Introduction to Psych II PDF

Week 1: A unit overview & and introduction to the Scientist Practitioner Model The Scientist Practitioner Model Dynamic framework that bridges the gap between scientific research and practical application in psychology Scientific perspective 1. Evaluate the study's rese...

Week 1: A unit overview & and introduction to the Scientist Practitioner Model The Scientist Practitioner Model Dynamic framework that bridges the gap between scientific research and practical application in psychology Scientific perspective 1. Evaluate the study's research design, including the sample size, population, and methodology. Consider whether the design is appropriate for the research question and whether the sample is representative. 2. Assess the quality of the measures used to evaluate the constructs. Consider whether the measures are appropriate for the constructs being studied. Are they well known tests? If the researchers developed their own tests did they report how reliable or valid their questionnaire or technique turned out to be? 3. Consider whether the conclusions drawn are supported by the data and whether the study contributes to the existing literature. Practitioner perspective 1. Assess whether the study's findings can be generalised to diverse populations or contexts. 2. Evaluate the study's relevance to real-world problems or practical applications. Consider whether the findings can be applied in a clinical, educational, or organisational setting. 3. Consider whether the study's findings have practical significance for assessment, diagnosis, treatment, or intervention. 4. Evaluate the study's implications for policy, practice, or future research. 5. Evaluate whether the study's limitations are acknowledged and addressed. An example of the Scientist-Practitioner Model in action is the development of HERE.org.au, an online suicide prevention hub launched in November 2022 for the LGBTQIA+ community. The primary aim of the study "Academic self-efficacy and school burnout in university students: Assessment of the mediating role of grit" was to determine if grit mediates the relationship between academic self-efficacy and school burnout. Distinguishing useful data Benchmark for quality is psychology is peer review research from scientific journals It follows the scientific method, is collected ethically and has been replicated Science vs Pseudoscience Science: uses real evidence, tests ideas and reviews results Pseudoscience: lacks proper evidence and testing, can’t handle criticism Ad Hoc Immunising Hypotheses Explanations made up after data is collected They protect a theory from being disproved by evidence They keep a theory safe from contradictory evidence  This means the theory does not need to be changed As an example, consider a pseudo-scientist who claims that a specific therapy is remarkably effective against depression, despite multiple studies that show absolutely no significant difference between the therapy and a control group. The pseudo-scientist might argue that the therapy works exclusively for people with a particular personality trait or a particular psychological condition not accounted for by the initial studies. That is an ad hoc hypothesis that protects the original theory by attributing the lack of effectiveness to overlooked variables. This means that the original theory doesn't have to be revised in any way. It doesn't take into account the actual outcome of the study. Exaggerated Claims Range from the highly amusing to the highly hazardous For example, proof of anything really, science or evidence-based approaches rarely will claim to be proving anything they're consistent with, they suggest, but no scientist really claims to prove anything because they know better. Tend to lack real empirical support and should be approached with scepticism, particularly when you are looking at something that looks like it could be academic research or academic writing. Anecdotes vs Evidence A contrast that can be found between pseudoscience and legitimate science is the reliance on anecdotes versus peer-reviewed evidence. Pseudoscience often resorts to personal stories to substantiate its claims and exploiting anecdotes is commonly used because it has an emotional impact and anecdotes are often very memorable. Critical Examination of Evidence Absence of peer review How the piece is written aka the language, is there clarity, it is understandable Pseudoscientists like to cloak what they're writing in psychobabble and jargon as much as they can fit in to make it sound as if it's scientific. They try to cloak what they're writing in some sort of scientific layer so that people don't think too hard about what it is that they're reading. Ethical Considerations in Applied Psychology Incorporating evidence-based therapies, such as cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) for depression, clinical psychologists exemplify the model's emphasis on using scientifically backed treatments. This integration of research, ethical practice, and clinical expertise ensures that the services provided are not only effective but also respectful of the patient's unique context and preferences. An ethical psychologist keeps in mind three important factors when interacting with a client: 1. Issues to do with confidentiality 2. Issues to do with informed consent to assessment and treatment  3. Issues related to minimising the harm to the client and maximising the benefit obtained by the treatment. Week 2: Developmental Psychology I The study of human behaviour as a function of age Areas of study - Physical development: body changes, motor skills, puberty, physical signs of ageing - Cognitive development: perception, language, learning, memory, problem-solving - Psychosocial development: personality, emotions, gender, identity, moral behaviour, interpersonal skills, roles Change and Continuities in Developmental Psychology Change: Systematic, orderly, and relatively enduring changes such as developmental milestones (e.g., crawling to walking, physical maturation at puberty). Continuities: Ways in which we remain consistent over time, such as attachment from infancy to adulthood and consistent personality traits (e.g., temperament). Theories in Developmental Psychology Temperament Management Environmental Nature and Nurture in Human Development Two fundamental forces shape our growth and abilities: nature (genetics) and nurture (environment). Here are some key points: 1. Universal Genetically Determined Capacities: - Humans share inherent capacities for language and motor development, as proposed by stage theorists. - These capacities are influenced by our genetic makeup (nature). 2. Environmental Influence on Expression: - The expression of these capacities is shaped by the environment - Babies learn what is necessary for survival and well-being based on their surroundings - Cultural values and societal norms also impact how these capacities are expressed. 3. Nature and Nurture Interact: - Nature and nurture are not separate; they work together in intricate ways. - Different cultures exhibit varying child skills and needs. - Our biological maturation (nature) must reach a certain level before environmental factors (nurture) can have an impact. 4. Parental Interaction and Cultural Context:  - Parents play a crucial role in a child’s development. - The broader social and cultural environment also influences expression. - Adaptive and maladaptive aspects of the environment affect children differently. Maturation and Motor Development Maturation involves the unfolding of genetically programmed behaviours crucial for motor development Environmental factors such as child rearing customs significantly influence this process Environmental influence - Swaddling - Carrying on the body - “Baby” containers like seats, swings and floor spaces Environmental Role in Motor Development Cultural practices impact motor development Babies being placed in containers, slings or pouches provides constant postural stimulation Stimulation promotes head control, balance and trunk stability Cultural Differences in Motor Milestones Indigenous Australian infants traditionally carried on their mothers back, reached motor milestones earlier than Anglo-Australian infants This early development is attributed to their early and regular support in a sitting position SIDS Prevention and Prone Positioning In the early 1990s, studies linked the prone sleeping position to higher SIDS risks. As a result, new guidelines advised against placing babies on their tummies to sleep. Babies who avoided prone sleeping also missed out on “Tummy Time,” leading to delayed motor milestones like lifting their heads and propping up on their arms. Other major theories of development Psychoanalytic Theory - Founded by Sigmund Freud - Describes human behaviour through the interaction of various personality components such as the id, ego and superego Cognitive Developmental Theory - Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg suggested that children's intelligence evolves as they grow - Evolution involves a progressive reorganisation of mental processes influenced by both biological maturation and environmental experiences - Often called stage theorists as they believe that advancing to the next stage requires mastering the previous one Social Cognitive Theory  - Explains human development as a result of the interplay between individual experiences, the actions of others and environmental factors Ethological Theory - Closely related to evolutionary biology, focus on behaviour changes that enhance survival - Examples include John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth Psychosocial Theory - Developed by Erik Erikson and wife Joan Erikson - Offers a framework for understanding changes in self-concept, social relationships and ones role in society from infancy through old age - Progression to each new stage depends on successfully navigating the challenges of the previous stage Early Development Zygote Formation: The process begins with the fusion of an