Intro to Psych Midterm Exam Review PDF

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology ===================================== Important Notes: ---------------- - **What is Psychology?**: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It involves research methods, theories, and perspectives that aim to understand hu...

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology ===================================== Important Notes: ---------------- - **What is Psychology?**: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It involves research methods, theories, and perspectives that aim to understand human behavior. - **Historical Foundations**: - **Structuralism** (Wilhelm Wundt): Focused on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components. - **Functionalism** (William James): Focused on how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment. - **Behaviorism** (John Watson, B.F. Skinner): Focused on observable behaviors and how they\'re learned and reinforced. - **Psychoanalysis** (Sigmund Freud): Focused on unconscious processes and early childhood experiences. - **Modern Psychology Approaches**: - **Biological**: Examines the influence of the brain and nervous system on behavior. - **Cognitive**: Focuses on mental processes such as memory, problem-solving, and perception. - **Behavioral**: Focuses on observable behaviors and the environment\'s role in shaping them. - **Humanistic**: Emphasizes individual potential for growth and self-actualization. - **Sociocultural**: Explores how cultural and societal factors influence behavior. - **Research Methods**: - **Scientific Method**: Involves formulating a hypothesis, conducting experiments, collecting data, and analyzing results. - **Types of Research**: Experimental, correlational, observational, and case studies. Practice Quiz ------------- **1. What is the primary focus of psychology?** - A. Studying the structure of the brain - B. Understanding behavior and mental processes - C. Focusing on specific psychological disorders - D. Examining the nervous system **2. Who is considered the father of psychology?** - A. Sigmund Freud - B. Wilhelm Wundt - C. Carl Rogers - D. B.F. Skinner **3. What does the behavioral approach focus on?** - A. Unconscious influences on behavior - B. The role of brain structures - C. Observable behaviors and their reinforcement - D. The process of self-actualization **4. Which research method is best for determining cause-and-effect relationships?** - A. Correlational study - B. Experimental study - C. Case study - D. Naturalistic observation **Answer Key** 1. B 2. B 3. C 4. B Chapter 2: The Biological Perspective ===================================== Important Notes: ---------------- - **Neurons**: The basic building blocks of the nervous system. Neurons transmit electrical signals throughout the body. - **Parts of a Neuron**: Dendrites, axon, cell body, myelin sheath, synapse. - **Neurotransmitters**: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse. - **Brain Structures**: Key parts of the brain involved in various functions. - **Hindbrain**: Controls basic life functions (e.g., breathing, heartbeat). - **Midbrain**: Involved in motor movement and sensory processing. - **Forebrain**: Includes the limbic system (emotion, memory) and cerebral cortex (higher cognitive functions). - **Frontal Lobe**: - **Functions**: Decision-making, problem-solving, motor function, planning, emotional regulation. - **Example**: Planning to study for a test involves activity in the frontal lobe. - **Parietal Lobe**: - **Functions**: Sensory information, spatial awareness, and touch sensation. - **Example**: Recognizing the texture of an object you're touching. - **Temporal Lobe**: - **Functions**: Hearing, language comprehension, and memory. - **Example**: Understanding words you hear from someone talking. - **Occipital Lobe**: - **Functions**: Visual processing. - **Example**: Recognizing a face in a crowd uses the occipital lobe. - **Cerebral Cortex**: - **Functions**: Outer layer of the brain involved in higher cognitive functions like thinking, perception, and motor control. - **Example**: Problem-solving in math is processed in the cerebral cortex. - **Hypothalamus**: - **Functions**: Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior; controls the pituitary gland. - **Example**: Feeling thirsty after exercise triggers the hypothalamus to signal the need for water. - **Cerebellum**: - **Functions**: Coordinates voluntary movements, balance, and motor learning. - **Example**: Riding a bike involves cerebellum coordination. - **Thalamus**: - **Functions**: Relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex; regulates consciousness and alertness. - **Example**: It helps you process the feeling of pain after touching something hot. - **Brain Stem**: - **Functions**: Controls vital functions like heart rate, breathing, and sleeping. - **Example**: The brainstem regulates your heartbeat as you sleep. - **Nervous System:** - **Central Nervous System (CNS)**: Brain and spinal cord. - **Function**: Processes