Psychology 101 1-2 PDF

Psychology: The science of behaviour What is psychology: - The scientific study of behaviour and the mind and factors that influence it What is behaviour: - Refers to the actions and responses that we can directly observe - Casula factors o Biological o Indiv...

Psychology: The science of behaviour What is psychology: - The scientific study of behaviour and the mind and factors that influence it What is behaviour: - Refers to the actions and responses that we can directly observe - Casula factors o Biological o Individual: Psychological/Software o Environmental Level of analysis: behaviour and its causes can be examined at the biological level (e.g., brain processes, genetic influences), the What is the mind: - Refers to the internal states and processes, such as thoughts and feelings that cannot be seen directly and that must be inferred from observable, measurable responses Psychology: The science of behaviour - Psychology is a science. - Psychology links with and overlaps many sciences - 7 Sciences that psychology overlaps with: 1. Biology 2. Anthropology 3. Medicine 4. Computer Science 5. Engineering 6. Sociology 7. Economics Clinical Psychology: The study and treatment of mental disorders. - Many diagnose and treat psychological problems in clinics, hospitals, and private practice. Cognitive Psychology: Specialises in studying mental processes, especially from a model that views the mind as an information processor. - Topics: Consciousness, attention, memory, decision-making, and problem-solving. - Psycholinguistics focus on the psychology of language. Psychology Subfields: Biopsychology/neuroscience Focuses on the biological foundations of behaviour. Biopsychologists examine how brain processes, genes, and hormones influence our actions, thoughts, and feelings. - Some biopsychologists try to explain how evolution has shaped our psychological capabilities and behavioural tendencies. Developmental psychology Examines human physical, psychological, and social development across the lifespan. - Emotional world of infants - Parenting styles affecting children Experimental psychology Focuses on basic processes like learning, sensory systems (vision, hearing), perception, and motivational states (sexual motivation, hunger, thirst). - Most research involves laboratory experiments, often with animals Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology Examines people’s behaviour in the workplace.  - Study leadership, teamwork, and factors that influence employee’s job satisfaction, work motivation, and performance. Personality psychology Focuses on the study of human personality. - They seek to identify core personality traits and how different traits relate to one another and influence behaviour Social psychology Examines people’s thoughts and feelings, and behaviour pertaining to the social world. - Study how people influence one another, behave in groups, and form impressions, and attitudes - Study social relationships, involving attraction and love, prejudice and discrimination, helping and aggression. Scientific Approach Systematically gather and evaluate empirical evidence - Empirical evidence o Gained through experience and observation o Includes evidence from manipulating and messing with things and observing what happens ▪ Observation typically means the measurement - Why Scientific approach o Minimize bias  ▪ Confirmation Bias: By selectively paying attention to information consistent with our beliefs and downplaying or ignoring information inconsistent with them. o Solve specific practical problems. o Very successful Critical Thought Critical thinking: Involves taking an active role in understanding the world around you rather than simply receiving information. - Critical thoughts – taking an active role - What’s the claim? - Is the source credible? - What’s the evidence - Are there other explanations - What’s the appropriate conclusion 4 Goals of Psychology Science allows us to answer the two questions of nature: WHAT and WHY is nature? 1. Describe behaviour & mental processes: WHAT? 2. Explain/understand the causes of behaviours: WHY? 3. To predict how people and animals will behave under certain conditions 4. Influence/control behaviours under certain conditions through knowledge and control of their causes to enhance human welfare Science is unique because it tests your understanding and control. - Predict and control outcomes. - Revisions of ideas in the face of evidence Basic and Applied Research SHORT ANSWER QUESTION Basic vs applied research Basic Research: Knowledge for building and/or testing scientific theory. Describe how people behave and identify the factors that influence or cause a specific behaviour. - Knowledge for knowledge’s sake - Expand and enrich our understanding of nature. - Pyramid: The base of that pyramid is basic research, and to build it up, you have to invest in basic research Applied Research: Solutions to practical problems - Uses principles discovered through basic research to solve practical problems Level of analysis: behaviour and its causes can be examined