Intro to Psych Lecture Notes PDF

Intro to Psych Lecture 1 scientific study of mind and brain to explain behavior Forer effect “violent person -> violent genes?” 70s: no, environment causes violent behavior 90s: yes, genes causes violent behavior today: behavior is result of genes and environment genes provide instruction for makin...

Intro to Psych Lecture 1 scientific study of mind and brain to explain behavior Forer effect “violent person -> violent genes?” 70s: no, environment causes violent behavior 90s: yes, genes causes violent behavior today: behavior is result of genes and environment genes provide instruction for making proteins gene expression: the extent to which a gene is transcribed into a sequence of amino acids (protein). The turning on or off is controlled by the biochemical environment inside the cell, which is influenced by e.g. environment outside the cell, timing in development, overall environment, experience, behavior. cells in brains or skins or … differ by which genes are turned on or off to create those cells genotype: organism’s specific set of genes phenotype: overt traits and behavior of an organism, determined by genotype x environment allele -> specific variant of a gene some are dominant, some recessive specific trait of behavior is determined by the interaction between the environment (past and present) and one gene pair / multiple gene pairs (polygenetic inheritance) conditions for natural selection:​ there is variation among individuals of a population individual with a certain trait survive and reproduce at higher rates than other trait associated with this advantage is passed on from parents to offspring Organisms differ in genotype and variations in genotype are passed on from generation to generation. Survival of genes matter, not survival of individuals sources of evidence for modern evolutionary theory: fossil record: fossils show gradual changes along heritage lines, splits, and transition forms between species resemblance between genomes of various organisms: pseudogenes: inactive genes that no longer produce protein, might have functioned in the beginning but not anymore due to mutation distribution of species across the world: continental (connected to main island) vs oceanic islands (never connected to main island) continental island has originally a very large variety of species, oceanic island originally lacked many basic kinds of animals evolution does not improve organism (organism just become more adapted to their current environment to survive) evolution does not only lead to rigid behavorial patterns What are chromosomes, DNA, and genes, and what is the relationship between the three? Chromosomes: carry instructions for how to build and operate a body, made of coiled strands of DNA DNA: substance consisting of two intertwined strands of molecules in a double helix shape​ Genes: meaningful sections of the DNA molecule -> govern the cell’s functioning by providing instructions for making proteins What is meant by genetic expression, genotype, and phenotype? Genetic expression: whether a gene is turned “on” or “off”, the extent to which a gene is transcribed into a sequence of amino acids (protein). This is controlled by the biochemical environment which is influenced by environment outside the cell, timing in development, the overall environment, experience, behavior​ Genotype: an organism’s specific set of genes (what god gave you)​ Phenotype: the overt traits and behaviors of an organism, determined by genotype x environment (what you did) Can you explain how genes are passed from parents to children? 23 genes from mom paired with 23 from dad located at corresponding positions on paris of chromosomes. Allele -> specific variant of a gene (dominant or recessive), homozygote -> alleles on locus are the same, heterozygote -> alleles on locus are different What is meant exactly by evolution through natural selection? Darwin -> all modern organisms are descended from a small set of shared ancestors and have merged over time. Three conditions: variation among individuals of a populations individuals with a certain trait survive and reproduce at higher rates than others the trait associated with this advantage is passed from parent to offspring variations in genotype are passed from generation to generation, survival of genes matter evidence from: fossil record, resemblance between genomes of various organisms, pseudogenes, distribution of species across the world (continental islands vs oceanic island) Which role do evolution, genes, and environment play in behavior? genome: blueprint that provides detailed instructions for everything, environment determines which option is taken evolution does not improve organisms, lead to only rigid behavioral patterns nature vs nurture What is behavioral genetics and which methods are used here? how much genetics play a role in behavior twin studies monozygotic twins: identical twin, sharing the same genes dizygotic twins: fraternal twins, no more similar than nontwin siblings adoption studies What is meant by heritability? a statistical estimate of the extent to which variation in a trait within a population is due to genetics Lecture 2 building blocks of the nervous system: glia(red, primarily supportive role), neurons(green) different types of neurons:​ sensory receptors: specialized cells that are sensitive of energy and able to translate the energy into an electrical signal sensory (afferent) neurons: carry information to central nervous system motor (efferent) neurons: carry information outward from the central nervous system to maybe influence muscle cells interneurons: neurons in the brain inside of neuron cell in negatively charged membrane in semipermeable (some substances move in/out) when a signal is charged, you get action potential (inside becomes positively charged), propagation ? the membrane has specific gates for certain ions the enter or leave the cell stimulus -> action potential -> inward/outward flow of specific particles neuron fire or don’t (all or none law) the intensity variates by: number of neurons firing, firing rate neurons interact via synapses: the place where a signal passes from one nerve cell to another neurotransmitters: chemical substances that transmit signals from one neuron to another, lock and key model (key must fit in the lock to work) -> after release their effect is terminated by: autoreceptors (monitor # neurotransmitters have been released), synaptic reuptake (neurotransmitter are reused), enzymes (activate the neurotransmitters) if something + goes in, bigger chance of getting to the threshold. if it is -, then lower chance. depended on the receptor they bind to through chemical substances: drugs:​ agonists: increase of precursor, counteracting the cleanup enzymes, blocking the re-uptake, mimicking the transmitter’s actions antagonists: decrease precursor (or neurotransmitter), increase effectiveness cleanup enzymes, enhance the re-uptake, blocking of receptors Communication of the brain with the body sympathetic division prepares the body for action parasympathetic system returns the body to a resting state endocrine system release hormones The brain 19th century -> phrenology, use of different parts of brain will make that area grow, bumps on the skull were interpreted as personality traits methods for studying the brain:​ clinical observation of patients with brain damage experimental techniques -> invasive: animal studies (manipulate some variables and see the outcome) TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation) Other techniques: Electrophysiology -> EEG (ERP) Brain imaging: (f)MRI scan (indicate where in the brain certain areas get active), PET scan What are the structure and function of the neuron? Function: cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information. They operate through electrical impulses, communicate with other neurons through chemical signals, and form neural networks sensory receptors sensory (afferent) neurons: detect information from the physical world passing information along to the brain motor (efferent) neurons: direct muscles to contract or relax, producing movement interneurons: act as relay stations facilitating communication between sensory and motor neurons Structure: dendrites: branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons cell body: the site the neuron where information from thousand of other neurons is collected and integrated axon: long, narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which information is conducted from the cell body to the terminal buttons​ terminal buttons: at the ends of axons, small nodules that release chemical signals from the neurons into the synapse How do neurons communicate with each other? all-or-none law -> neurons either fire