egg and sperm to create a zygote, marking the earliest stage of human development. Blastocyst Stage: Within a few days post-fertilization, the zygote undergoes rapid cell division and becomes a blastocyst, a cluster of cells ready to implant into the uterine wall. Embryonic Stage: This stage extends from shortly after conception until about eight weeks after the carrier’s last menstrual period. During this critical period, the foundational structures, tissues, and organs of the body start to form rapidly. Fetal Stage: From the eighth week onward, the developing human is called a fetus. At this stage, all major organs are present, and extensive growth and further development occur throughout the remaining 32 weeks of pregnancy. Sensitive Periods There are agents that can cause birth defects or disrupt development, known as teratogens. These might include things like radiation, chemicals, nicotine, alcohol, recreational drugs, and so on. Exposure to these teratogens can impact the development of a fetus - timing of exposure is crucial in terms of the impact For example, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder develops in some offspring where there has been prenatal exposure to alcohol. Those who experience characteristic features of the disorder, such as sentinel facial anomalies, are affected when prenatal alcohol exposure occurs during embryonic and fetal development when facial features are forming. Before vaccine the German measles virus caused hearing loss in developing children especially when exposure occurred during the time when ears and hearing structures were developing in utero Great deal of brain development occurs in first 3 years of life Positive experiences during these early years can have a lasting impact on the developing brain  Negative experiences such as trauma, stress, or exposure to drugs and alcohol can have a lasting negative impact because these exposures occur during a rapid period of brain development. Physical and Motor Development Children grow and develop rapidly in their first five years across the four main areas of development. These areas are motor (physical), communication and language, cognitive, and social and emotional. Motor development means the physical growth and strengthening of a child’s bones, muscles and ability to move and touch his/her surroundings. A child’s motor development falls into two categories: fine motor and gross motor. Fine motor skills refer to small movements in the hands, wrists, fingers, feet, toes, lips and tongue. Gross motor skills involve motor development of muscles that enable babies to hold up their heads, sit and crawl, and eventually walk, run, jump and skip. Parents and caregivers can help develop a child’s motor skills at all ages. Some activities include: - Placing your baby on his/her tummy, and helping him/her reach for a toy. - Putting a toy on the couch for your child to stretch toward when he/she starts to stand. - Encouraging walking with a stroller your little one can push. - Visiting playgrounds, where your child can climb, swing and slide. Cognitive Development Assimilation is when someone takes new sensory information or a physical experience and assimilates it into an existing thought structure or schema about the world. Accommodation is when a new experience doesn't fit with the preexisting view of the world, necessitating an update in thinking and understanding to accommodate the new information. In assimilation, a young child sees an animal with four legs, bigger than a cat, friendly, with a wet nose, and concludes it must be a dog based on previous experience with dogs, not realising it might be a cow. In accommodation, a child encounters an unfamiliar animal and tries to fit it into a pre-existing schema like a dog or bear but is unsure. The child asks a farmer, who explains it's not a dog or bear but a long-haired sheep. The child then modifies or creates new schemas in response to this new information, incorporating the knowledge of long-haired sheep. Piaget's Four Stages of Intellectual Growth 1. Sensori-Motor Intelligence (Birth to 2 Years) - Key Concept: Object Permanence - During this stage, infants learn about the world through their sensory experiences and motor actions. - They begin to understand that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible, a concept known as object permanence. 2. Preoperational Period (2 to 7 Years) - Key Characteristics: Symbolic Representation, Egocentrism and Challenges with Conservation  - Children start to represent the world symbolically through language and play. - They can recognize that words and toys symbolise real objects. - However, their thinking is pre-logical and egocentric, making it difficult for them to understand concepts like conservation, where they struggle to realise that quantities remain the same despite changes in shape or appearance. 3. Concrete Operations (7 to 11 Years) - Key Skills: Logical Thinking with Physical Objects - Children develop the ability to perform mental operations on concrete objects. - For example, they can add and subtract physical items, such as marbles, to solve problems. However, they are not yet able to handle abstract concepts effectively 4. Formal Operations (12 Years and Up) - Key Skills: Abstract and Hypothetical Reasoning - Adolescents and adults in this stage can think abstractly and reason hypothetically. - They can manipulate symbols in algebra, formulate hypotheses, and understand the implications of changes in variables, such as in experiments with pendulums or seesaws. Strengths and Limitations of Piaget Theory Strengths - Landmark Theory: Piaget’s work was revolutionary in highlighting that children are not just miniature adults. He revealed fascinating aspects of pre-logical thinking and provided deep insights into how children think and solve problems. - Active Learning: Piaget emphasised learning as an active process. His ideas have significantly influenced educational practices, advocating for hands-on learning and interaction with the environment as crucial to child development. - Cross-Domain Processes: Piaget demonstrated that cognitive processes, like the concept of conservation (understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance), apply across various domains such as liquid, mass, and area. Critiques - Rigid Stages: Piaget’s stages are often seen as too rigid and prescriptive. Children may not strictly follow his developmental stages, and it can be limiting to hold them back until they master all aspects of a particular stage. - Underestimation of Abilities: Piaget is criticised for underestimating children's abilities. More advanced research tools have shown that children can often perform tasks earlier than Piaget suggested. - Methodological Issues: Some of Piaget’s tasks were methodologically limited. The demands of his tests and the language used may have been too complex for children, affecting their performance and leading to underestimation of their abilities. - Universality and Cultural Bias: Piaget's theory was developed within a Western cultural context, primarily in Switzerland. This raises questions about its universality. Children in different cultural settings might develop skills that are adaptive to their specific environments, which might not align with Piaget’s stages. For instance, children in  non-Western cultures may develop sophisticated spatial perception skills over abstract symbolic manipulation. - Contextual Neglect: Piaget did not sufficiently consider the influence of broader cultural and familial contexts on child development. His theory overlooks how children's learning is shaped by their cultural and social environments. Impact and Continuing Influences His respect for the unique ways children think and his view of learning as an active process continue to shape educational practices today. For example, early childhood education often emphasises hands-on, exploratory learning environments, reflecting Piaget's influence. Other theoretical approaches to cognitive development Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory highlights the critical role of cultural context and social interactions in learning. Children are seen as active learners who benefit significantly from collaboration with others. The Information Processing Approach focuses on the development of cognitive functions, such as memory and information processing, through the maturation of neural systems. This approach helps explain why children’s cognitive abilities improve with age and experience. Introduction to Gender Development The concept that sex must map onto gender is outdated. Modern perspectives recognise a spectrum of gender identities. Both biological and environmental factors play roles in shaping sex and gender. Current textbooks may not fully reflect these nuanced views. Gender stereotypes significantly shape the experiences and expectations for boys and girls from a very young age. These stereotypes are perpetuated through various practices, such as the choice of clothing colours, room decorations, and the types of toys and activities encouraged. While there are signs of shifting norms, especially with more girls engaging in traditionally male-dominated activities, traditional gender roles remain prevalent in many aspects of childhood. Infancy From birth, infants are quickly labelled and treated differently based on gender. Parents often view baby boys as stronger and more coordinated, while baby girls are seen as weaker and more delicate. These perceptions influence how parents interact with their children. Paediatricians note no significant physical differences between genders in infancy. Experiments show that identical behaviours from babies are interpreted differently based on perceived gender, leading to varied interactions that reinforce traditional gender roles and expectations.  