at the biological level (e.g., brain processes, genetic influences), the Perspectives on Behaviour - Youth and Beauty o What we perceive depends on our perspective - Perspectives 1. Guides to understanding 2. Viewpoints to understanding behaviour 3. Each considers different components to be important 4. Provide history and context for the study of psychology - Behaviours have diverse causes - Differing perspectives enrich our understanding Intellectual Roots SHORT ANSWER QUESTION  - Mind-body dualism: The belief that the mind is a spiritual entity not subject to physical laws that govern the body. o Mind = Spiritual entity o Not subjected to physical laws o Body = follows physical laws - The mind cannot be studied via the brain - The mind is not that of the body - René Descartes believed that the physical body was a container for the non-physical thing called the mind. - Most modern scientists reject Descartes’ “dualism” and embrace Ryle’s “scientific materialism.” - Dualism implies that no amount of research on the physical body (including the brain) could ever hope to unravel the mysteries of the nonphysical mind. - (Material) Monism: The idea that the mind and body are one and the mind is not a separate spiritual entity. It's a philosophical position that opposes dualism, which is the idea that the mind and body are separate entities. o John Locke (1632-1704) o School of British Empiricism o Mental events are a product of physical events o Can be studied o E.g., Chemical reactions in the brain produce emotions, decisions etc. o Dominant position in the sciences! In the 1800s, German scientists had already established a new field called psychophysics, the study of how psychologically experienced sensations depend on the characteristics of physical stimuli (e.g., how the perceived loudness of a sound changes as its physical intensity increases). Structuralism Structuralism: the analysis of the mind in terms of its basic elements. - Wundt & Titchener established psychology as a unique branch of science in 1879 (test)  - Structuralists used the method of introspection (“looking within” to study sensations, which they considered the basic elements of consciousness. - Determine the structure of the mind through the use of analytic introspection. o Sensations are basic elements of consciousness o Sensations are studied through introspection - German was the language of science Functionalism Functionalism: Study of the “Functions” of consciousness (why’s not the what’s) rather than its structure. - It no longer exists as a school of thought - The tradition endures in cognitive psychology & evolutionary psychology William James - Helped establish psychology in North America - Wrote first “Psychology” textbook in 1890 Psychodynamic Perspective: Psychodynamic Perspective: Searches for the causes of behaviour within the inner workings of our personality (our unique emphasizing the role of unconsciousness processes). - Freud: o His patient’s symptoms were not caused by bodily malfunctions or disease; the cause was psychological. o Psychoanalysis: the analysis of internal and primarily unconscious psychological forces Psychological problems are the result of: ▪ Motives in part of the mind we are unaware of = ‘unconscious.’ ▪ Unresolved past conflicts o Broadened study and treatment of psychological disorders o Development occurs in “stages.” ▪ Development is driven by experience.  ▪ Many terms and concepts are difficult to measure Behaviourism: Behaviourism: A school of thought that emphasizes environmental control of behaviour through learning, began to emerge in 1913 Behavioural perspective: Focuses on the role of the external environment in governing our actions. Our behaviour is jointly determined by habits learned from previous life experiences and by stimuli in our immediate environment. Behaviour modification: Techniques aimed at decreasing problem behaviours and increasing positive behaviours by manipulating environmental factors. Watson; Skinner - Observable behaviour was important - not mental events o therefore, study only the behaviour - Behaviour controlled by the environment - Control environment then control behaviour Three core assumptions: (TEST) 1. “Tabla Rasa” o At birth, the human mind is a “blank tablet” or “slate” which only grows through experience and through the environment a. The idea that everyone is born with a blank slate b. Grows only by experience c. Start exactly equal, being different based on your personal experience d. Everything is nurture e. Mental health problems are learned 2. All animals learn the same way 3. Normal and Abnormal behaviour is learnt.  