sensory information, coordinates movements, and higher functions like thinking and memory. - **Example**: The brain interprets visual data and makes decisions based on that information. - **Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)**: All nerves outside the CNS (e.g., sensory and motor neurons). - **Function**: Transmits sensory information to the CNS and carries out instructions from the CNS to muscles and organs. - **Example**: The PNS allows you to move your arms when you decide to wave. - **Somatic Nervous System (SNS)**: - **Function**: Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles. - **Example**: Moving your hand to write uses the somatic nervous system. - **Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)**: - **Function**: Controls involuntary bodily functions like heart rate and digestion. - **Example**: The ANS controls your heartbeat during exercise. - **Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)**: - **Function**: Activates the fight-or-flight response during stress. - **Example**: Your heart races when you are scared. - **Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)**: - **Function**: Calms the body and conserves energy after stress. - **Example**: After a stressful event, the parasympathetic system slows your heart rate. - **Endocrine System**: Glands that release hormones into the bloodstream, regulating processes like metabolism, growth, and mood. - **Plasticity**: The brain\'s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. Practice Quiz ------------- 1. **What is the primary function of neurons?** - A\) To store memory - B\) To transmit electrical signals - C\) To release hormones - D\) To control voluntary movements 2. **Which brain structure is responsible for controlling basic life functions, like breathing and heartbeat?** - A\) Cerebrum - B\) Medulla - C\) Hippocampus - D\) Thalamus 3. **What is neuroplasticity?** - A\) The brain\'s ability to store information - B\) The brain\'s ability to adapt and reorganize after injury - C\) The creation of new neurons during development - D\) The breakdown of neurotransmitters in the brain 4. **What is the primary function of the frontal lobe?** - A\) Hearing and language comprehension - B\) Decision-making and problem-solving - C\) Visual processing - D\) Motor coordination 5. **Which part of the brain is responsible for processing sensory information, such as touch?** - A\) Parietal lobe - B\) Temporal lobe - C\) Cerebellum - D\) Occipital lobe 6. **What is the role of the hypothalamus in the brain?** - A\) Processing emotions and memories - B\) Regulating hunger, thirst, and body temperature - C\) Coordinating voluntary muscle movements - D\) Sending sensory information to the cortex 7. **Which brain structure is responsible for maintaining balance and motor coordination?** - A\) Cerebellum - B\) Thalamus - C\) Brainstem - D\) Hippocampus 8. **What is the function of the thalamus?** - A\) Relaying sensory information to the appropriate areas of the brain - B\) Controlling the autonomic nervous system - C\) Regulating emotional responses - D\) Memory consolidation 9. **The central nervous system consists of which two structures?** - A\) Brain and spinal cord - B\) Brain and peripheral nerves - C\) Cerebrum and medulla - D\) Spinal cord and sensory neurons 10. **Which nervous system division controls voluntary actions?** - A\) Somatic nervous system - B\) Autonomic nervous system - C\) Sympathetic nervous system - D\) Parasympathetic nervous system 11. **The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for which response?** - A\) Rest and digestion - B\) Fight-or-flight reaction - C\) Memory consolidation - D\) Control of heartbeat 12. **Which part of the nervous system controls the "rest and digest" response?** - A\) Sympathetic nervous system - B\) Parasympathetic nervous system - C\) Somatic nervous system - D\) Central nervous system **Answer Key:** 1. **B** 2. **B** 3. **B** 4. **B** 5. **A** 6. **B** 7. **A** 8. **A** 9. **A** 10. **A** 11. **B** 12. **B** Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception =================================== Important Notes: ---------------- - **Sensation vs. Perception**: - **Sensation**: The process of detecting physical stimuli from the environment (e.g., light, sound). - **Perception**: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make it meaningful. - **Sensory Systems**: - **Vision**: Light enters the eye through the cornea, passes through the lens, and is processed by the retina. - Colour is interpreted through the eye's cones. - **Hearing**: Sound waves are converted into neural signals by the cochlea in the ear. - **Taste and Smell**: Chemical stimuli are detected by sensory receptors in the nose and mouth. - **Perceptual Constancy**: The ability to perceive objects as stable despite changes in sensory input (e.g., size constancy, shape constancy). - **Gestalt Principles**: Principles of perception that emphasize how we organize visual information (e.g., proximity, similarity, closure). Practice Quiz ------------- **1. What is the difference between sensation and perception?