These early distinctions shape children's development and self-conception, establishing patterns that persist as they grow. By age two, children have undergone significant gender socialisation and start to form a basic gender identity. Traditional views assume all children are cisgender, but recent research indicates a more nuanced understanding of gender identity is necessary. Childhood Gender development accelerates in childhood, with children becoming more aware of and adhering to gender stereotypes. Schools often reinforce these stereotypes, leading to strong gender segregation in play and activities, resulting in boys and girls developing different skills and interests. Adolescents Adolescence marks a period of increased interaction between boys and girls, leading to challenges due to previously limited cross-gender interactions. Biological changes, social pressures, and the influence of social media intensify gender differences. Adolescents transition from a basic gender identity to a more nuanced understanding of their gender and overall identity. Gender Stereotypes Gender stereotypes often exaggerate perceived differences in traits and abilities. Research indicates that while some differences exist, they are usually small and significantly influenced by socialisation, culture, and environmental factors. It is essential to consider the role of these influences and avoid overgeneralization based on gender. Minimal Mean Difference: While males slightly outperform females in mathematics at the extremes, the average performance difference is minor. Significant Overlap: There is more overlap than difference in mathematics performance between genders. Generalisation Caution: Due to the significant overlap, it is challenging to make broad generalisations about mathematical ability based solely on gender. Gender Theories Psychoanalytic Theory: can rely heavily on gender roles - Focuses on identification with the same-sex parent during the phallic stage of psychosexual development. - Oedipal Complex: Boys initially feel attraction to their mother and rivalry with their father. - Fear of castration by the father leads boys to identify with their father, adopting masculine traits and behaviours. - Electra Complex: Girls experience the Electra complex, feeling attraction to their father and rivalry with their mother - Identification with the mother is considered less intense due to the absence of castration fear Biological Basis - Chromosomes and Hormones - Evolutionary Theory: Suggests that gender differences evolved to maximise reproductive success. - Men evolved to be more aggressive and competitive, while women evolved to be more nurturing and cooperative. Cognitive Developmental Theory - Focuses on how children's understanding of gender develops through stages. - Children actively construct their gender identity through interaction with their environment. Gender Schema Theory - Combines social learning and cognitive-developmental theories. - Children learn about gender roles and cultural norms through schemas, or mental frameworks, that guide their understanding and behaviour. - Influence how children interpret and remember information related to gender. - Lead children to seek out activities and behaviours consistent with their gender schema. Social Cognitive Theory - Emphasises the role of observational learning, imitation, and modelling in acquiring gender roles. - Children learn gender-appropriate behaviours by observing others and the consequences of their actions. - Attention: Noticing gender-specific behaviours. - Retention: Remembering these behaviours. - Reproduction: Reproducing the observed behaviours. - Motivation: Being motivated to imitate the behaviour, often influenced by rewards and punishments Social Modulation of Biological Factors: Testosterone and other traditionally biological factors can be influenced by social contexts. Complex Interactions: Gender differences arise from a complex interplay of biological, social, environmental, and psychological factors.  Critique of Biological Determinism: Strict biological explanations of sex and gender are difficult to sustain in light of contemporary research and the recognition of diverse gender identities. Gender Identity and Constancy Gender Identity: Children must label themselves based on physical attributes. Gender Stability: Understanding that gender remains stable over time. Gender Consistency: Recognising that gender remains the same regardless of activities or interests. Biological Determinism: Kohlberg's theory emphasises biology as the primary driver of gender identity. Modern Perspectives: Challenge strict biological views, highlighting the complexity and fluidity of gender identity. Social Cognitive Theory Emphasises the role of observational learning, social influences, and self-regulation in gender development. Children learn gender roles through reinforcement, modelling, and media exposure. Despite social influences, children exercise agency and self-regulation in adopting gender behaviours. Triadic reciprocal determinism 1. Behaviour (B): - Actions and responses of the individual, including their choices, habits, and skills. 2. Personal Factors (P): - Cognitive, affective, and biological events that include a person's beliefs, expectations, self-perceptions, and capabilities. 3. Environmental Factors (E): - External aspects that can influence an individual, such as social interactions, physical surroundings, and cultural norms. - In the triadic model, these factors are not static but dynamically influence each other: 4. Behaviour → Environment: - A person’s actions can alter the environment. For instance, a student's active participation in class can encourage more engaging teaching methods. 5. Environment → Person: - Environmental contexts can shape personal factors. For example, a supportive family can bolster a person’s self-efficacy. 6. Person → Behaviour: - Individual beliefs and attitudes can influence how one behaves. For instance, confidence in one’s abilities can lead to tackling challenging tasks. New Views Social Cognitive Theory: Children's gender behaviours are influenced by what they observe and the feedback they receive, shaped by self-regulation and social factors. New Gender Identity Views: Traditional binary views are challenged by research showing that gender can be fluid and not strictly tied to biological sex. Olson's Research: Demonstrates that transgender children have a clear understanding of their gender identity, behaving similarly to their identified gender and showing that gender identity is more flexible than previously thought. Flexibility and Persistence: Gender roles are more flexible than before, with increasing participation in non-traditional activities, yet stereotypes persist. Impact on Life: Gender roles significantly affect life opportunities and outcomes, contributing to inequality. Subgroups and Support: Small, supportive groups help individuals pursue non-stereotypical interests, promoting diversity in gender behaviours. Introduction to Moral Development Moral Development: Focuses on children learning right from wrong and internalising societal rules. Internalisation: Key to moral development, allowing children to self-regulate their behaviour. Effective Methods: Reasoning and explanation are more effective than harsh discipline for internalising rules. Parenting Practices: Positive discipline promotes self-regulation, while harsh discipline leads to external regulation and potential misconduct in the absence of supervision. Moral Conduct Learning Sources: Children learn moral rules from parents and other sources.  Moral Rules: Include prohibitive rules (what not to do) and pro-social behaviours (what to do). Pro-Social Behaviour: Encourages positive actions like sharing, caring, and kindness, promoting social harmony and empathy. Theories of Morality 1. Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development: - Stages: Morality of Constraint (focus on consequences) and Morality of Cooperation (focus on intentions). - Vignettes: Used to illustrate children's moral reasoning, e.g., breaking items scenarios. - Findings: Younger children focus on consequences, while older children consider intentions. 2. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: Stages: - Preconventional Morality: Based on personal needs and external consequences. - Conventional Morality: Focused on social approval and adherence to laws. - Postconventional Morality: Based on abstract principles and internalised ethics. - Heinz Dilemma: Explores reasoning behind moral decisions. - Critiques: Gender and cultural biases in Kohlberg’s sample and tasks. 3. Social Cognitive Theory and Moral Behavior: - Regulation: Influenced by external and internal factors. - Developmental Progression: Shift from external to internal regulation with development. - Learning: Moral standards learned through experience and parental guidance. - Modelling Behaviour: Positive modelling helps children adopt good behaviour and self-regulation. Moral Reasoning and Moral Conduct Moral reasoning does not consistently predict moral conduct People may understand the rules and the consequences of breaking them but may still fail to self-regulate their behaviour according to these principles Moral Disengagement Moral disengagement explains the gap between knowing an action is wrong and still performing it. It involves justifying or excusing harmful behaviours to maintain a positive self-image. Strategies include excusing the behaviour, obscuring personal causation, and vilifying the victim. It allows individuals to act contrary to their moral standards without feeling remorse Week 3: Developmental Psychology II Social Cognition The process by which children develop an understanding of other people and their perspectives.  