a. Psychiatric disorders are caused by bad learning Cognitive Behaviourism: - Cognitive behaviourism: Learning experiences and the environment affect our behaviour by giving us the information we need to behave effectively. o The link between behaviour & cognitive perspective o Human beings are ‘thinking’ creatures o Do not just ‘react’ to the environment - Learn new behaviours by observing the actions of others o We are not the only species that learns by observing o We are just better at it - Environment influences us – we influence the environment Cognitive perspective: examines the nature of the mind and how mental processes influence behaviour. Humans are information processors whose actions are governed by thought. Humanistic Perspective Humanistic Perspective: Emphasize free will, personal growth, and the attempt to find meaning in one’s experience. - Counter to Psychoanalysis - Product of the time - Emphasizes: o Conscious motives o Freedom o Choice o Self-actualization ▪ Reaching one’s individual potential - Many terms and concepts are difficult to measure Gestalt Psychology Gestalt Psychology: Examines how the mind organizes experience elements into a unified or “whole” perception. - How do we make sense of the world around us? - Interested in perception o mind is studied in terms of large, meaningful units instead of small units of structuralism o Utilized illusions (errors in perception) to understand the rules of perception - How elements of experience are organized into wholes o Gestalt = “Whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on the study of mental processes and embodies the cognitive perspective. Study how people reason, make decisions, solve problems, form perceptions, and produce and understand language. - 1950s - Computer analogy – information processing concepts - World War II exposes the shortcomings of radical behaviourism - Language acquisition – Noam Chomsky o How do humans learn to speak ▪ Through experience - Child development – Jean Piaget Cognitive Neuroscience – Study of mental processes Cognitive Neuroscience: Uses sophisticated electrical recording and brain imaging techniques to examine brain activity while people engage in cognitive tasks. - Learn Language - Acquire information - Form Memories - Elizabeth Loftus  o Study of human memory Use of the MRI: - Blood flow: pooling of blood Sociocultural Perspective Sociocultural Perspective: Examines how the social environment and cultural learning influence our behaviour, thoughts, and feelings. - Social Psychological - How social environment influences behaviour - Cultural - Social Norms - Socialization Individualism: Emphasis on personal goals and self-identity based primarily on attributes and achievements. Collectivism: Individual goals are subordinated to those of the group, and personal identity is defined largely by the ties that bind one to the extended family and other social groups. Biological Perspective (TEST 3 core of biological perspectives, give examples) Biological Perspective: Examines how the brain processes and other bodily functions regulate behaviour. - Structure function relationships - Focuses on the physical side of human nature - Roles of: o Brain structures & function o Biochemical processes ▪ The biology/neurochemistry of neurons and synapses o Genetic factors ▪ Nature vs Nurture ▪ Genetic vs experience Cognitive neuroscience: the study of brain processes that underline thinking and information processing From the Brain to the Mind: The French Connection - Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) Phrenology: Now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics are localized in specific regions of the brain o The brain is like a muscle. Training your brain makes it grow like a muscle. o As the brain grows, it pushes pressure on the skull, causing deformity o Measurement was not reliable - Pierre Flourens (1794-1867): Surgically removed brain pieces; argued against Gall’s methods - Paul Broca (1824-1880): Studied brain-damaged patients (left frontal lobe) to link localization to ability o Had the crucial insight that damage to a specific part of the brain impaired a specific mental function, clearly demonstrating that the brain and mind are closely linked o When Mr. Leborgne died in 1861, Paul Broca dissected his brain and found a lesion in the left hemisphere, which, he concluded, had been responsible for Leborgne’s loss of speech. - Karl Lashley o Examined how damage to various brain regions affected rats’ ability to learn and remember o Inspired mapping of brain regions Psychopaths (both criminal and non-criminal) have stronger reward centers in their brains. To clarify, the brain’s reward center—called the nucleus accumbent— “is responsible for recognizing and processing the rewards and punishments that follow from our actions.” The researchers had participants perform various tests in an MRI scanner to measure brain activity. Those who had no significant psychopathic traits had a weaker response in the brain’s reward center than did both the criminal and non-criminal psychopaths. - Natural Selection: The process in nature by which, according to Darwin's theory of evolution, only the organisms best adapted to their environment tend to survive and transmit their genetic characteristics in increasing numbers to succeeding generations, while those less adapted tend to be eliminated - Sexual Selection: A special type of natural selection in which the sexes acquire distinct forms either because the members of one sex choose mates with