or don’t, intensity variations by: variations of neurons firing, variations in firing rate action potential -> the electrical signal that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons resting membrane potential -> electrical charge of a neuron when it is not active neurons interact via: synapses: place where a signal passes from one nerve cell to another neurotransmitters: chemical substances that transmit signals from one neuron to another through lock-and-key model, terminated by; autoreceptors, synaptic reuptake, enzymes chemical substances (drugs): Agonists: increase of precursor, counteracting the cleanup enzymes, blocking the reuptake, mimicking the transmitter’s action. Antagonists: decrease precursor, increase effectiveness cleanup enzymes, enhance the re-uptake, blocking of receptors reuptake -> the process whereby a neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, thereby stopping its activity How does the brain communicate with the body? somatic nervous system (SNS): transmits sensory signals and motor signals between the central nervous system and the skin, muscles, and joints autonomic nervous system (ANS): transmits sensory signals and motor signal between the central nervous system and the body’s glands and internal organs sympathetic division: prepares body for action parasympathetic division: returns body to its resting state endocrine system: uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors, and actions pituitary gland: sends hormonal signals to other endocrine glands, controlling their release of hormones Which different methods are used to study the nervous system, and what exactly does each of these methods measure? Clinical observation Experimental techniques: invasive -> animal studies Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): The use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions Other techniques: Electroencephalography (EEG): measuring electrical activity in the brain Event-related Potential (ERP): provide information about the speed at which the brain processes events and their timing Positron Emission Tomography (PET): brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): brain imaging that uses a powerful magnetic field to produce high quality images of the brain functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood’s oxygen levels What are the main components of the nervous system and the brain? cerebral cortex: the outer layer of brain tissue, which forms the convoluted surface of the brain; the site of all thoughts, perceptions, and complex behaviors corpus callosum: a massive bridge of millions of axons that connects the hemispheres of the brain and allows information to flow between them 4 regions of cerebral cortex: occipital lobes: important for vision (back of the brain) parietal lobes: important for sense of touch and attention to environment (front of occipital and behind frontal lobes) temporal lobes: important for processing auditory information, memory, object and face perception (below parietal and in front of occipital lobes) frontal lobes: important for movement and higher-level psychological processes associated with the prefrontal cortex (at the front of the brain) prefrontal cortex: frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior and personally (especially prominent in humans) insula: taste, perception of bodily states, and empathy thalamus: gateway to the brain, receives all incoming sensory information hypothalamus: regulation of bodily functions (temperature, rhythms, blood pressure, glucose levels, basic motivated behaviors) hippocampus: formation of memories amygdala: learning to associate things with emotional responses, emotional information basal ganglia: planning and production of movement brain stem: associated with survival (heart rate, breathing, urination etc.) cerebellum: coordinated movement and balance What is meant by the term lateralization? What are the main projection areas in the cortex? Lecture 3 Consciousness one’s subjective experience of the world, resulting from brain activity -> brain and mind are inseparable -> each of us experiences consciousness personally, you can’t know if two people experience the world in exactly the same way Global workspace model: consciousness arises as a function of which brain circuits are active​ all brain activity does not result in awareness. quite some processing does not reach awareness. these unconscious processes may lead people to do things that their conscious minds struggle to explain -> After-the-fact-explanations if might even be that much of our behavior stems from unconscious processes and that we just make up a conscious story afterwards, creating the illusion that we intentionally and consciously behaved as we did behavior is much more directed by unconscious processes than is often assumed Attention -> the process that enables you to focus selectively on some stimuli and avoid focusing on others. cocktail party phenomenon (at a party you may selectively attend to one conversation and ignore the ones around you) sometimes the unattended information breaks through. when you are not attending to something you are mostly unaware of it -> change blindness (failure to detect change from visual information) only the important information gets stored unattended information may still affect behavior -> subliminal perception: only short term behavior variations in “normal” consciousness nucleus senses changes in light, sends signal to pineal gland to go sleep? Why do we sleep:​ restorative theory: strengthens immune system, lack of sleep; drops performance in vigilant tasks, emotional problems, cognitive problems etc. circadian rhythm theory: sleep has evolved to keep animals quiet during the night, when it’s dangerous so attackers won’t notice facilitation of learning theory: strengthen neural connections needed for learning to occur Dreams: products of an altered state of consciousness in which images and fantasies are confused with reality: non-REM dreams: dull REM dreams: bizarre and intense Drugs tolerance: increasing amounts of a drug needed to achieve the intended effect withdrawal: physiological and psychological state characterized by feelings of anxiety, tension, and cravings for the addictive substance stimulants are drugs that increase behavioral and mental activity and activate the sympathetic nervous system (cocaine, nicotine, caffeine) side-effects: difficulty falling asleep, anxiety, weight loss depressants: reduce behavioral and mental activity by depressing the central nervous system (alcohol, anti-anxiety drugs -> benzodiazepines, barbiturates) opioids (narcotics): depress or slow down the central nervous system; relieve pain and suffering (heroin, morphine, codeine) hallucinogens (psychedelics): produce alterations in cognition, mood, and perception (LSD, mescaline) What is consciousness and how does it arise? one’s subjective experience of the world, resulting from brain activity, brain and mind are inseparable What is attention and how does it relate to consciousness, subliminal perception, and change blindness? priming: a facilitation in the response to a stimulus due to recent experience with that stimulus or a related stimulus subliminal perception: processing of information by sensory systems without conscious awareness change blindness: people being unaware of change due to attention being elsewhere Describe the different stages of normal sleep and outline the major theories proposed to explain the function of sleep: stage 1 drift off to sleep: burst of theta waves, very light sleep, deny you were asleep stage 2 more regular breathing, less sensitive to external stimulation, sleep spindles, K-complexes stage 3-4 delta waves/ slow-wave sleep, hard to wake, often disoriented when they wake up, some information is processed (potential danger, child crying) REM sleep rapid eye movements, paralysis of motor systems, dreaming Restoration and sleep deprivation: allow body to rest and repair itself Circadian rhythm and sleep: keep animals quiet and inactive during times of the day when there is the greatest danger Facilitation of learning: neural connections during the day are strengthened during sleep Describe the four major categories of drugs and provide an example of each of them as well as an example that does not fit either category Stimulants: increase behavioral and mental activity (amphetamines, methamphetamine, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine) Dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine Depressants: reduce behavioral and mental activity by depressing the central nervous system (alcohol, anti-anxiety drugs, benzodiazepines, barbiturates) GABA Opioids (narcotics): depress or slow down the central nervous system; relieve pain and suffering (heroin, morphine, codeine) endorphins Hallucinogens (psychedelics): produce alterations in cognition, mood, and perception (LSG, PCP, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms) Serotonin, glutamate What is meant by addiction, tolerance and withdrawal? Addiction: drug use that remains compulsive despite its negative consequences Tolerance: increasing amounts of a drug needed to achieve the intended effect Withdrawal: physiological and psychological state characterized by feeling of anxiety, tension, and cravings for the addictive substance. Lecture 4 Sensation and Perception: Vision sensation -> the detection ex external stimuli and the transmission of this information to the brain perception -> the processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals distal stimulus -> proximal stimulus -> transduction -> sensation -> perception vestibular sense: balancing of the head kinesthesis: provide information of the position of the body in space, helps coordinate the movement quantitative variations (intensity) -> rates of neuron firing, total number of neurons triggered qualitative variations (sensory quality) -> different sensory qualities are signaled by different neurons, certain sensory qualities arise because of different patterns of activation across a whole set of neurons adaptation -> the tendency to respond less to a stimulus that has been present and unchanging for some time. the retina:​ light (direct or reflected) -> can vary in intensity and wavelength, is absorbed by pigments in the receptors (rods and cones) which transduce light energy into electric energy, electric signal is carried to the brain via ganglion cells rods -> night vision, far more sensitive to light, therefore are exhausted during the day cones -> day vision, less sensitive, need higher intensity levels of light in order to generate a signal, combination of different cones makes you able to see colors color vision: -> trichromatic theory (three different kinds of cones that are sensitive to three different levels of wavelength) -> opponent-process theory: some color combinations are not possible (there is no such thing as “blue-yellow” or “red-green”) distribution of rods and cones across the retina are not evenly distributed -> high intensity of cones in the fovea -> higher resolution in the fovea two systems ​ “where” path to parietal cortex, dorsal ​ “what” path to temporal cortex, ventral there is a strong modularity within each system Visual perception: the visual system modulates, organizes, and interprets the information (not a passive receiver of visual information) perception occurs on the basis of: bottom up (data-driven) processes, top down (knowledge-driven) processes -> priming (knowledge from before), context, sometimes the orientation of an individual part is crucial for the perception of the whole perceptual organization: segregation of figure and (back)ground principles of figure-ground segregation -> lower areas are more often perceived as figure than higher areas, convex (bol) forms are more often perceived as figure whereas concave (hol) forms are more often perceived as background perceptual interpretation on the basis of organizing principles (Gestalt principles) -> proximity(closeness in space), similarity (colors, shape etc.), continuity, closure (perceiving as a full object instead of 2) perception of depth depth cues: binocular cues -> binocular disparity convergence Monocular cues:​ occlusion linear perspective texture gradients shadow (brain perceives as light normally coming from above) motion parallax objects that are nearby moves much faster than objects that are far away perception of size: depends on perceived distance perceptual constancies:​ correctly perceiving different properties of distal stimuli despite continuously changing proximal stimuli -> size constancy, shape constancy, lightness constancy, color constancy What is meant by sensation and perception, the distal and the proximal stimulus, and what are the seven senses? sensation: the detection of external stimuli and the transmission of this information to the brain Perception: the processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals Distal stimulus: the actual physical stimulus Proximal stimulus: image that falls on the retina senses: vision, hearing, taste, smell, skin senses, vestibular sense, kinesthesis How are sensory variations in intensity and quality coded in the CNS, and what is sensory adaptation? intensity varies through: rates of neuron firing, total number of neurons triggered quality varies through: different sensory qualities signaled by different neurons, certain sensory qualities arise because of different patterns of activation across a whole set of neurons sensory adaptation: the tendency to respond less to a stimulus that has been present and unchanging for some time absolute threshold: minimum intensity of stimulation necessary to detect a sensation half the time difference threshold: minimum amount of change required to detect a difference between two stimuli ​ Describe the major visual processes occurring in the retina retina: thin inner surface of the back of the eyeball, which contains the sensory receptors that transduce light into neural signals rods: retinal cells that respond to low levels of light and result in black-and-white perception cones: retinal cells that respond to higher levels of light and result in color perception. fovea: center of the retina, where cones are densely packed Describe the major visual processes occurring beyond the retina two systems ​ “where” path to parietal cortex, dorsal ​ “what” path to temporal cortex, ventral there is a strong modularity within each system What is the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing? bottom-up processing: perception based on the physical features of the stimulus top-down processing: the interpretation of sensory information based on knowledge, expectations, and past experiences What are the major principles of figure-ground segregation and organization (Gestalt principles)? lower areas are more often perceived as figure than higher areas convex forms are more often perceived as figure whereas concave forms are more often perceived as background Gestalt principles: proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, common fate​ ​ What is depth perception and which cues play a role in depth perception? Binocular cues: binocular disparity, convergence Monocular cues: Occlusion, linear perspective, texture gradients, shadow, motion parallax How do we perceive an object’s size? depends on perceived distance What is meant by perceptual constancies and which ones can you distinguish? Size constancy: distance to the object Shape constancy: what angle are you seeing the object from Lightness constancy: how much light is being reflected from the object and from its background color constancy: compare wavelengths of light reflected from the object with those reflected from its background transduction: the process by which sensory stimuli are converted to neural signals the brain can interpret Lecture 5 Learning Nonassociative learning -> Learning about a stimulus such as sight or sound in the external world: habituation: a decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus -> allows a better ability to focus on what is new by ignoring that which has already become familiar dishabituation: an increase in a response because of a change in something familiar sensitization: an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus Associative learning -> classical conditioning: a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response example: a dog produces saliva (unconditional response) when it sees meat (unconditioned stimulus), not when a bell rings (neutral stimulus). by ringing a bell and showing the dog meat after conditioning the dog will produce saliva when hearing the sound of a bell. ​ second-order conditioning: when a CS (conditional stimulus) is paired with a new S, the new S produces CR (conditional response) ​ extinction: the association between the CS and CR can be eliminated by repeatedly presenting the CS alone ​ spontaneous recovery: after extinction and a resting interval it will respond again stimulus generalization: the CR can also be elicited by stimuli that are similar to the CS Discrimination: CS+ -> reinforced stimulus, CS- -> unreinforced stimulus an organism can not learn any association, there are biological constraints -> biological preparedness. more likely to show certain response to certain stimuli conditioning requires: ​ contiguity (together in time) such that learning only occurs when the CS is presented before the US ​ contingency -> the CS should be informative with respect to the chance the the US is offered thus the CS