Previously, we examined Piaget's theories on children's cognitive development, focusing on their understanding of the physical world. Now, we will shift our focus to how children begin to realise they are unique individuals, distinct from others, who may see the world differently. Theory of Mind The appreciation that other people may think differently, and that what they think will guide their behaviour A child interacts with a researcher who shows great enthusiasm for the taste of broccoli, making excited sounds upon tasting it. The child is then asked to offer food to the researcher. An egocentric child, not yet understanding others' perspectives, might offer a biscuit or cookie, their own preference. However, it's a significant social cognitive milestone when the child realises that the researcher genuinely prefers broccoli and offers it instead. This behaviour is an early sign that the child recognises others have their own minds. The 'theory of mind' refers to the child's understanding that people think differently and that these thoughts, rather than objective reality, drive their actions. False Beliefs An advancement in the theory of mind is the realisation that people can hold false beliefs Implications of Understanding False Beliefs: - Negative Perspective: Enables deception and manipulation. - Positive Perspective: Enhances empathy and perspective-taking. Example: - A child understands that another person will feel sad if they believe an object is lost, even if it isn't. - Empathetic Response: The child may comfort and help the sad person understand the object is not lost. - Deceptive Response: The child might use this belief to play a trick on the person. The Sally-Anne Task - Psychological test used to assess a child's understanding of theory of mind, specifically their ability to understand that others can hold beliefs different from their own 1. Introduction of Characters: The experiment introduces two dolls, Sally and Anne. Sally has a basket, and Anne has a box. 2. Story Setup: The experimenter narrates a story. Sally places a marble in her basket and then leaves the scene. 3. Object Relocation: While Sally is away, Anne takes the marble from Sally's basket and places it in her own box. 4. Return of Sally: Sally returns, and the experimenter asks the child where Sally will look for the marble. - If the child correctly predicts that Sally will look in her basket for the marble, it indicates that the child understands that Sally has a false belief. This shows that the child can  differentiate between their own knowledge and Sally's belief, demonstrating an understanding of theory of mind. Developmental Implication: This outcome typically occurs in children around the age of 4 and older, suggesting that they have developed the ability to understand that others can hold beliefs and perspectives different from their own. - If the child incorrectly predicts that Sally will look in the box for the marble, it suggests that the child is unable to understand that Sally has a false belief. The child assumes that Sally knows what they know, indicating an egocentric viewpoint. Developmental Implication: This outcome is common in younger children, around the age of 3. It suggests that the child has not yet fully developed theory of mind, meaning they struggle to comprehend that others can have different thoughts, beliefs, and knowledge than they do. Nature vs Nurture Nature Component: ○ Maturational Threshold: There are universal age thresholds at which children develop the capacity for theory of mind. This suggests a biological and maturational component to the development of theory of mind. Nurture Component: ○ Variability Among Children: Despite the universal threshold, there is significant variability in when children master theory of mind, influenced by environmental factors. ○ Advanced Language Development: Children with more advanced language skills tend to pass certain tasks assessing theory of mind development earlier. Language provides tools for understanding and discussing thoughts, beliefs, and emotions, aiding cognitive development. ○ Pretend Play: Engaging in pretend play helps children practise and understand different perspectives, enhancing their social cognition and theory of mind development. ○ Mental State Language: Parents who frequently discuss emotions, thoughts, desires, and intentions with their children help them understand that others have minds. This use of "mental state language" accelerates the acquisition of theory of mind. ○ Secure Parent-Child Relationships: A secure relationship with parents provides a safe environment for children to explore and understand social interactions, promoting earlier theory of mind development. ○ Influence of Older Siblings: Having older siblings can expedite the development of theory of mind. In interactions involving disputes or misunderstandings, parents often explain the perspectives of the other child, helping the younger child understand different viewpoints. This example clearly illustrates how a biological maturational process (nature) is influenced and shaped by social and environmental factors (nurture). The quality of the social and relational  environment plays a crucial role in when and how effectively children develop an understanding of others' minds. Attachment Theory Lorenz’s Work on Imprinting - Ethologist Konrad Lorenz studied imprinting in birds, particularly geese. - He discovered that goslings would follow and form an attachment to the first moving object they saw after hatching, often Lorenz himself. - This process, known as imprinting, occurs during a critical period shortly after birth and illustrates the innate mechanisms of attachment in animals. - Demonstrating the importance of early experiences and the timing of attachment formation Bowlby's Theory of Attachment - He observed that all animals, including human infants, display behaviours soon after birth that help them achieve proximity to their caregiver for safety. - Bowlby noted that caregivers also exhibit innate behaviours to keep their infants safe from threats and distress. - When frightened, children seek proximity to their primary caregiver for comfort and care. - Bowlby proposed that attachment is a product of evolutionary processes: children are born with an innate drive to form attachments with caregivers beyond nourishment, relating to comfort. - This process of natural selection led to the emergence of a motivational system designed to regulate attachment. Mary Ainsworth's Contributions - She observed that infants feel safe and engage in exploratory behaviour when their caregiver is present. - When the caregiver leaves, the infant’s attachment system is activated, and they seek proximity and physical contact with the caregiver. - Once they achieve proximity, their attachment system is switched off, allowing them to resume play and exploration - Ainsworth's work highlighted the primary function of the attachment system: protection of the young. - The child’s attachment system is activated by threat, and the caregiver’s system is activated by the child's attachment behaviours. Safe Haven and Secure Base Safe Haven: is the role the caregiver plays as a place the child can return to when upset, threatened, distressed, tired or unwell. The caregiver needs to be predictably valiabel to make the child feel safe Secure Base: caregiver provides a foundation from which the child can explore the world, developing independence and autonomy. The Strange Situation Procedure The procedure involves several episodes, including separations and reunions between the child and their caregiver, to activate the child’s attachment system. Key assessment moments occur during reunions, where the child's behaviour towards the returning caregiver is closely observed. The child’s proximity and contact-seeking behaviour, resistance, avoidance, and search behaviour are coded to classify their attachment style. Attachment Styles Secure Attachment [B] (50 to 60%): The child shows flexibility in moving between activating their attachment system and resuming exploration. They seek proximity and contact when threatened, are effectively comforted by the caregiver, and then re-engage in exploration. Insecure Avoidant Attachment [A] (15-20%): The child shows a tendency toward exploration at the expense of closeness. They may avoid contact with the caregiver even when their attachment system is activated, focusing almost exclusively on play. Insecure Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment [C] (15-20%): The child is preoccupied with maintaining proximity to the caregiver at the expense of exploration and play. Their contact with the caregiver does not effectively switch off their attachment system, leading to ongoing anxiety and struggle between the parent and child. The Importance of Secure Attachment in Child Development Longitudinal studies reveal that securely attached children: - Have better peer relationships in middle childhood - Exhibit more leadership qualities - Show improved emotion regulation - Relate better to their teachers Disorganised Attachment and Its Implications Subsequent studies (e.g., Thompson 2016, Fearon et al. 2017) identified an additional attachment classification known as disorganised attachment. This type of attachment can develop when a child's caregivers, who should be a source of safety, instead become a source of fear, often due to trauma, neglect, or abuse. Disorganised attachment is strongly associated with clinically significant problems later in development. Important Considerations in Understanding Attachment 1. Attachment as a Relationship Construct Not a Child's Characteristic: Attachment is not an inherent trait of the child but a characteristic of the caregiving relationship. Variability with Different Caregivers: A child can be securely attached to one caregiver (e.g., mother) and insecurely attached to another (e.g., father).  2. Influence of Changing Life Circumstances Dynamic Nature of Attachment: Early attachment classifications are significant but can change with alterations in the child's caregiving environment. Lifespan Changes: Subsequent caregiving experiences can improve or worsen early attachment classifications. 