** - A. Sensation is the process of detecting stimuli, while perception is the interpretation of stimuli. - B. Sensation involves organizing stimuli, while perception detects them. - C. Sensation involves the brain's response to stimuli, while perception involves the eyes' response. - D. There is no difference between the two terms. **2. Which of the following is an example of perceptual constancy?** - A. Recognizing a friend's face from different angles - B. The ability to hear different frequencies of sound - C. Identifying objects by touch - D. Recognizing the taste of different types of chocolate **3. What principle of perception involves organizing stimuli based on their closeness to one another?** - A. Similarity - B. Proximity - C. Closure - D. Continuity **Answer Key** 1. A 2. A 3. B Chapter 4: Learning =================== Important Notes: ---------------- - **Classical Conditioning** (Pavlov): Learning through association; a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually eliciting a conditioned response. - **Example**: Pavlov's experiment with dogs. He rang a bell (neutral stimulus) before presenting food (unconditioned stimulus), causing the dogs to salivate (unconditioned response). After several pairings, the dogs began to salivate (conditioned response) simply in response to the bell (conditioned stimulus), even when no food was presented. - **Operant Conditioning** (Skinner): Learning through reinforcement or punishment. Behaviors are shaped by their consequences. - **Example**: A child receives praise (positive reinforcement) for cleaning their room, increasing the likelihood that the child will clean their room again in the future. Alternatively, a child might be grounded (punishment) for not completing their chores, which decreases the likelihood of this behavior happening again. - **Observational Learning** (Bandura): Learning by observing others' behaviors and imitating them. - **Example**: A child receives praise (positive reinforcement) for cleaning their room, increasing the likelihood that the child will clean their room again in the future. Alternatively, a child might be grounded (punishment) for not completing their chores, which decreases the likelihood of this behavior happening again. - **Reinforcement and Punishment**: - **Positive reinforcement**: Adding a rewarding stimulus to increase behavior. - **Negative reinforcement**: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior. - **Punishment**: Introducing an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior. Practice Quiz ------------- **1. What is classical conditioning?** - A. Learning through reinforcement and punishment - B. Learning through observing others - C. Learning through association between stimuli - D. Learning by trial and error **2. What is an example of positive reinforcement?** - A. Giving a child candy for good behavior - B. Taking away a privilege for misbehavior - C. Ignoring undesirable behavior - D. Giving a time-out for bad behavior **3. Which of the following describes observational learning?** - A. Learning through trial and error - B. Learning through reinforcement - C. Learning by observing and imitating others - D. Learning through direct experience **Answer Key** 1. C 2. A 3. C Chapter 5: Memory ================= Important Notes: ---------------- - **Memory Stages**: - **Sensory Memory**: Briefly holds sensory information. - **Short-Term Memory**: Holds a limited amount of information temporarily. - **Long-Term Memory**: Permanent storage of information. - **Types of Memory**: - **Explicit Memory**: Conscious recollection of facts and events. - **Implicit Memory**: Unconscious memory for skills and tasks. - **Forgetting**: - **Encoding failure**: Information never makes it into memory. - **Decay theory**: Memory fades over time. - **Interference**: Information can be blocked by other memories. - **Improving Memory**: - **Rehearsal**: Repeating information to encode it into long-term memory. - **Mnemonics**: Memory aids that help with retention. Practice Quiz ------------- **1. What is the primary function of short-term memory?** - A. To hold information permanently - B. To store sensory input for brief periods - C. To hold a limited amount of information temporarily - D. To organize and interpret sensory stimuli **2. Which type of memory involves the unconscious recollection of skills and tasks?** - A. Explicit memory - B. Sensory memory - C. Implicit memory - D. Short-term memory **3. What is an example of a memory aid or strategy?