actually functions as a sort of predictor of the US -> the CR is a reaction in preparation of the US -> can lead to compensatory reactions (such as with drugs) Operant conditioning: a form of learning in which the consequence of an action (response) determines the likelihood that it will be performed again. Learned is the relationship between response and the consequence (reinforcer or punishment) Law of Effect -> behavior is governed by its consequences. performance is strengthened if it’s followed by a reward and weakened if it’s not. ​ shaping: successive approximations of the behavior you want to evoke ​ reinforcers: primary (food) and secondary reinforcers, positive and negative reinforcers (removal of unpleasant) ​ punishment: positive and negative punishment (removal of pleasant) continuous reinforcement: each and every response that you want to evoke in something is rewarded partial reinforcement -> schedules of reinforcement: ​ Fixed-Ratio (FR) food after 4 responses ​ Variable-Ratio (VR) food after on average 4 responses ​ Fixed-Interval (FI) food after 1st response after 4 minutes ​ Variable-Interval (VI) food after 1st response after on average 4 minutes partial-reinforcement extinction effect: partial reinforcement leads to less extinction than continuous reinforcement an organism cannot learn any association: biological constraints -> built-in predispositions learning also occurs in the absence of responses: Tolman: “learning involves not only a change in behavior but also the acquisition of new knowledge -> cognitive map” conditioning requires: ​ contiguity (together in time): learning only occurs when the reinforcer or punishment immediately follows the response ​ contingency: the reinforcer or punishment should occur more likely after the response than otherwise. without contingency (control) results in learned helplessness -> stop responding to environments (make believe you have no control over your environment) Observational learning: What is habituation and sensitization? habituation: a decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus -> allows a better ability to focus on what is new by ignoring that which has already become familiar dishabituation: an increase in a response because of a change in something familiar sensitization: an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus​ ​ What is classical conditioning, how does it work, and what are the major properties?​ Learn that a stimulus predicts another stimulus acquisition: gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli extinction: a process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus spontaneous recovery: when a previously extinguished conditioned response reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus ​ What is operant conditioning, how does it work, and what are the major properties? Learn that a behavior leads to a consequence law of effect: behavior that leads to ‘satisfying state’ is likely to occur again and vice versa positive reinforcement: the administration of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior's recurrence negative reinforcement: the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase to probability of a behaviors recurrence punishment: a stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated positive punishment: the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior’s recurrence negative punishment: the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior’s recurrence shaping: involves reinforcing behavior that are increasingly similar to the designed behavior temporal discounting: the tendency to discount the subjective value of a reward when it is given after a delay continuous reinforcement: behavior is reinforced each time it occurs partial reinforcement: behavior is reinforced intermittently partial-reinforcement extinction effect: the greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement fixed interval: given after predictable passage of time variable interval: given after unpredictable passage of time fixed ratio: given after predictable number of responses variable ratio: given after unpredictable number of responses​ ​ What is observational learning? learning by observing how other behave modeling: imitating a behavior seen in others vicarious learning: learning to engage in a behavior or not, after seeing other being rewarded or punished for performing that action instructed learning: learning association and behavior through verbal communication Lecture 6 Memory perception -> the organization of current stimuli memory -> the organization of stimuli from the past, the nervous system’s capacity to retain and retrieve skills and knowledge, their are multiple memory systems, and each memory system has its own rules memory operates over time in three phases: encoding Short term memory -> limited capacity memory span task: magic number seven -> items disappear as a result of decay and replacement by recoding (chunks) you can expand the capacity -> UKEUCIAPHDFBIUSSR -> UK EU CIA PHD FBI USSR Long term memory -> unlimited capacity Free-recall task: hear a list of items, can repeat the list in self chosen order -> people are typically better at recalling the last items and the initial items, since the initial are most likely rehearsed and therefore likely in long term memory (primacy effect) and the last are heard most recent (recency effect) Craik and Watkins experiment: presented list of words and always keep track of most recent word starting with letter ‘G’, then recall words with ‘G’. the length of an item’s stay in STM did not determine p(recall) Nickerson and Adams: repetition by itself does not increase chance that information is retrieved to LTM New Idea: memory is an active process requiring attention Modern memory theory:​ Short term memory -> working memory: information one is thinking about Long term memory -> information, stored during longer intervals, which is currently not actively used Which encoding processes promote later recall? depth of processing: shallow processing (surface form) deep processing (meaning) understanding: a schema (abstraction/ generalization, already having an outline to integrate new information and organize it) may help you to understand and subsequently remember information contents good encoding provides an effective means for retrieval later storage and consolidation (in memory traces) after encoding -> stored in memory traces memory consolidation: the neural process by which encoded information becomes stored in memory -> transient and fragile potential memory contents are transformed into a more permanent state Long-term potentiation (LTP): strengthening of a synaptic connection, making the postsynaptic neurons more easily activated by presynaptic neurons (if you repeatedly stimulate a presynaptic neuron, it is more likely for the postsynaptic to fire over time) after rehearsal -> reconsolidation (consolidating again after recall, also possible to alter the memory trace) retrieval: recall, recognition Good retrieval cues (stimulus that allows you to access the memory trace): ​ recreate the context in which the original learning occurred -> context reinstatement ​ recreate the state of mind in which the original learning occurred ​ a richer encoding results in better recall -> encoding specificity principle ​ Describe the stage theory of Atkinson and Shiffrin and indicate how it differs from current ideas about memory sensory register/memory: very briefly stores sensory information in close to its original sensory form short term memory/ working memory: limited-capacity cognitive system that temporarily stores and manipulates information for current use long-term memory: the storage of information that lasts from minutes to forever serial position effect: primacy effect (early items on a list) and recency effect (last items on a list) are more often recalled due to entering of long memory or short term memory Which factors are relevant to encoding, storage, and retrieval?