladud, the king of England who died Aviation history deals with the while attempting to fly. development of mechanical flight. It ranges from earliest attempts at flying Leonardo D’Avinci also dream of kite-powered devices or gliders to flying found expression in several person-controlled and - powered flying. designs, but he did not attempt to Humanity’s desire to fly possibly first demonstrate that flying was possible. It started millions of years prior to the first was in post-industrial Europe, from the expression. late eighteenth century onwards, that serious flight attempts were made. It is Humans were able to build believed that Leonardo da Vinci made bridges, high rising buildings, and many drawings of wings and flying travel through basic transportation machines in the late 1400s. He kept means like sailing, but flying seemed them hidden, and they weren’t unattainable at the time. discovered until 400 years after his death. The earliest forms of flying were recorded in China around 200-300 AD. After hundreds of years, the first The Chinese created kite balloons and manned hot air balloon flight was hot air balloons, which many sources achieved by the Montgolfier brothers on say were used for military November 21, 1783 in Paris, France. communication and surveillance. This Manned balloons would remain the went on to be the only means of flying only means of flying for many years. for hundreds of years. Meanwhile, people kept on making efforts to create The attempt to develop more better and more maneuverable powerful aircraft kept on but was not machines. successful until December 17, 1903 when the Wright Brothers (Orville and There are many people that are Wilbur Wright) made the first ever credited with making these efforts, and powered, sustained and controlled aviation history will never forget them. flight that is heavier than air. That is For the purpose of this course, we will often referred to as the birth of aviation learn about the most prominent because it was on that day that modern contributors as well as some important aviation really began. contributors.  Since then, there has been 1927 – First trans-Atlantic flight: Charles significant advancement in aviation in Lindbergh completes the first solo non- terms of aviation regulations, stop trans-Atlantic flight. automation and autopilots, fly-by-wire, sophisticated weather detection 1930 – Jet engine invented: British equipment, sophisticated airport inventor Frank Whittle invents the jet facilities, fuel saving aircraft, etc. engine. 1932 – First woman flies across Atlantic: Amelia Earhart is the first woman to fly a. Important Aviation Timelines a solo non-stop trans-Atlantic flight. 852 BCE – A king tries to fly: The English King Bladud is apparently 1986 – First non-stop flight around killed attempting to fly. world: Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager fly the US ultralight Voyager around the 1485–1500 – da Vinci designs planes: world in a 9-day non-stop flight from Leonardo da Vinci designs flying California to California. machines. 2011 – World’s first flying car: The Leonardo da Vinci made many Transition by Terrafugia is a roadable drawings of wings and flying machines aircraft – an aeroplane that can take off in the late 1400s. He kept them hidden, and land at any airport and, with the and they weren’t discovered until 400 push of a button, fold up its wings and years after his death. drive down the road. b. Montgolfier Brothers, Wright c. Lighter than Air, Heavier than Air, Brothers World Wars, Post War Eras, Digital Age, 21st Century 1783 – First hot air balloon flight: The first manned hot air balloon flight was Lighter than air aviation: They are on 21 November 21 1783, in Paris, called lighter than air because they are France in a balloon created by the filled with gas whose weight is lighter Montgolfier brothers. than air (heated air, hydrogen, or helium) in order to create lift. For 1903 – First Powered Flight: Orville and instance, hot air balloon derives lift Wilbur Wright make the first recorded mainly from heat. Hot air balloons powered, sustained and controlled utilize the ability of hot air to rise. By flight in a heavier-than-air flying heating the air inside the balloon with machine. the burner, it becomes lighter than the cooler air on the outside. This causes the balloon to float upwards, as if it were in water. Example of lighter than air is airship, free balloon, and kite balloon. Today, lighter-than-air aircraft are used almost only for recreational purposes. World Wars: The history of aviation changed rapidly from this point as aviation became a deciding factor in the war. Production and development of aircraft became a priority. In fact, prior to the outbreak of the war, there were approximately 193,000 personnel working in the aviation industry; after the war began, there was an increase to 450,000 employees in the industry. Heavier than air aviation: Heavier than World War II was the catalyst for a air aircraft must have a power source to major change in the history of aviation, provide the thrust necessary to obtain as battles during the war were fought lift. This covers all aircraft that derive predominantly in the air and less on the lift mainly from aerodynamic forces. An ground. The development of jet engines example of heavier than air is the also led to increased commercial use of airplanes that we fly today. This is aircraft, especially with the surplus of divided into engine driven and non- ex-military aircraft when the war engine driven. ended. Post War Eras: After the war, commercial flights became increasingly popular, and many airline companies simply converted ex-military aircraft to transport both people and cargo. Digital Age: The use of digital computers in aircraft design was developed by large aerospace companies throughout the 1970s and included technique such as CAD, CAM, structural component stress analysis using FEA and for aerodynamic modelling. 21st Century: 21st century aviation has seen increasing interest in fuel savings and fuel diversification, as well as low cost airlines and facilities. Additionally, much of the developing world that did not have good access to air transport has been steadily adding aircraft and facilities. In the beginning of the 21st century, digital technology allowed subsonic military aviation to begin eliminating the pilot in favor of remotely operated or completely autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). UAVs are now an established feature of modern warfare, carrying out pinpoint attacks under the control of a remote operator. 