** - A. Repeating information aloud - B. Using imagery to remember facts - C. Writing down important information - D. All of the above **Answer Key** 1. C 2. C 3. D Overall Summary of Chapters: ============================ Important Notes: ---------------- - **Psychology Overview**: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It is both a scientific discipline and an applied field. Psychologists use empirical methods to study behavior, mental processes, and the underlying physiological mechanisms. - **Key Concepts:** - **Nature vs. Nurture**: The debate surrounding whether genetic inheritance (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to an individual\'s development. - **Developmental Stages**: From infancy to adolescence, human development involves changes in cognitive, social, and emotional areas. Piaget, Erikson, and Kohlberg are key theorists in developmental psychology. - **Research Methods**: - **Experimental**: Manipulating variables to see cause-and-effect relationships. - **Observational**: Studying subjects in their natural environment without intervention. - **Surveys/Interviews**: Collecting self-reported data from participants. - **Case Studies**: Detailed studies of a single individual or small group. **Key Theories and Theorists:** - **Sigmund Freud**: Psychoanalysis and the unconscious mind. Freud\'s theory focused on the influence of early childhood experiences and unconscious desires. - **Jean Piaget**: Cognitive development; stages of learning that children go through. - **Erik Erikson**: Psychosocial development; introduced the concept of the identity crisis in adolescence. - **Lawrence Kohlberg**: Moral development; stages of moral reasoning. **Brain and Nervous System Overview:** - **The Brain**: Divided into the hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain, and cerebrum. - **Neurons**: Cells that transmit messages; include dendrites, axons, and synapses. - **Endocrine System**: Glands that release hormones; controls growth, metabolism, and mood. **Memory:** - **Encoding**: The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory. - **Storage**: Retaining information over time. - **Retrieval**: Accessing stored memories. - **Types of Memory**: - **Sensory Memory**: The initial stage of memory, where information is briefly held. - **Short-Term Memory**: Holds information temporarily for analysis. - **Long-Term Memory**: Permanent storage of information. **Learning Theories:** - **Classical Conditioning** (Ivan Pavlov): Learning through association. Example: The dog salivating at the sound of a bell. - **Operant Conditioning** (B.F. Skinner): Learning through rewards and punishments. - **Observational Learning** (Albert Bandura): Learning by observing others. **Perception:** - **Sensory Processing**: How we interpret stimuli through our senses (e.g., vision, hearing). - **Perceptual Constancy**: Perception remains constant despite changes in sensory input (e.g., size constancy). - **Visual Illusions**: Misleading cues that distort perception. Practice Quiz ------------- **1. Psychology Foundations** - What is the main difference between psychology and psychiatry? - A. Psychologists prescribe medications, while psychiatrists conduct therapy - B. Psychologists study the brain\'s structure, while psychiatrists study behavior - C. Psychologists focus on therapy and behavior, while psychiatrists are medical doctors who can prescribe medications - D. There is no difference between psychology and psychiatry **2. Research Methods** - Which research method is best for establishing cause-and-effect relationships? - A. Case studies - B. Correlational studies - C. Experiments - D. Observational studies **3. Brain and Nervous System** - Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for controlling vital functions like breathing? - A. Hindbrain - B. Forebrain - C. Midbrain - D. Cerebrum **4. Memory** - What type of memory is involved when you remember a list of words immediately after reading them? - A. Short-Term Memory - B. Long-Term Memory - C. Sensory Memory - D. Implicit Memory **5. Development** - At which stage of development did Piaget believe children begin to develop logical thinking? - A. Sensorimotor - B. Preoperational - C. Concrete-Operational - D. Formal-Operational **6. Learning Theories** - In classical conditioning, what is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)? - A. The neutral stimulus that becomes conditioned - B. The stimulus that naturally triggers a response without conditioning - C. The learned response to a conditioned stimulus - D. The behavior that results from the conditioned stimulus **7. Perception** - The ability to recognize an object as being the same size despite changes in its distance from us is known as: - A. Shape constancy - B. Size constancy - C. Depth perception - D. Motion parallax **8. Cognitive Development** - According to Kohlberg's stages of moral development, children at the preconventional level base their moral decisions on: - A. Social order - B. Avoiding punishment - C. Winning approval from others - D. Personal values **9. Personality** - Which theory suggests that personality is influenced by unconscious desires and childhood experiences? - A. Behaviorism - B. Cognitive theory - C. Psychoanalysis - D. Humanism **10. Motivation and Emotion** - The theory of motivation that suggests people are driven by the need to achieve self-actualization is: - A. Drive theory - B. Maslow's hierarchy of needs - C. Cognitive dissonance theory - D. Instinct theory **Answer Key** 1. C 2. C 3. A 4. A 5. C 6. B 7. B 8. B 9. C 10. B