​ encoding: depth of processing; shallow processing (surface form), deep processing (meaning) understanding: a schema may help you to understand and subsequently remember information contents prospective memory: remembering to do something at some future time Storage: memory consolidation: the neural process by which encoded information becomes stored in memory -> transient and fragile potential memory contents are transformed into a more permanent state long-term potentiation (LTP): strengthening of a synaptic connection, making the postsynaptic neurons more easily activated by presynaptic neurons after rehearsal -> reconsolidation (update or strengthen memory) Retrieval: context reinstatement -> recreating the context in which the learning occurred encoding specificity principle: any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory of the experience Which types of memory can be distinguished? episodic memory: one’s past experiences identified by a time and place explicit memory: consciously retrieved memory implicit memory: expressed through responses actions or reactions procedural memory: implicit memory involving skills and habits prospective memory: remember to do something at a future time semantic memory: facts independent of personal experience​ ​ Outline different ways in which memory can be flawed When memory fails:​ amnesia: a deficit in long-term memory (resulting from disease, brain injury, or psychological trauma) in which the individual loses the ability to retrieve vast quantities of information retrograde amnesia -> unable to retrieve memory, anterograde amnesia -> unable to form new memories anterograde amnesia: lose ability to form new memories retrograde amnesia: lost past memories inability to remember: absent mindedness: the inattentive or shallow encoding of events -> during most of our daily activities we are consciously aware of only a small portion of both our thoughts and our behaviors memory decay: forgetting over time -> forgetting curve decay of memory traces with time (caused by metabolic processes) interference: after sleep less forgetting than after wakefulness, proactive interference: prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information retroactive interference: new information inhibits the ability to remember old information memory reconstructions (distortions of memory): memory bias: the changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes source misattribution: memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory (familiarity increases reality) suggestibility: the development of biased memories from misleading information -> different wording of questions after an event may alter the participants’ memories of the event (Loftus) memories can be distorted, or even implanted with false information memories can be altered by the intrusion of generic knowledge or semantic associations Lecture 7 Thinking and Intelligence mental representations -> components of knowledge Analogical representations: similar to pictures Symbolic representations: evoke a concept/meaning Decision making:​ Normative decision theories -> define how people should make decisions expected utility theory: decisions should be made to maximize the outcome, depends on; values of the alternative options, probabilities associated with the alternative options Descriptive decision theories -> indicate how people actually make choices Heuristics: shortcuts (rules of thumb or informal guidelines) used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decision. Heuristic thinking occur often unconsciously, allows us to decide quickly, can result in errors or faulty decisions Anchoring: the tendency, in making judgements, to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind Framing: in decision making, the tendency to emphasize the potential losses or potential gains from at least one alternative. A potential loss of $1K has a greater effect on perceived value than a gain of $1K Availability heuristics: making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind Representativeness heuristic: making a decision based on how typical an individual object, or event belongs in a certain category Affective forecasting heuristic: the tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them feel in the future​ The paradox of choice: when too many options are available, especially when all of them are attractive, people experience conflict and indecision Intelligence testing: “the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges” (Gazzaniga 2018) How to measure: children: Binet, 1911 -> IQ = mental age / chronological age * 100 (test could only be used with children) Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC) adults:​ Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS / WAIS-R) -> verbal and performal rests, individual Scholastic aptitude test (SAT) -> group test Raven’s progressive matrices test -> non-verbal test intelligence tests are highly reliable and have high predictive validity (depending on the job’s complexity) The psychometric approach: an attempt to understand the nature of intelligence by studying the pattern of results obtained on intelligence tests. Is it one general ability or multiple specific abilities? Spearman (1904) -> general intelligence + specific abilities Cattell (1971) -> fluid vs. crystallized intelligence\ Relation between IQ and cognitive performance: different measures correlate with g -> simple RT and choice RT task, discrimination task performance, working memory capacity, executive control The roots of intelligence:​ the score on an intelligence test is affected by genes x environments genetic influences -> identical twins have higher IQ correlation than fraternal twins environmental influences -> impoverished (correlates negatively with IQ) vs. enriched environments environmental factors -> prenatal & postnatal factors, SES, education, overall change in environment, Flynn effect (overall increase in IQ over the years) Heritability = Genetic variance / Phenotypic variance What kind of mental representations are distinguished in the book? Name one example of each kind analogical representations: mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of what they represent, image of a cat symbolic representations: abstract mental representations that do not correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas, the written word ‘cat’ What is the difference between normative decision theories and descriptive decision theories? normative decision theories: define how people should make decisions. expected utility theory -> decision based on maximizing outcome depending on values of alternative options, probabilities associated with alternative options descriptive decision theories: indicate how people actually make choices What is a heuristic and which heuristics play a role in decision making?​ heuristics: shortcuts used to reduce the amount of thinking needed to make decisions, unconscious, quick decisions, can result in errors or faulty decisions Anchoring: tendency to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind framing: tendency to emphasize the potential losses or potential gains from at least one alternative availability heuristic: making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind representativeness heuristic: making a decision based on how typical an individual object, or event belongs in a certain category affective forecasting heuristic: the tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them feel in the future paradox of choice: when too many options are available, conflict and indecision arise How can intelligence be measured, and to what extent are intelligence tests reliable and valid? Binet 1911: IQ = Mental age / chronological age * 11 WISC, WAIS (individual test), SAT (group test), Raven’s progressive matrices test (non-verbal test) highly reliable​ ​ What is the psychometric approach to intelligence?​ an attempt to understand the nature of intelligence by studying the pattern of results obtained on intelligence tests. Is there one general ability or multiple specific abilities? ​ Does intelligence consist of one general ability or multiple specific abilities?​ Spearman: general intelligence + specific abilities Cattel: fluid vs crystallized intelligence ​ What is the distinction between fluid and crystallized abilities?​ fluid intelligence: intelligence that reflects the ability to process information, understand relationships, and think logically, particularly in novel or complex circumstances (being flexible and fast in your thinking) crystallized intelligence: intelligence that reflects both the knowledge acquired through experience and the ability to use that knowledge (formed over the years) ​ How does intelligence relate to cognitive performance?