2. The Atmosphere Troposphere This is the lowest part of the The atmosphere is an envelope of air atmosphere - the part we live in. It that surrounds the Earth. It is as much a extends from the surface to about 10km part of the Earth as the seas or the land, upwards. It contains most of our but air differs from land and water as it weather - clouds, rain, and snow. Most is a mixture of gases. It has mass, clouds exist here because 99% of the weight, and indefinite shape. atmosphere’s water is found here. In The atmosphere is composed of 78 this part of the atmosphere the percent nitrogen, 21percent oxygen, and temperature gets colder as the distance 1 percent other gases, such as argon or above the earth increases. helium. Some of these elements are Stratosphere heavier than others. The heavier elements, such as oxygen, settle to the Above the troposphere lies the surface of the Earth, while the lighter stratosphere where jet airplanes fly. elements are lifted up to the region of Temperatures increase with altitude higher altitude. Most of the because of increasing amounts of ozone. atmosphere’s oxygen is contained below The ozone layer within the stratosphere 35,000 feet altitude. absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of sunlight and protects us from the likes of skin cancer and other health a. Layers of the Atmosphere conditions. Mesosphere As the mesosphere extends upward above the stratosphere, temperatures decrease. The coldest parts of our atmosphere are located in this layer and can reach –90°C. Thermosphere The thermosphere is a region in which temperatures again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of energetic Five Layers of the Atmosphere ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the Astronauts orbiting Earth in the space (2) Density varies inversely with the station or space shuttle spend their time temperature. in this layer Therefore, air at high altitudes is Exosphere less dense than air at low altitudes, and a mass of hot air is less dense than a The upper layer of our mass of cool air. Changes in density atmosphere, where atoms and affect the aerodynamic performance of molecules escape into space, is called aircraft. With the same horsepower, an the exosphere. aircraft can fly faster at a high altitude b. Properties of the Atmosphere where the density is low than at a low altitude where the density is great. This Pressure: Force per unit area (N/m2) is because air offers less resistance to the It is the force exerted over a given area aircraft when it contains a smaller or object. Pressure is measured in number of air particles per unit volume. Pascal, Pound Force per Square Inch Humidity: Humidity is the amount of (PSI), Bars (or millibars), Inches of water vapor in the air (in Percentage). Mercury, etc. The maximum amount of water vapor An important consideration is that that air can hold varies with the atmospheric pressure varies with temperature. The higher the altitude. The higher an object rises temperature of the air, the more water above sea level, the lower the pressure. vapor it can absorb. Temperature: The degree of hotness or c. International Standard Atmosphere coldness of a body measured on a (ISA) Assumptions definite scale. (Kelvin (K), °C, °F). ISA is a hypothetical model that As altitude increases, temperature represents an ideal atmosphere as decreases in the troposphere. defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), devoid Density: Density is a term that means of water vapor, wind, and turbulence. weight per unit volume (kg/m3). The density of gases is governed by the The ISA is based the following values of following rules: pressure, density, and temperature at mean sea level each of which decreases (1) Density varies in direct proportion with increase in height: with the pressure. Standard Pressure of 1013.2 mb: Pressure is taken to fall at about 34 Temperature falls at a rate of 2 °C per mb/1000ft in the lower atmosphere. 1,000 feet until after the troposphere. Standard Temperature of +15 °C: Density = 1.225 kg/m3. Sample Calculations i. The surface/sea level temperature and pressure in AFIT Kaduna are 15oC and 1013.25 respectively on a standard day. What would be the temperature and pressure at 1000, 2000, 3000 and 3500ft. on this day? SOLUTION Temperature lapse rate: 2 °C per 1,000 feet Pressure lapse rate: 34 mbar per 1,000 feet At 1000 feet: Temperature = 15oC - 2oC = 13oC Pressure = 1013.25mbar – 34mbar = 979.25mbar At 2000 feet: Temperature = 15oC – (2 x 2oC) = 11oC Pressure = 1013.25mbar – (34 x 2) = 945.25mbar At 3000 feet: Temperature = 15oC – (2 x 3oC) = 9oC Pressure = 1013.25mbar – (34 x 3) = 911.25mbar At 3500 feet: Temperature = 15oC - (2 x 3.5oC)= 8oC ,Pressure = 1013.25mbar - (34 x 3.5)=894.25mbar 3. Aircraft Types, a. Types of Aircraft What is an aircraft? An aircraft is any Categorization and the machine capable of atmospheric flight. Aviation Industry An Airplane any of a class of fixed-wing aircraft that is heavier than air, propelled by a screw propeller or a jet engine. Types of Aircraft Lighter than air aviation: They are called lighter than air because they are filled with gas whose weight is lighter than air (heated air, hydrogen, or helium) in order to create lift. For instance, hot air balloon derives lift mainly from heat. Hot air balloons utilize the ability of hot air to rise. By heating the air inside the balloon with First powered, controlled flight the burner, it becomes lighter than the cooler air on the outside. This causes the b. Classifications of aircraft balloon to float upwards, as if it were in Apart from Aircraft types, aircraft are water. often categorized based on classification Example of lighter than air is airship, free balloon, and kite balloon. Classification Based On Mach Number Today, lighter-than-air aircraft are used What is a Mach number? Mach number almost only for recreational purposes. is the ratio of speed of a body to the speed of sounds. Aircraft are classified based on their maximum Mach number. Subsonic (M1) speeds are greater than the speed of sound. Hypersonic (M>>5) are much greater than speed of Hot Air Balloon sound, usually up to five times greater. Heavier than air aviation: Heavier than Classification Based On Purpose air aircraft must have a power source to Aircraft are mainly classified based on provide the thrust necessary to obtain their purpose as follows: lift. This covers all aircraft that derive i. Passenger Transport lift mainly from aerodynamic forces. An ii. Business jets example of heavier than air is the iii. Cargo Transport airplanes that we fly today. This is iv. Military Aircraft divided into engine driven and non- v. Trainers engine driven. Classification Based On Range There are two types of airports— Aircraft are classified based on their towered and non-towered. range as follows: Short range (