3. Challenges in Assessing Attachment in Older Children Limitations of Traditional Methods: The "strange situation" procedure, which involves separation to activate the attachment system, becomes less effective as children grow older. Alternative Assessment Methods: - Storytelling Approaches: Using scenarios like overnight hospital stays or staying at someone else's house to understand the child's feelings about separation. - Drawing Techniques: Analysing children's spontaneous representations of their relationships with their parents through their drawings. Influences on Individual Differences in Attachment 1. Combination of Nature and Nurture Parenting's Role: Parenting significantly impacts attachment, shaping how secure or insecure a child feels with a caregiver. Infant's Contribution: Infants also influence the parent-child relationship through their own characteristics and behaviours. 2. Bidirectional Influence Mutual Influence: Development is not a one-way process. While parents influence their children, children also affect their caregiving environments through their temperament. Tailoring Parental Behaviour: Effective parenting involves adjusting responses to match the child's unique temperament, addressing their specific strengths and vulnerabilities. Parental Sensitivity Key Characteristics of a Sensitive Parent 1. Noticing and Receiving Infant Signals - Sensitive parents notice and receive the infant's signals and cues. - Example: If the infant signals the desire for proximity or contact, the parent notices this and takes it on board. 2. Interpreting Cues Accurately - Noticing the cue is not enough; accurate interpretation is essential. - The parent needs to understand the infant's signals correctly. 3. Responding Appropriately - Parents must respond promptly, flexibly, and appropriately to the infant's cues. - The response should be predictable and suitable to the infant's needs. The Still Face Procedure - Using a paradigm called the still face procedure, which involves a brief interaction, a separation or non-interaction, and a reunion between parent and child. Baumrind's Parenting Styles Diana Baumrind's theory of parenting styles, originally developed in 1971 and subsequently revised, remains influential in understanding the impact of different parenting approaches on child development Authoritative - High warmth, high control - This parenting style is often referred to as democratic control because it involves rules and regulations but also emphasises perspective-taking and reasoned discipline. - Parents using this style aim to communicate the rationale behind rules and regulations, ensuring the child understands and feels understood. - Warmth and Understanding - Reasoned Discipline - Sensitivity Authoritarian - Low Warmth, High Control - More about enforcing rules without much explanation or warmth, which can be perceived as harsh and even abusive by the child - High Control - Low Warmth - Lack of Explanation - Potential Consequences: Harsh Experience, Lack of Understanding, Oppositional Responses Permissive - High Warmth, Low Control - Involves a close, affectionate relationship between parent and child, resembling a peer relationship more than a traditional parent-child dynamic. - High Warmth - Low Control - Peer-Like Relationship - Potential Consequences: Lack of Structure, Developmental Needs Uninvolved (Maccoby & Martin, 1983) - Often referred to as neglectful and is considered the most problematic from the child's point of view - Low Warmth, Low Control - Neglect - Potential Consequences: Worst-Case Scenario, Lack of Guidance Limitations of Baumrind approach Oversimplifications Cultural Considerations Beyond the mother-child  The field has been dominated by hetero-normative and gender-normative perspectives. Among other things, the increased workforce participation by women has led to various other caregiving arrangements including: - Greater involvement of fathers in child rearing. - Childcare - Research at Macquarie University, especially from the Early Childhood Education Centre, has influenced child care standards in Australia. - Grandparents or other family members. The role of other adult-child relationships including teachers, coaches, and mentors is also a crucial consideration A Probing Look at the Role of the “Father” Fathers have been historically neglected in developmental research. Early studies primarily focused on the impact of father absence on children, highlighting risks associated with single-parent families. Risks are often related to complex socioeconomic factors, such as: - Younger teenage mothers. - Financial stress due to lack of workforce participation by the mother and no financial contribution from the father. Contributions of Present Fathers: - Focus should also be on the positive contributions fathers make when they are present. - Evidence shows fathers play a crucial role in their children's development, particularly through: - Sensitive Parenting: Similar to mothers, fathers' ability to notice, interpret, and respond to their children's cues appropriately is essential. - Unique Contributions: Fathers often engage in different types of play, such as physical play and risk-taking activities, which aid in: Developing self-regulation in children and Encouraging risk-taking behaviour in safe environments, which is beneficial for regulatory capacities. Same sex Parenthood Negative presumptions about family structures need to be carefully examined and challenged. Research supports that children from same-sex parented families experience emotional, social, and educational outcomes comparable to those from opposite-sex parented families Australian Study (Crouch, Waters, McNair, Power, & Davis, 2014): Involving 500 children of same-sex parents, found comparable results on measures of child health and wellbeing. Main Issue: Stigma remains a significant challenge - Expanding the Research Field: - The study of diverse family structures and their impact on child development is still emerging. - Developmental psychology must build an inclusive understanding of child development influences, including gender-diverse parents. Eriksons 8 stages of human development Adolescent development 1. 1950s: Identification of teenagers as a distinct group. 2. 1960s: Teenagers emerged as a social force. 3. 21st Century: "Adultescence" extended adolescence into the 20s and 30s. 4. Biological Changes: Significant hormonal shifts and puberty. 5. Psychological Changes: Formation of identity and cognitive development. 6. Social Changes: Peer influence and romantic relationships. 7. Erikson’s Theory: Identity crisis as a prerequisite for adulthood. Adulthood Adult development is marked by significant life transitions rather than chronological age.  Key milestones include leaving home, marriage, parenthood, empty nest, midlife assessment, retirement, loss of partner, and dying. Non-events and unexpected opportunities can also significantly influence development. The impact of transitions is often related to how well they align with societal expectations and personal goals. Normative Life Events On-time Events: Occur at a typical, expected point in life (e.g., puberty, leaving school, retirement). Off-time Events: Occur at a non-typical, unexpected point in life (e.g., early widowhood, teenage pregnancy). Non-normative Life Events Definition: Unusual, unexpected events that not everyone experiences (e.g., winning a lottery, major accidents). Social Clock (Bernice Neugarten, 1960s) Definition: Shared societal expectations for age-appropriate behaviour. Impact: Aligning with the social clock can make transitions smoother. 1. Normative Events: Typical and expected transitions (e.g., leaving home, marriage, parenthood). 2. Off-time Events: Non-typical transitions occurring at unexpected times. 3. Non-normative Events: Unusual, unexpected life events. 4. Social Clock: Societal expectations for age-appropriate behaviour. 5. Cultural and Historical Variability: Normative timing is influenced by cultural and generational differences. 6. Stressful Events: Off-time and non-normative events are particularly stressful due to lack of preparation and support. Ageing Changing Perceptions: The meaning of old age has shifted over time. Increased Life Expectancy: People are living longer than ever before. Aged Care Crisis: Growing numbers of elderly needing care pose significant challenges. Demographic Shifts: Significant increases in the population of those over 65 and 85 by 2032. Societal Adaptation: Society must evolve to provide adequate care for the ageing population. Biological Losses Fertility: Decreases with age. Sensory Acuity: Visual and hearing abilities decline, often requiring aids like glasses. Physical Capacity: Lung capacity and physical prowess diminish, impacting activities and sports performance. Cognitive Speed: Slower information processing and response times. Psychological Gains Crystallised Intelligence: Accumulated knowledge and experience grow, enhancing problem-solving abilities. Wisdom: Increased life experience contributes to greater wisdom, aligning with Erikson's final developmental task: "ego integrity versus despair." Resilience: Enhanced hardiness and adaptability to life's challenges. Financial Security: Many achieve financial stability, though it's not universal. The Theory of Selective Optimization with Compensation (Baltes): Paul Baltes highlights that successful ageing involves optimising strengths and compensating for losses. This adaptive strategy is crucial for maintaining quality of life as we age. Ageism Ageism Defined: Stereotyping and discrimination against older people. Levels of Ageism: Occurs at both institutional (Discriminatory practices embedded in societal institutions) and individual levels (Personal biases and discriminatory actions). Mechanisms: Includes stereotypes, disdain, avoidance, and discriminatory practices. Myths and Misconceptions: Ageist views create and perpetuate false beliefs about older adults. Segregation and Employment: Older adults often segregate in housing and face employment discrimination. Addressing Ageism: Promoting respect, inclusiveness, and better aged care services. First-Nations Perspective Closing the Gap Initiative: - Purpose: Reduce inequities between First Nations people and non-Indigenous Australians. - Current Status: Significant gaps remain in life expectancy and health outcomes. - Government Efforts: New targets set in collaboration with Indigenous Australians to improve outcomes. Life Expectancy Disparities: Significant gaps exist between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Health and Social Determinants: Education, employment, housing, and income influence life expectancy. Closing the Gap: Government and community efforts are ongoing to address these disparities. Quality of Life: Older Indigenous Australians emphasise "a good life" involving spiritual, cultural, and community connections. Service Provision: Culturally responsive services are crucial for supporting the wellbeing of older Indigenous Australians. Integral Role of Elders in First Nations Communities: Elders play central social and cultural roles, which are crucial for community cohesion and identity.  