​ high IQ is related to increased speed of mental processing as measured by reaction time and inspection time tasks. Working memory may be related to intelligence for tasks that require attention. ​ How do genes and environments influence intelligence? environmental influences such as enrichment and education can alter gene expression to promote synaptic connections and processing efficiency in the brain and thereby increase intelligence Lecture 8 Human Development Prenatal development: Each cell has the same genetic code and after 14 days they start to differentiate. This is due to exposure to different environments genes x environment -> phenotype teratogens -> substances that disrupt a healthy neural development (e.g. alcohol) other harmful environmental factors are:​ maternal stress -> glucocorticoids -> increased vulnerability to anxiety and depression as an adult maternal starvation -> shortage of nutrients -> increased risk of schizophrenia, metabolic and cardiovascular diseases as an adult. Genes inherited from the parents provide information that guides development the prenatal environment rearranges the epigenetic marks that govern gene expression Socio-emotional development: infants seem to be predisposed to look at human faces, tend to imitate faces 3-4-month-old infants have a rudimental understanding of facial expressions social referencing -> using other’s facial expression as a cue about the situation Attachment:​ behavioral theory -> attachment to the mother occurs because she provides nutrition Bowlby -> attachment to the mother occurs because a child has the innate tendency to seek contact to a familiar person and fear unfamiliar persons measured -> Strange-situation test (Ainsworth, 1970), secure (60-65%) insecure (anxious, 35-40%) attachment. early separation from mothers causes psychological problems children in daycare may do better than those who aren’t especially in social skills later on full social isolation is harmful for humans Cognitive development: Nativists -> child is a miniature adult Empirists -> child is like an adult who still needs to learn a great deal Piaget -> child is qualitatively different from an adult, four stages of development:​ sensorimotor period: 0-2 yo, development of object permanence (understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen, independent of sensory and motoric interactions), developments of schemas: assimilation (think a new object into an existing schema) & accommodation (schema’s can be changed/ created), development of delayed imitation, end -> capacity for representations preoperational period: 2-7 yo, development of conservation of quantity and numbers, egocentrism, end -> capability or interrelate concrete mental representations concrete operational period: 7-11 yo, children can only apply their mental operations to concrete representations, end -> capability to interrelate formal representations formal operational period: 11+ yo, children can think logically about abstract propositions criticisms of Piaget’s theory:​ partial occlusion -> experiments 4-month old infant, habituation procedure two objects cannot take in the same space -> development of conservation occurs earlier preoperational children are less egocentric than supposed by Piaget How does the prenatal physical development proceed?​ teratogens: substances that disrupt a healthy neural development, such as alcohol synaptic pruning: the physiological process of preserving synaptic connections that are used, and eliminating those that are not used the prenatal environment rearranges the epigenetic marks that govern gene expression ​ How does the postnatal physical and sensorimotor development proceed? ​ infants seems to be predisposed to look at human faces, tending to imitate them social referencing: using other’s facial expression as a cue about the situation ​ How does the postnatal socio-emotional development proceed? attachment: behavioral theory -> attachment to the mother occurs because she provides nutrition, Bowlby -> attachment to the mother occurs because a child has the innate tendency to seek contact to a familiar person and fear unfamiliar persons​ ​ How does postnatal cognitive development proceed? Explain Piaget’s theory, including important critiques. Nativists: child is a miniature adult Empirists: child is like an adult who still needs to learn a great deal Piaget: child is qualitatively different from an adult Four stages of development: sensorimotor period 0-2 years of age: development of object permanence, if cannot seen it still exist, development of scheman’s (mental patterns) assimilation: process by which new information is placed into an existing scheme accommodation: process by which a new scheme is created or an existing scheme is drastically altered to include new information that otherwise would not fit into the scheme end -> capacity for representations Preoperational period 2-7 years of age: development of conservation of quantity and numbers. egocentrism end -> capability to interrelate concrete mental representations Concrete operational period 7-11 years of age: children can only apply their mental operations to concrete representations end -> capability to interrelate formal representations Formal operational period 11 years and older: children can think logically about abstract propositions Criticisms on Piaget’s theory: partial occlusion: 4-month-old infants, habituation procedure two objects cannot take in the same space: 4-month-old infants development of conservation occurs earlier preoperational children are less egocentric than supposed by Piaget preconventional level: earliest stage of moral development determined by self-interest and events conventional level: middle stage of moral development determined by strict adherence to societal rules and the approval of others postconventional level: highest stage of moral development determined by abstract principles and the value of all life Lecture 9 Social Psychology Social Influence: social brain hypothesis -> primates have large prefrontal cortexes because they live in dynamic and complex social groups that change over time Two critical conditions for group formation -> Reciprocity (help me and I’ll help you), Transitivity (share opinions of friends) Group membership: outgroup homogeneity effect -> the tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members (“they're all the same”) ingroup favoritism -> the tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege member of the ingroup more than member of the outgroup Group dynamics: mere presence effect: changes in a person’s behavior due to the presence of an audience -> social facilitation of skills (perform better) -> social inhibition of difficult tasks (perform worse) presence of an audience enhances arousal  (x-axis arousal, y-axis performance) social loafing: a pattern in which people working together on a task generate less effort than they would have if they had each worked alone -> people feel less responsibility and feel like they have less influence deindividuation: weakened personal identity, state of reduced individuality / self awareness -> causes people to act less to their own values and beliefs. Conformity:​ conform to the answers of the majority of people, why conform -> informational influence (they want to be correct, maybe the others know better) normative influence (people want to be liked by others, not wanting to be the odd one out) Compliance: tendency to agree to do something asked by another person Strategies ->​ foot-in-the-door effect: the idea that if people agree to a small request, they become more likely to comply with a large and undesirable request (change of self perceptive) door-in-the-face effect: people are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused to a large request (people feel guilty after declining, therefore more inclined to say yes) Obedience: influence of an authority on a person ​ dispositional -> authoritarian personalities ​ situation -> Stanley Milgram ​ people follow other people’s orders if they are not responsible (but merely act as agents) ​ dehumanization of the victim ​ gradually Social Cognition:​ Attitudes: a fairly stable evaluation of something as good or bad (about some person, group, or social issue) -> a specific attitude (explicit or implicit) predisposes a person to think, feel, or behave in a certain way change by: ​ other -> central vs peripheral route to persuasion ​ intergroup contact  ​ ourselves -> cognitive dissonance reduction Thinking about others: causal attribution: an inference about what caused a person’s behavior ->​ personal attributions (internal cause) situational attributions (external cause, environmental cause) Fundamental attribution error -> the tendency to attribute behaviors to a person’s internal qualities while underestimating situational influences Actor-observer discrepancy -> when looking at others, you look at them, not the environments​ Self-serving bias: own errors -> situation, own successes -> personal traits Social relations: prosocial behavior results from genes x environments: bystanders (intervention) effect (people following what others do) ​ diffusion of responsibility (no one feels responsible) ​ ambiguity (unclear if the person needs help, not wanting to make a fool out of yourself) ​ anonymity (less likely to help if anonymous) ​ cost-benefit ratio (how much risk is there of being helped and what is the benefit0 People sometimes engage in altruistic acts of helping, even if doing so puts them in considerable danger Even monkeys show prosocial behavior How is an individual affected by others (social influence)?