INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANIZATION.pptx

INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANIZATION COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE Computer architecture is the design and structure of computer systems, encompassing how hardware components like processors, memory, and peripherals are organized and interact to perform tasks efficiently.  COMPUTER ORGANIZ...

INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE AND ORGANIZATION COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE Computer architecture is the design and structure of computer systems, encompassing how hardware components like processors, memory, and peripherals are organized and interact to perform tasks efficiently.  COMPUTER ORGANIZATION Computer organization refers to the way in which the components of a computer system are arranged and connected. It focuses on the internal structure of the computer, including the design of the hardware components and how they interact to execute instructions. WHAT IS COMPUTER AND HISTORY A computer is a programmable electronic device that can store, retrieve, and process data. The word "computer" originates from the Latin word "computare," which means "to calculate" or "to count." EARLY MECHANICAL COMPUTERS (1600S-1800S) - Abacus: Ancient calculating tool. - Pascaline (1642): Mechanical calculator by Blaise Pascal.  MECHANICAL AND ELECTROMECHANICAL COMPUTERS (1800S-1940S) - Analytical Engine (1837): Charles Babbage's design. - Tabulating Machines: Used punched cards for data processing.  FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS (1940S-1950S) - ENIAC (1946): First electronic digital computer. - UNIVAC I (1951): First commercially produced computer. SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS (1950S-1960S) - Transistors: Replaced vacuum tubes. - IBM 700 series, DEC PDP series: Prominent computers. THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS (1960S-1970S) - Integrated Circuits: Enabled smaller and faster computers. - Mainframes and Minicomputers: IBM System/360, DEC computers. FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS (1970S-1980S) - Microprocessors: Revolutionized computing with PCs. - PC Revolution: Apple II, IBM PC, and subsequent models. FIFTH GENERATION AND BEYOND (1980S-PRESENT) - Networking and Internet: Global connectivity. - Mobile Computing: Smartphones, tablets, wearables. - AI and Cloud Computing: COMPUTER COMPONENTS The main components of a computer system can be categorized into hardware and software components. COMPUTER HARDWARE COMPONENTS An Overview of Main Hardware Components CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)  The CPU is often referred to as the brain of the computer. It executes instructions from software programs, performs arithmetic and logical operations, and controls the operation of other components.  Key Features:  - Number of cores and threads  - Clock speed (measured in GHz)  - Cache memory (L1, L2, L3) MEMORY (RAM - RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)  RAM is temporary storage that holds data and instructions needed by the CPU while actively processing. It provides fast access to data but loses its contents when the computer is turned off.  Key Points:  - Volatile memory  - Speed measured in MHz or GHz  - Types: DDR4, DDR5 STORAGE DEVICES  Storage devices provide long-term storage for operating systems, software applications, and user data.  1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)  - Uses spinning disks and magnetic coatings  - Slower access speeds compared to SSDs  2. Solid State Drive (SSD)  - Uses flash memory for faster access speeds and more durability  MOTHERBOARD  The motherboard is the main circuit board that houses and connects all other components of the computer system.  Key Components:  - CPU socket  - Memory slots (DIMM slots)  - Expansion slots (PCIe, AGP)  - Chipset (Northbridge, Southbridge) POWER SUPPLY UNIT (PSU)  The PSU converts electrical power from a standard outlet into usable voltage for the computer's internal components.  Specifications:  - Wattage rating (measured in watts, W)  - Efficiency rating (80 Plus Bronze, Gold, etc.)  - Connectors: ATX, EPS, SATA, PCIe GRAPHICS PROCESSING UNIT (GPU) The GPU is a specialized processor designed to render images, videos, and 3D graphics. Features: - CUDA cores (NVIDIA GPUs) - Stream processors (AMD GPUs) - VRAM (Video RAM) INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES  Input devices allow users to interact with the computer, while output devices display information or produce physical copies.  1. Input Devices:  - Keyboard, Mouse, Other devices (scanners, webcams)  2. Output Devices: Monitor, Printer, Speakers COMPUTER SOFTWARE COMPONENTS An Overview of Main Software Components OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)  The OS manages hardware resources and provides services for computer programs. It acts as an interface between the hardware and software.  Examples:  - Windows (Microsoft)  - macOS (Apple)  - Linux (open-source) DEVICE DRIVERS  Device drivers allow the OS to communicate with hardware devices, ensuring proper functionality and performance.  Functions:  - Control hardware devices  - Enable communication with the OS  - Provide plug-and-play functionality APPLICATIONS  Applications are software programs designed for specific tasks such as word processing, web browsing, gaming, and multimedia editing.  Examples:  - Microsoft Office Suite  - Adobe Creative Cloud  - Web browsers (Chrome, Firefox) UTILITIES Utilities are software programs that perform maintenance tasks, manage resources, or provide security features. Types: - Antivirus software - Disk cleanup tools OPERATION OF COMPUTER COMPONENTS INPUT PROCESSING STORAGE OUTPUT CONTROL INPUT Input is the process of entering data or commands into the computer. It involves accepting data from external sources, such as PROCESSING Processing refers to the manipulation of data according to the instructions provided by a program. This involves performing calculations, making comparisons, and executing logic operations. STORAGE Storage involves saving data, instructions, and information for future use. It retains data even when the power is turned off and includes various types of storage devices like hard drives, SSDs, and cloud storage. OUTPUT Output is the process of presenting processed data to the user or sending it to output devices such as monitors, printers, speakers, or plotters. It provides meaningful information based on processed input. CONTROL Control encompasses directing the manner and sequence in which all computer operations are executed. It manages the flow of data within the computer system and ensures that operations occur in the desired order. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INPUT, OUTPUT AND INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES let's break down the differences between input devices, output devices, and input/output devices  INPUT DEVICES Input devices allow users to enter data and instructions into a computer system. - Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone  OUTPUT DEVICES Output devices convey information processed by the computer to users or other systems. - Examples: Monitor, Printer, Speaker, Projector INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES Input/Output devices facilitate bidirectional communication between the computer and external devices. - Examples: Headset, touchscreen, USB Flash Drive, External Hard Drive THE MOTHERBOARD The motherboard is the main circuit board inside a computer. It holds many of the crucial components of the system. CPU SOCKET The CPU socket is where the processor (CPU) is installed. It connects the CPU to the rest of the RAM SLOTS RAM slots are used to insert memory modules (RAM) which provide temporary storage for data used PCI SLOTS PCI slots are used to connect expansion cards such as graphics cards, sound cards, and network adapters. SATA CONNECTORS SATA connectors are used to connect hard drives, solid-state drives (SSDs), and optical drives to the CMOS BATTERY The CMOS battery provides power to the CMOS chip which stores BIOS settings such as date, time, and hardware configurations. CHIPSET The chipset is a set of chips on the motherboard that manages communication BIOS BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is firmware used to perform hardware initialization during EXPANSION SLOTS Expansion slots allow for the addition of expansion cards to enhance the functionality of the USB PORTS USB ports are used for connecting various peripherals such as keyboards, mice, printers, and external storage devices. NORTHBRIDGE AND SOUTHBRIDGE Northbridge and Southbridge are chipsets that handle different tasks on the motherboard, including memory access and peripheral connectivity. VRM (VOLTAGE REGULATOR MODULE) The VRM regulates the voltage supplied to the CPU, ensuring stable operation. HEAT SINKS AND COOLING FANS Heat sinks and cooling fans help dissipate heat generated by components such as the CPU and GPU, preventing overheating. PROCESSOR WHAT IS A PROCESSOR? A processor, or CPU (Central Processing Unit), is the core component of a computer system responsible for executing instructions. CPU HAS THREE COMPONENTS ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) Control Unit Memory or Storage Unit  ALU It is the arithmetic logic unit, which performs arithmetic and logical functions. Arithmetic functions include addition, subtraction, multiplication division, and comparisons. Logical functions mainly include selecting, comparing, and merging the data. A CPU may contain more than one ALU.  CONTROL UNIT It is the circuitry in the control unit, which makes use of electrical signals to instruct the computer system for executing already stored instructions. It takes instructions from memory and then decodes and executes these instructions. So, it controls and coordinates the functioning of all  MEMORY OR STORAGE UNIT/ REGISTERS It is called Random access memory (RAM). It temporarily stores data, programs, and intermediate and final results of processing. So, it acts as a temporary storage area that holds the data temporarily, which FUNCTION OF A PROCESSOR The primary function of a processor is to fetch instructions from memory, decode them, and  CPU OPERATIONS The primary Functions of a processor are fetch, decode, execute and write back. Fetch- is the operation which receives instructions from program memory from a systems RAM. Decode- is where the instruction is converted to understand which other parts of the CPU are needed to continue the operation. This is performed by the instruction decoder Execute- is where the operation is performed. Each part of the CPU that is needed is activated to carry PROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE Processors are designed with specific architectures (e.g., x86, ARM) that determine how instructions are processed and data flows. PROCESSOR SPEED Processors are measured by clock speed (GHz), indicating how many instructions they can MULTIPLE CORES Modern processors often have multiple cores, allowing them to execute multiple instructions CACHE MEMORY Processors have built- in cache memory that stores frequently accessed data and instructions, PROCESSOR MANUFACTURERS Companies like Intel, AMD, ARM, etc., design and manufacture processors for various devices. TYPES OF CPU CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD, each of which manufactures its own types of CPUs. In modern times, there are lots of CPU types in the market.  SINGLE CORE CPU Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU, which was used in the 1970s. It has only one core to process different operations. It can start only one operation at a time; the CPU switches back and forth between different sets of data streams when more than one program runs. So, it is  DUAL CORE CPU As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two cores in a single Integrated Circuit (IC). Although each core has its own controller and cache, they are linked together to work as a single unit and thus can perform faster than the single-core processors and can handle multitasking more efficiently than Single Core processors.  QUAD CORE CPU This type of CPU comes with two dual- core processors in one integrated circuit (IC) or chip. So, a quad-core processor is a chip that contains four independent units called cores. These cores read and execute instructions of CPU. The cores can run multiple instructions simultaneously, thereby increases the HEXA-CORE CPU also known as a six-core CPU, integrates six individual processing cores within a single chip. This setup allows the CPU to handle multiple tasks concurrently, improving overall performance and responsiveness. Hexa-core processors are commonly found in high-performance desktop computers, workstations, and some laptops, where they excel in tasks  OCTA-CORE CPU It is a type of processor that integrates eight individual processing cores within a single chip. This configuration enables the CPU to execute multiple tasks simultaneously, enhancing overall performance and multitasking capabilities significantly. It is commonly used in high- performance computing devices such as gaming PCs, workstations, and servers, where their parallel processing power is leveraged to handle demanding applications like gaming, video  DECA-CORE CPU also known as a ten-core CPU, incorporates ten individual processing cores within a single chip. This configuration enables the CPU to execute numerous tasks simultaneously, significantly boosting overall computational power and multitasking capabilities. Deca-core processors are typically used in high-end desktop computers, workstations, and servers where intensive workloads such as scientific