Key Contributions of Older Indigenous Australians: Their contributions include providing support through kinship relationships and preserving cultural knowledge and traditions, demonstrating resilience despite facing significant challenges. Week 4: Health Psychology I Definition and Scope of Health Psychology Health Psychology: The understanding of psychological influences on how people stay healthy, why they become ill, and how they respond or cope with ill health. Bi-Directional Relationship: The interaction between psychological processes (thoughts, feelings, attitudes, beliefs, motivations) and physical health. Key Areas of Focus Illness Development: Investigating psychological reasons, causes, and factors predicting or explaining the onset of ill health. Staying Healthy: Understanding behaviour change to maintain health, addressing psychological barriers to engaging in healthy practices. Psychological Impact of Illness Chronic Illness: Understanding the significant impact of chronic illness on personal wellbeing and relationships. Support and Management: Improving support for people going through illness by better understanding psychological impacts. Treatment of Illness Interdisciplinary Approaches: Combining biological or medical treatments with psychological and social support. Biopsychosocial Model: Using the intersection of biology, psychology, and social factors to understand and treat illness. Applied Psychology in Health Perception: How individuals feel their body and perceive pain. Social Psychology: Group behaviour change, relationship impacts due to illness. Personality: Individual differences in coping and perceiving stress. Clinical Psychology: Intersection of physical health and mental health. Neuropsychology and Cognitive Psychology: Brain structure and function, cognitive processes. Comprehensive Understanding Health psychology integrates various psychology areas to understand and improve the body's functioning. Research Examples  Mobile app-based interventions to support diabetes self-management. - For a health condition like diabetes that needs ongoing management, there are many behaviours people need to engage in daily. - Using an app can help remind people to stay on track with their health behaviours. - When talking about behaviour change, which is essential for managing chronic health conditions, it is crucial to understand the psychological barriers to behaviour change and how to improve people's behaviour to help them manage their condition. Hippocrates and the Humoral Theory The body contains four humours (fluids) that must be balanced for good health. Imbalances in these humours lead to ill health. Diet and exercise were early methods to maintain this balance. The theory also linked humour to personality traits. Plato and Duality Emphasised the separation of the mind and the body. The mind was thought to have no impact on the body. Galen's Contributions Identified specific parts of the body where illnesses were located. Continued belief in humoral theory and mind-body separation. Dissected animals to understand body systems and diseases. The Middle Ages Stagnation in scientific progress due to religious control. Illness was seen as divine punishment, and intervention was frowned upon. The Renaissance and Descartes A period of significant advancement in multiple fields, including medicine. Descartes viewed the body as a machine and introduced the concept of mind-body communication through the brain. Shift from a religious to a medical focus in understanding health. Allowed for autopsies and deeper exploration of the body's functions. 18th and 19th Century Advances Technological and scientific progress in understanding physiology and medicine. Further exploration of the mind-body connection, particularly through the nervous system and the pineal gland. The Pain Pathway Understanding Pain:  Descartes' diagram from 1664 significantly contributed to the understanding of pain. Pain does not exist in the body but is a function of the brain and psychological processes. The body picks up sensations or stimulations that result in the experience of pain. Descartes' Diagram Explanation: The diagram illustrates the process starting with a stimulation (e.g., heat from a fire) causing a reaction in the foot. This reaction sends particles into the foot, believed to pull a thread up through the body to the brain. The thread opens a pore in the brain, releasing the spirit of that thread into the brain. The brain then sends a response back through the connecting point to the leg to pull it away from the fire. Nervous System Function: The process described in Descartes' diagram is similar to the functioning of the nervous system. Nerves throughout the body pick up sensations and travel through the spine to the brain. The brain processes this information and generates reactions and responses. Historical Context: The idea presented by Descartes in 1664 was a significant milestone in understanding the human body's response to pain Wellness Models Conceptualizations of Health and Wellness Biomedical Model: - Focuses on physical and biological causes of disease. - Defines health as the absence of disease. - Does not consider positive aspects of health. Illness-Wellness Continuum: - Wellness is more than just the absence of disease. - Includes positive, beneficial experiences. - Defines good health as experiencing more than just the absence of illness. Biopsychosocial Model: - Consider biological, psychological, and social factors. - These factors interrelate and contribute to health and illness. - Advocates understanding all three factors to comprehend and treat health issues properly. Stress Definition of Stress  Stress is subjective and depends on internal interpretation and experience. Stress does not exist externally; it exists within us. Stress Response vs. Stressor Stress Response: The internal tension, discomfort, and symptoms following a stressor. Stressor: The external event or situation that triggers the stress response. e.g. yelling, car accidents, or relationship breakdowns. Stress as a Process Stress is an ongoing process, not a one-time event. The stress response includes physiological and psychological elements. Stress involves a transactional process with the external environment. Characteristics of Stressors Stressors strain our ability to cope and are seen as challenging or threatening. Threatening does not necessarily mean life-threatening but indicates something taxing. Yerkes-Dodson Law Concept: Also known as the stress arousal curve or the stress response curve. Relationship: Describes how external stressors and physiological responses affect performance. Physiological Arousal and Performance High Stress: Excessive stress impairs performance, especially in complex tasks. Low Stress: Being too relaxed also hampers performance. Optimal Stress: Moderate stress levels enhance cognitive engagement and performance. Application to Tasks Complex Tasks: Driving tests, exams, and speeches require moderate stress for optimal performance. Simple Tasks: High arousal doesn't significantly affect simple tasks. Perception of Stress Positive Perception: Viewing stress positively can lead to beneficial outcomes. Negative Perception: Viewing stress negatively increases the likelihood of experiencing adverse effects. Appraisal and Interpretation Appraisal is the interpretation of events in the world. The interpretation affects feelings, coping mechanisms, and stress levels. This process happens instantaneously and often unconsciously. Types of Appraisal  Primary Appraisal: Evaluates the relevance and valence (positive or negative nature) of an event. Secondary Appraisal: Focuses on coping abilities and methods. Challenge and Threat Appraisals Challenge Appraisal: Perceived ability to cope is high; often associated with positive stress. Threat Appraisal: Perceived ability to cope is low; often associated with negative stress. Dispositional and Situational Differences Dispositional Differences: Individual tendencies to appraise situations in certain ways (e.g., optimistic vs. catastrophic). Situational Differences: Different responses to stress depending on the context (e.g., exam stress vs. traffic stress). Major Life Events vs. Daily Hassles Major Life Events: Significant events (e.g., death, trauma) that cause substantial stress. Daily Hassles: Everyday minor events (e.g., traffic, minor conflicts) that cumulatively affect health more significantly. Coping Coping involves the processes we use to manage the demands of a stressor, including our thoughts and behaviours, which can be both physical and mental. Coping strategies can be conscious or unconscious, and they often become habitual. Types of Coping Strategies Reappraisal: Actively changing the interpretation or meaning of a stressful situation. Acceptance: Accepting the situation as it is and acknowledging that it cannot be changed. Distraction: Diverting attention away from the stressor to reduce its impact. Rumination: Engaging in repetitive negative thoughts about the stressor or one’s feelings towards it. Adaptive and Maladaptive Coping Coping behaviours can be both beneficial (adaptive) and detrimental (maladaptive). The effectiveness of a coping strategy depends on the context, individual characteristics, and the objectives of the situation. Types of Coping Problem-Focused Coping - Focuses on dealing with the stressor itself. - Examples: Finding new shared houses, making lists, and talking about packing methods. Emotion-Focused Coping - Focuses on how one feels about the situation.  - Examples: Acceptance, overcoming negative feelings. Practical vs. Avoidant Coping Practical (Active) Coping - Draws you towards the problem or stressor. - Example: Reappraisal. Avoidant Coping - Takes you away from the stressor. - Example: Distraction. Adaptive vs. Maladaptive Coping No coping strategy is inherently good or bad. Effectiveness depends on the situation and desired outcome. Examples: Distraction can be beneficial in breaking ruminative patterns. Flexible Coping The ability to actively choose and adapt coping strategies based on the situation. Recognised as a beneficial approach in coping literature. Introduction to Stress and Health Stress negatively impacts both mental and physical health. Understanding how stress affects health involves examining both direct and indirect effects. Direct Physiological Effects Blood Pressure and Heart Rate: Stress increases blood pressure and heart rate. Blood Composition: Changes in blood composition are linked to stress. Immune System Suppression: Stress dampens immune system function. Stress Hormones: Release of stress hormones has physiological impacts. Indirect Behavioural Effects Sleep Disruption: Stress interrupts sleep, affecting overall health. Exercise: Stress reduces motivation and time for exercise. Healthy Eating: Stress decreases motivation for healthy eating, leading to poor dietary choices. Physical Tension: Stress increases physical tension, reducing mobility. Social Support: Stress can negatively affect social interactions and support systems. Adaptive vs. Maladaptive Stress Responses Short-term stress responses can be adaptive, helping manage immediate threats. Chronic stress is maladaptive, leading to long-term health issues due to continuous physiological strain. Coping Strategies Understanding the impact of daily hassles and chronic stress is crucial. Cognitive reappraisal and other coping strategies can help mitigate the negative effects of stress. The Placebo Effect The placebo effect is the positive effect experienced as relief from pain or symptoms, not due to any active treatment but due to the person's belief or expectations of the treatment. Mechanisms of Placebo Effect Relief is experienced purely because of the mind's expectations or belief in the treatment. No genuine active ingredient or treatment is involved. Types of Placebo Interventions Placebo Pills: Tablets containing no active ingredients can still produce a perceived benefit. Placebo Injections: Injections with no actual substance can also result in perceived benefits. Placebo Surgeries: Surgical procedures where no real surgical intervention occurs can still lead to perceived improvements. The Role of Placebos in Clinical Trials Placebos are commonly used in clinical trials to serve as a control group. A control group helps determine if a new treatment or intervention has a genuine positive effect. The Placebo Effect The placebo effect is a common and consistent experience but varies among individuals. It shows the significant impact of expectations and perception on our experiences and physical responses. Applications of the Placebo Effect The placebo effect can be harnessed for positive outcomes, such as pain management using virtual reality. It highlights the potential for non-medical interventions to treat various conditions. The Nocebo Effect The nocebo effect is the opposite of the placebo effect, where negative outcomes are brought about by expectations alone. Providing information about potential side effects can increase the likelihood of experiencing them. Ethical considerations are crucial in managing the nocebo effect, such as how information is presented to patients. Placebo Effect Frameworks  Expectancy Theory: What you expect to happen often becomes reality. Expectations can bring about pain or alleviate it. Conditioning: Repeated experiences of taking a pill and feeling better condition us to believe in the pill's effectiveness. Physiological Basis The placebo effect is not just a trick; it causes real physiological changes. Brain scans show the same neurotransmitters are released during the placebo effect as during genuine pain or relief. Alzheimer's Disease and the Placebo Effect The placebo effect may not work in people with Alzheimer's disease due to brain damage and disrupted functioning. This suggests a direct link between brain structure/function and the placebo effect. Deception in Medical Treatment The idea of using placebos in place of actual medication raises ethical concerns about deception and patient autonomy. Patients may lose their sense of agency and informed consent if they are not aware they are receiving a placebo. Effectiveness of Placebos Placebos can still be effective even if patients know they are taking them, although the effect is stronger when the patient is unaware. The ethical implications of using placebos without informing patients limit their use in public health interventions. Placebos in Clinical Trials Placebos are a crucial component of control groups in clinical trials, where participants are informed about the possibility of receiving a placebo. Informed consent is maintained in clinical trials, ensuring participants can make knowledgeable decisions about their involvement. Placebos in Alternative Therapies Many alternative health therapies may derive their perceived effectiveness from the placebo effect rather than any scientifically proven mechanism. The placebo effect can lead to genuine improvements in health due to expectations and conditioning. Week 5: Health Psychology II Models of health behaviour change These provide an integrative framework in an attempt to explain health behaviours, and thereby predict future health behaviour. There are many different theoretical models of health behaviour. We will look at one in detail – the transtheoretical model (TTM), also called the stages of change model – proposed by Prochaska & Velicer in 1997 Transtheoretical model (TTM) - People are categorised into stages depending on their motivation to change their behaviour - Individuals must pass all stages in order to reach the desired end point of maintenance (lasting exit) Different stages of TTM 1. Pre-contemplation - An individual is not currently considering any changes to their behaviour, such as dieting and has no intention of making changes within the next 6 months - May not perceive any need to address their health behaviour due to factors like denial, low self-efficacy or various barriers that impede change 2. Contemplation - An individual begins to consider the possibility of having a problem and may be prompted to move beyond precontemplation by the expression of symptoms - Start to think “maybe I will/should/could” change and begin seeking information - Perceive reduced barriers and increased benefits to making a change, they may still underestimate their susceptibility to the problem 3. Preparation (0-3 months) - An individual is ready and prepared to change their health behaviour, often expressing a commitment like “I’m ready!” - They set goals, such as a start date and begin making concrete plans and small changes  - May set unrealistic goals or underestimate their ability to succeed - Motivation and self-efficacy are crucial for taking effective action 4. Action (3-6 months) - Individuals are actively engaged in changing their behaviour and making significant progress toward their goals - Despite their efforts, ambivalence is still common, and they may experiment with several different techniques to achieve success - Also presents the highest risk of relapse 5. Maintenance - Individuals can successfully resist temptations to revert to their previous behaviour - Learned to anticipate and manage these temptations by employing new coping strategies - While a temporary slip (lapse) may occur, they do not typically view it as a failure - The model has evolved beyond the 5th stage to include the likelihood of relapse, which is not seen as “failure” but an anticipated stage of health-behaviour change. 6. Relapse - Individuals will experience a setback during the change process. - While relapses can serve as valuable learning opportunities, helping individuals strengthen their resolve to change, they can also lead to discouragement and giving up. - Recovery from a relapse involves reviewing the previous quit attempt, identifying personal strengths and weaknesses, and developing a plan to address these weaknesses in the future. - Relapse commonly occurs during the action or maintenance stages, and research shows that it is more often the rule than the exception. 