​ outgroup homogeneity effect: view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members ingroup favoritism: evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than members of the outgroup Group dynamics: mere presence effect -> change person’s behavior due to the presence of an audience. social loafing -> people working together on a task generate less effort than they would have if they had each worked alone. deindividuation -> state of reduced individuality, reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards social facilitation -> the idea that the presence of others generally enhances performance groupthink -> make a bad decision as a result of preserving the group and maintaining its cohesiveness Conformity: the altering of one’s behavior and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people’s expectations normative influence -> the tendency for people to conform in order to fit in with the group informational influence -> the tendency for people to conform when they assume that the behavior of others represents the correct way to respond Obedience: following the orders of a person of authority Compliance: foot-in-the-door effect: the idea that if people agree to a small request, they become more likely to comply with a large and undesirable effect door-in-the face effect: people are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request central route of persuasion: motivated and able to process information peripheral route of persuasion: more-impulsive action ​ What are attitudes, how do they arise, and how can they be changed?​ attitudes: people’s evaluation of other people, object, events or ideas they are shaped by social context mere exposure effect: the more exposed you are to it, the more your attitude is based that way attitude change by: others -> central vs peripheral route to persuasion, intergroup contact, ourselve -> cognitive dissonance reduction ​ What is causal attribution and which errors do people make?​ an inference about what caused a person’s behavior personal attributions: explanations of people’s behavior that refer to their internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, or efforts situational attributions: explanations of people’s behavior that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or other people’s actions fundamental attribution error: in explaining other people’s behavior, the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors actor/observer discrepancy: the tendency to focus on situations to explain one’s own behavior but to focus on disposition to explain other people’s behavior self-serving bias: own errors -> situation, own successes -> personal traits ​ What is the bystander effect and why does it occur Bystander intervention effect: the failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need when other people are present caused by: diffusion of responsibility, ambiguity, anonymity, cost-benefit ratio Lecture 10 Personality The origins of personality:​ any links between specific genes and specific aspects of personality appear to be extraordinarily small genes x environment -> personality genes -> sensitivity for external stimulation (sensation seekers), degree of anxiety in new situations (inhibited temperament) environment -> difference between cultures, differences between families (not very important in determining personality), differences within families Psychodynamic approach -> human behavior is the expression of unconscious motives and wishes that have their origin in early childhood experiences (Sigmund Freud) personality arises from unconscious conflict and desires A disease is the expression of troubling (unconscious) memories which are the ultimate source of the physical symptoms Catharsis -> release of repressed memories, done by: hypnosis, free association. but there is resistance 3 subsystems of human personality: ​ Id: biological urges -> pleasure principle ​ Ego: derived from id -> reality principle ​ Superego: derived from ego -> internalized code of conduct (parents, society) Id in conflict with ego and superego -> anxiety primary defense mechanism -> repression conflict may resurface together with anxiety (incomplete repression) -> secondary defense mechanisms: displacement, reaction formation, rationalization, projection Conflicts between the three subsystems of human personality are: in one individual, largely without consciousness, originating from early childhood. Stages of psychosexual development: oral stage -> pleasure from mouth, frustration -> passive dependency anal stage -> pleasure from anus (wanting to be clean), frustration -> compulsive, orderly, stubborn phallic stage -> pleasure from, frustration -> Oedipus complex (men), castration anxiety -> identification with father. Electra complex (female), penis envy -> identification with mother latency stage -> nothing happens genital stage -> pleasure from satisfying someone Criticisms: ​ psychodynamic theory generates almost no predictions ​ Presence of oral and anal characteristics in not related to early childhood experiences ​ dreams are no disguised expressions of unconscious dynamics ​ traumatic event are not suppressed How is personality affected by genes and environment?​ a person’s characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors ​ What is the psychodynamic approach?​ human behavior is the expression of unconscious motives and wishes that have their origin in early childhood experiences A disease is the expression of troubling (unconscious) memories which are the ultimate source of the physical symptoms Catharsis -> release of repressed memories, done by: hypnosis, free association. but there is resistance 3 subsystems of human personality: ​ Id: biological urges -> pleasure principle ​ Ego: derived from id -> reality principle ​ Superego: derived from ego -> internalized code of conduct (parents, society) Id in conflict with ego and superego -> anxiety primary defense mechanism -> repression conflict may resurface together with anxiety (incomplete repression) -> secondary defense mechanisms: displacement, reaction formation, rationalization, projection Conflicts between the three subsystems of human personality are: in one individual, largely without consciousness, originating from early childhood. ​ What is the factor-analytic trait approach? psychoticism: mix of aggression, poor impulse control, self-centeredness, lack of empathy external locus of control -> rewards result from forces beyond their control Rotter -> expectancy, reinforcement Eysenck -> introversion/extraversion, emotional stability, psychoticism or constraints five-factor -> openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism bandura -> environment, person factors, behavior ​ What is the cognitive-behavioral approach? personality differences in thinking and behavior are caused by variations in environment Radical behaviorism (difference in learning history): ​ classical conditioning -> persistence by avoidance ​ operant conditioning -> persistence by partial reinforcement Cognitive approach: liberalized behaviorist approach including cognition (expectations and beliefs) Traits are essentially cognitive in nature: people differ in how they explain the things that happen in their lives -> external or internal locus of control people differ in self-control: delay of gratification -> cognitive strategy ​ What is the humanistic approach?​ how do people manage to self-actualize their potentials People can be distinguished on the basis of the extent to which they actualized their potentials Maslow -> ‘people have higher needs apart from deficiency needs -> hierarchy of needs’ Rogers’ self theory -> children need unconditional positive regard to develop mental health Criticisms:  ​ concepts are very vague ​ humanistic approach generates almost no predictions ​ underestimation of genetic predisposition ​ How is personality measured?