particular features or because in the competition for mates among the members of one sex only those with certain traits succeed. Darwin’s 5 Principles of Natural Selection 1. Reproduction 2. Excess 3. Variation 4. Selection 5. Divergence Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary Psychology: seeks to explain how evolution shaped human behaviour - Mental abilities and behaviours evolved - Sociobiology (Archaic Term) o Social behaviours are also built into the human species o Complex social behaviours are the product of evolution o Aggression, competition, nurturing ▪ E.g., Sex differences in reproduction ▪ Females have greater investment in the reproductive process - Human males tend toward R-selection and produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low investment or probability of surviving to adulthood o “Pair Widely”  - Human females tend toward K-selection and produce relatively low numbers of offspring in which they have a high degree of investment. o “Pair Wisely” Behaviour Genetics: The study of how behavioural tendencies are influenced by genetic factors. - Identical Twins are more similar than fraternal twins o Even when reared in different homes - Certain dysfunctional behaviours o Show genetic link Perspectives: - Psychodynamic o Unconscious processes - Cognitive o Thought processes - Behavioural o Learned behaviour - Humanistic o Striving to achieve - Sociocultural o Social forces, culture - Biological o Genes, brain processes Integrating Perspectives - 6 Perspectives focus on 3 levels of analysis 1. Biological Level a. Brain processes, genetic factors 2. Psychological Level a. Thought, memory, motives 3. Environmental Level  a. Behavioural & sociocultural perspectives Studying Behaviour Scientifically #2 Empiricism: Belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation; an essential element in the scientific method - We quantify them - They’re verifiable Scientific method: Set of principles about the appropriate relationship between ideas and evidence - Science produces a body of knowledge. - Are scientists different? Yes o Curiosity – Why? ▪ Skepticism – What is evidence? Open-minded – other explanations? Steps in the Scientific Process (important) - Identify a Question of Interest (Form a question) - Gather information and form a hypothesis (specific prediction) - Test Hypothesis (by conducting research) - Analyze data – (draw tentative conclusions and report findings) - Build on knowledge – build theory (formal statements) Understanding Behaviour - Two Approaches 1. Hindsight: a. After the fact b. Draw on common sense for an explanation c. Tested  d. Based on observations 2. Prediction and Control a. Scientific method Approaches to understanding Hindsight Understanding - After the fact Drawback: - Past events can be explained in many ways - Often defer to “authority” to decide between alternatives. Scientific method - Understanding through Prediction, Control, Theory building Advantages: - Satisfies curiosity, builds knowledge, generates principles that can be applied to new situations Theory & Hypothesis: (SHORT ANSWER QUESTION TEST) - Theory: Hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomena o A set of formal statements that explain how and why certain events are related to one another. - Hypothesis: Falsifiable prediction made from a theory o A specific prediction about some phenomenon that often takes the form of an “If Then” statement. Good Theories: (SHORT ANSWER QUESTION TEST) - Good Scientific Theories have three general features a. Organize information in a meaningful way. “ o Model of Nature” o Explains how nature as we currently know it fits together/works: Induction b. Are testable o Have predictions supported by research  o Predicts new facts of nature: Deduction o If the theory is correct, what else should be true of nature? – predictions from theory c. Conform to the law of parsimony – if two theories can explain and predict the same phenomena equally well, the simpler theory is the preferred o A simpler theory is preferred o makes fewer assumptions about nature Non-Scientific Theories - Make no predictions - Untestable - Can’t be falsified - The car won’t work –> Aliens drained the battery - The car won’t work –> God must be angry Defining & Measuring Variables: Variable - Any characteristics that can vary - E.g., stress, weight, reaction time Operational definition - Define a variable in terms of specific procedures used to produce or measure it How would we study stress? - Need to define operationally - E.g., measures stress through measurement of muscle tension Measurement requires defining the property to be measured and finding a way to detect it - Operational definition: Description of a property in concrete, measurable terms  - Validity: The extent to which a measurement and a property are conceptually related o Face validity is the weakest form - Reliability: Tendency for a measure to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing - Power: Ability of a measure to detect the concrete conditions specified in the operational definition Static – Does not change Dynamic – Changes How to measure variables: - Self-Report o Issues: Social desirability – desire to make a good impression o Suggestive questions? - Psychological o Issue: Establishing a link between physical responses & mental events - Behavioural o Issues: Measurements must be ‘reliable’ o Is behaviour typical? Unobtrusive measures ▪ Unobtrusive measures: Records behaviour in a way that keeps participants unaware in a way that keeps participants unaware that certain responses are being measured. o Record overt (i.e., directly observable) behaviour Methods of Research: Our tools - Descriptive research o Describe behaviour in natural settings o Case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys - Correlational Studies o Relationship between/among variables - Experimental methods o “Cause and effect” relationship Case Studies: - In-depth of individual, group, or event - What information could a case study possibly tell us about human behaviour o ABA Design - Advantages: o Useful for a rare phenomenon o Allowing for something to be studied closely o Challenge the validity of theory/belief o Can illustrate the effectiveness of programs for special populations (e.g., failure to thrive infants) - Disadvantages: o Poor method for determining cause-effect relations o May not generalize to other people or situations o Researcher bias Neuroscience of the Human Brain - Case Studies of brain damage are key to understanding what parts of the brain perform what functions. o “Structure-Function Relationships” - Brain imaging techniques allow neuroscientists to study the localization of function. o Compare “normal” to something else - “psychopaths.” Naturalistic Observation: - The researcher observes behaviour as it occurs in a natural setting and attempts to avoid influencing that behaviour o Advantage: Provides a detailed description of behaviour o Disadvantage: Does not permit clear causal conclusions ▪ Observer bias: Expectations can influence observations and influence perceptions of reality ▪ Double-blind: Observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed. Survey Research: - Two key concepts in survey research are population and sample Need “Representative” Sample - Cannot study an entire population - The sample must reflect the important characteristics of a population - Use random sampling Major drawbacks to surveys. - Unrepresentative samples can lead to faulty generalizations - Surveys rely on participants self-reports - Data cannot be used to conclude cause-and-effect Correlational Research - Elegant in its design - Researcher measures one variable (X) - The researcher measures second variable (Y) - Researcher statistically determines if X and Y are related o Variables are not manipulated, just measured o The goal is to determine if an association exists between variables So you’ve found a correlation: - Bidirectionality o Two-way causality o X causes Y o Y causes X - 3rd Variable Problem o Spurious association o Not genuine Correlation Coefficient - The statistic that indicates the direction and strength of the relation between two variables. - Correlations are mathematically described by a correlation coefficient - Coefficient o Ranges from -1.0 to +1.0 o Sign indicates direction  o The absolute value indicates the strength Positive Correlation: - Positive relationship – Variables change in the same direction o As X is increasing, Y is increasing o As X is decreasing, Y is decreasing ▪ E.g., As height increases, so does weight o Indicated by + sign Negative relationship - Variables change in opposite directions o As X is increasing, Y is decreasing o As X is decreasing, Y is increasing ▪ E.g., As number of hours of daylight decreases, number of symptoms of depression increases o Indicated by – sign Scatterplots: Depicts the correlation - Shows direction (positive or negative) or relationship Strength of Correlation: - The value of the coefficient shows the strength of the relationship o The higher the absolute value of the number, the stronger the relationship - A correlation of -80 reflects as powerful a relationship as one of +80 - A correlation of 0.00 means no relationship o E.g., GPA & Student ID# Correlational Studies: - Advantages o Shows the strength and form of relationship present o It can be used to make predictions about variables  o Identifies ‘real-world’ associations - Disadvantages o Can’t assume a cause-effect relationship exists o The relationship may be due to a third unmeasured variable o Shows association is NOT a cause Experiments - Three essential characteristics 1. Manipulate one variable 2. Measures whether this variable produces changes in another variable 3. Control for other factors that might influence results Methods of research: (TEST QUESTION) Independent Variables: - Manipulated/controlled by the experimenter - Which you have control of - The cause-effect o E.g., noise, level of drug Dependent Variables: - Measured by the experimenter & influenced by independent variable - Value is dependent on the value of the independent variable o E.g., learning, # of symptoms