​ assessment procedures include measures of unconscious processes, life history data, behavioral data, self-reports, and descriptions from people’s friends, relatives, or both -> the way researchers choose to measure personality depends to a great extent on their own theoretical orientations Projective measures: personality tests that examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli -> Rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test (TAT) Objective measures: consist of series of questions with restricted answers, such as true/false or scale ratings -> NEO personality inventory, MMPI-2 ​ Is personality stable? low cross-situational consistency -> situationism but there also exists consistency: ​ across time ​ across situations (more power) ​ consistency provided a specific situation (if - then) ​ the same trait can be reflected in different behaviors, e.g. in dependency of age ​ strong situations can mask differences in personality Overall, personality appears to be relatively stable, especially among adults, with stability of situations likely contributing to the stability of personality: yet, with age, there are some typical changes (e.g., less neurotic, less open to new experiences; more agreeable and more conscientious) yet, certain life events may have large effects on personality development Lecture 11 Psychological disorders What causes a psychological disorder? Diathesis-stress model: the diathesis (predisposition) creates a risk of illness and the stress turns the risk into a problem. causes -> genic factors, environmental factor (prenatal environment, social environment) How can a psychological disorder be diagnosed?​ Diagnosing psychological disorders: ​ (semi-) structured clinical interviews ​ objective tests ​ Projective tests ​ laboratory test, neuro-imaging A diagnosis is made with reference to the Diagnostic and Statistical manual -> groups disorders based on similarity in symptoms, providing a shared language and classification scheme for scientists to communicate what they have learned. allow care providers to bill health insurance companies for treatment What are disorders affecting emotions or mood?​ Anxiety disorders: ​ specific phobias (acrophobia, claustrophobia) ​ social anxiety disorder -> fear of being negatively evaluated by others in a social setting ​ panic disorder -> sudden attacks of overwhelming terror ​ generalized anxiety disorder -> nearly constant, not associated with a specific thing ​ agoraphobia -> fear of being in a situation from which one cannot escape Contributing and related factors: ​ Diathesis: genetic predisposition (e.g. inhibited temperament) ​ Diathesis: learning history (‘traumatic’ event that happened before) ​ Stress: trauma ​ More activity in Amygdala ​ Low sensitivity to GABA ​ Biased attention and perception Stroop effect: people with anxiety disorder are biased to threatening stimuli Depressive disorders: ​ Major depressive disorder -> severe negative moods, lack of pleasure in activity usually perceived as nice, may develop psychotic …, feel like life isn’t worth it ​ Persistent depressive disorder -> not severe enough to be diagnosed as major depressive disorder but lasts longer Contributing and related factors: ​ Diathesis: genetic predisposition (twin studies) ​ Stress: negative events, crisis, criticism ​ Dysfunction of neurotransmission (Norepinephrine, Dopamine, and Serotonin) ​ Differential brain activity ​ Cognitive components: negative cognitive schema, learned helplessness, negative attribution style Bipolar disorders: Type I -> during manic episode experience extreme highs (mania) Type II -> during manic episode experience less extreme highs (hypomania) Contributing and related factors: ​ Diathesis: genetic predisposition (twin studies) ​ less activity in orbitofrontal cortex, greater variations in Amygdala What are disorders affecting thought?​ Disorders affecting thought: Schizophrenia: Positive symptoms (presence of behavior): delusions, hallucinations (e.g. voices), disorganized speech, disorganized behavior)​ Negative symptoms (absence of behavior): e.g. loss of personal contact, lack of emotion, slow speech, apathy, catatonic behavior Contributing and related factors: ​ Diathesis: genetic predisposition (twin studies) ​ Diathesis and stress: other risk factors -> prenatal exposure to infections and malnutrition, oxygen deprivation at birth, stress social-economical status (SES) Neurological findings -> Dopamine hypothesis, Glutamate hypothesis, functional changes (frontal and temporal abnormalities), structural changes (enlarged ventricles) ​ What are disorders involving maladaptive behavior Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Anxiety produced by thoughts (obsessions) Compulsive behavior serves to deal with the obsessions / reduce the anxiety Contributing and related factors: ​ Diathesis: genetic predisposition (twin studies) ​ Diathesis: learning history ​ Abnormal activity in Caudate ​ Streptococcal infection Lecture 12 Treatment of psychological disorders What are the different forms of psychotherapy?​ Behavioral therapy: a disorder is the result of (inappropriate) learning, therapy aims the patient to unlearn something or learn something new (to replace the old). Through: aversion therapy, operant conditioning techniques, systematic desensitization (exposure) social skills training Cognitive therapy: a disorder is the result of a patient’s suboptimal modes of thinking about himself, the situation, or the future. Therapy aims to change the patient’s habitual modes of thinking by (re)learning. Through cognitive restructuring. (thinking differently about the situation) rational-emotive therapy -> therapist act as teacher explaining the clients errors Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT): combining cognitive and behavioral therapy. through graded assignments, assertiveness training Psychodynamic therapy: ` Classical psychoanalysis -> a disorder is the result of (unconscious) conflicts originating from early childhood. Therapy aims to provide insight in those conflicts and solve them. Get into the patient's unconsciousness. Through hypnosis, free association, dream analysis: intense and not much freedom outside the therapy. Modern psychodynamic therapy -> a disorder is the result of (unconscious) conflicts which do not necessarily originate from early childhood. Therapy aims to provide insight in those conflicts and solve them. Through structured manner in which the therapist and client try to understand (unconscious) feelings. Less intense and more freedom outside the therapy than in classical psychoanalysis Humanistic therapy -> optimistic view, each individual has self healing capacities, client-centered therapy (Carl Rogers). A disorder is the result of an insufficiency in self-acceptance, self-esteem, and understanding. Therapy aims to create an atmosphere in which a client feels understood and appreciated. Through showing sincere interest without prejudice. Fulfill personal potentials, make clients accept themselves Eclectic approach -> use which approach works, combining multiple therapies ​ What are the different forms of biological therapy? Pharmacological treatments -> through the application of medications (drugs) Other biomedical treatments -> neurosurgery, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), deep-brain stimulation (DBS), repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) How can anxiety disorders be treated? Psychotherapeutic treatment -> cognitive and/or behavioral therapy works best, e.g. behavioral therapy to treat phobia Pharmacological treatment -> anti-anxiety drugs: GABA agonists, but addictive, only create a state of controlling symptoms -> disorder is still there​ ​ How can depressive disorders be treated?​ Psychotherapeutic treatment -> Cognitive (behavioral) therapy to treat depression Pharmacological treatment -> antidepressants: Norepinephrine and Serotonin agonists, but side effects (insomnia, anxiety, decreased libido), symptom control -> disorder is still there Combination of both works best ​ How can bipolar disorders be treated?​ Pharmacological treatment -> Reregulation of neurotransmission through stabilizing the influence of Calcium on neural membranes (Lithium), but severe side effects (tremors, weight gain, sedation), symptom control How can schizophrenia be treated?​ Pharmacological treatment -> Antipsychotics: dopamine antagonists, work against positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations), less so against negative symptoms (apathy, social disabilities), but severe side effects (sedation, constipation, spasms), symptom control How can OCD be treated?​ Psychotherapeutic treatment -> Cognitive-behavioral therapy, behavioral -> mainly exposure and response prevention, cognitive -> having obsessive thoughts is quite normal Pharmacological treatment -> Antidepressant: Clomipramine, SSRI. Anti-anxiety drugs do not alleviate symptoms. ​ How should treatments be evaluated? Pharmacological therapies directly affect the functioning of the brain Why does psychotherapy work: ​ therapy gives hope ​ therapy provides understanding (of thinking): emotions, relations, yourself ​ therapy provides an ally Application of the scientific method: pharmacological treatments: ​ Randomized Clinical Trial (RCT): placebo vs experimental group ​ Psychotherapy: wait-list control, meta-analysis: “The average person who receives therapy is better off at the end than 80% of the persons who do not”, “A minority gets worse (5-10%)” ​ Therapy effect depends on the disorder that is treated