7. Recycle - An individual experiences a relapse, they should be encouraged to promptly restart their health behaviour change. Depending on their motivation and the reason for relapse, they may re-enter the model at different stages. Why do people relapse - Biological Factors: Withdrawal Genetics Weight Gain - Psychological Factors: Boredom Stress Anger - Social Factors:  Conflicts Lack of social support Social cues - Relapse Prevention Strategies Control Biopsychosocial Factors: Develop coping techniques for managing high-risk situations. Coping with a "Slip": Acknowledge that slips are common. Accept them as part of the process. Introduction to behavioural pathogens and immunogens Matarazzo (1984) distinguished between two types of health behaviours: - Behavioural pathogens Health damaging behaviours - Behavioural immunogens Health protective behaviours Behavioural Pathogens Behavioural pathogens put our health at risk. For example, it has been estimated that around half of cancer illnesses are attributable to a person’s behaviour (Klein et al., 2022) There is a body of evidence pertaining to an array of behaviours shown to increase an individual’s risk of disease, such as unhealthy diet, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and risky sexual behaviour. Framingham Heart Study  - Began in 1948 with 5209 individuals who resided in Framingham, Massachusetts, USA taking part. - This longitudinal study has been following the original participants over time, as well as multiple generations of their offspring, to identify factors associated with heart disease. - Across 75+ years, there are to date over 15,000 individuals who have taken part, and thousands of peer-reviewed journal articles have been published from this groundbreaking study. Pathogen 1: Poor eating and weight - One common way of defining ‘healthy’ weight is relative to height, an individual’s body mass index (BMI), which is calculated as: - BMI = weight (kg)/height2 (m2) - BMI is the international standard for classifying overweight and obesity in adults. - Underweight and obese are both associated with higher mortality risk. - According to Australian data, overweight and obesity is the second highest risk factor for ill health, after smoking. Australian overweight and obesity rates are higher than the OECD average. - According to the Australian Institute for Health and Wellbeing (2021), in 2018, overweight (including obesity) was responsible for: 55% of type 2 diabetes disease burden 51% of hypertensive heart disease burden 49% of uterine cancer burden 43% of gout burden 42% of chronic kidney disease burden  Why we eat - Biological Factors Cannon and Washburn (early 1900s): They hypothesised a causal relationship between stomach contractions and the experience of hunger. However, people who have had their stomachs removed still experience hunger, suggesting that the brain and hormones play a crucial role in hunger regulation. - Physiological Factors Ineffective Coping Skills: Research has shown that ineffective coping skills are associated with increased eating. Some studies indicate that chronic dieters are particularly prone to stress-induced eating. Stress-Induced Eating: This type of eating is likely caused by the interaction between physiological arousal and the perception of negative emotions. Early Life Factors: Factors such as environment and trauma during early life increase the risk of obesity in adulthood. - Social Factors Familiarity with Foods: People tend to prefer foods that are familiar to them. Exposure and Observational Learning: These play a significant role in determining our food preferences. Learning: This also influences when and how much people eat. Food-Related Cues: Environmental cues are strongly associated with eating behaviours. For example, the appearance or smell of food, and the effort required to consume it, can all act as cues. These external cues can influence eating behaviour beyond biological hunger. Cultural and Social Significance: Eating and sharing meals hold deep significance in many cultures and religions. Portion Size: Something as simple as portion size can significantly impact food consumption—larger portions often lead to increased consumption! Complexity of Weight and Health - Health Beyond Weight: Health is not solely determined by weight, and being overweight or obese does not necessarily equate to poor health. Many individuals who are overweight, obese, or even underweight can be healthy, while many individuals with a 'normal' weight may be unhealthy. - Criticisms of BMI: There are valid criticisms of using blunt tools like BMI as a proxy for health. BMI should not be relied upon as the sole indicator of an individual's health status. Pathogen 2: Alcohol - Health-Related Issues from Alcohol Consumption Accidents: Increased risk when driving or operating machinery. Behavioural problems: Including aggression, suicide, and marital disharmony.  Liver cirrhosis Cancers: Such as oral, throat, and breast cancer. Brain damage & dementia Cardiovascular Issues: Including heart disease and stroke. - Drinking culture in Australia Social Pressures Justifying Abstinence Conformity Behavioural immunogens Consuming a healthy diet is one of the best things you can do for your health. As well as physical health, your diet can affect your mental health. SMILES trial - Jacka and Colleagues' Study: A randomised control trial was conducted to determine if a healthy diet could positively impact mood. - The SMILES Trial (Supporting the Modification of lifestyle in Lowered Emotional States): Diet Intervention Group: Participants were encouraged to follow a modified Mediterranean diet, supported by a dietician. Their diet included fresh fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, extra virgin olive oil, and fish. Control Group: This group did not receive dietary intervention but did receive social support. - Results After Three Months: The diet group showed a significant improvement in their depression symptoms compared to the control group. Additionally, 32% of the diet group were in remission from depression by the end of the trial, compared to only 8% in the control group. - Evidence of benefit of diet on mood Emerging Evidence: Although it is still a relatively new field of research, there is growing evidence supporting the positive effects of nutrition on mental health, in addition to its well-known benefits for physical health. Field of Study: This area of research is known as nutritional psychiatry or nutritional psychology. Individuals health within the bigger picture Social Determinants of Health - According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2023), social determinants of health are “the non-medical factors that influence health outcomes. - They are the conditions in which people are born, grow, work, live, and age, and the wider set of forces and systems shaping the conditions of daily life. - These forces and systems include economic policies and systems, development agendas, social norms, social policies, and political systems.” Social determinants are responsible for up to half of all health outcomes, which is substantial.  Australian Institute of Health and Welfare lists the following social determinants of health - Income and Education - Employment and Work - Housing and Homelessness - Early Childhood Experiences - Family Relationship Support and Environment - Social Inclusion Complexity of Health-Related Behaviour: - As we've seen, many factors influence health—both positively and negatively. It's easy to assume that changing behaviour is straightforward, that you just need to make up your mind and do it. However, this overlooks the complexity of health-related behaviours. Conflicting Motivations and Contextual Factors: - Individuals often face conflicting motivations that influence their health behaviours. Additionally, broader contextual factors, such as the environment, culture, and social setting, play a significant role in shaping these behaviours. These influences vary from person to person, depending on their unique circumstances. Avoiding Oversimplification:  - It’s important not to oversimplify people's experiences, even with the best intentions to help. Acknowledging the complexity of their situation is crucial for understanding and supporting meaningful change. Week 6: Clinical Neuropsychology It focuses on understanding how our brains affect our thoughts and behaviours. This field emerged from a combination of neurology (the study of the nervous system) and psychology (the study of the mind and behaviour). Neuropsychologists specialise in assessing and helping people recover from: - Acquired brain injury; e.g stroke, injuries from accidents - Neurological conditions: e.g multiple sclerosis (MS), epilepsy - Neurodegenerative conditions: e.g Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease - Neurodevelopmental conditions: e.g ADHD, autism spectrum disorder - Neuropsychiatric disorders: Schizophrenia, bipolar disorder Cognition and Neurology After neurological events, individuals may have persistent cognitive or emotional disabilities that include - Difficulty processing information - Language changes - Short term memory loss - Difficulties with attention/concentration - Spatial disorientation - Executive difficulties - Difficulties multitasking - emotional/psychiatric difficulties What Does a Neuropsychological Assessment involve Initial interview Clinical interview Testing components Why assess these things? Differential diagnosis Determine if there is a neurological issue, and identify its nature Provide documentation for medicolegal purposes Assess whether cognitive changes are due to psychological factors Documentation of functional impairments and preserved abilities Plan effective rehabilitation strategies Arrange access to necessary services and accommodations Facilitate planning for future activities and prepare the individual and their caregivers  Provide insights into the person's decision-making capacity Neuropsychological “data” Normative data is a crucial component of neuropsychological testing, providing a benchmark against which individual test scores can be compared. Select a large and representative sample from the target population. Ensure diversity in ages, education levels, and cultural backgrounds for broad applicability. Administer the same neuropsychological tests under standardised conditions. Collect and analyse test scores to calculate the mean (average) and standard deviation (SD). Plot scores to create a normal distribution curve (bell curve) representing score frequencies. Compare individual scores by determining how many SDs they are from the mean. Scores are interpreted with respect to normative samples, typically developed in a Western/European context. Clinical Significance Significant deviations from the normative data may suggest cognitive impairments. For Indigenous populations in particular, appropriate normative data are rarely available After the Assessment Neuropsychologists use feedback sessions to help patients understand their particular neurocognitive syndromes in the larger context of their real-world environments, in an empathic and therapeutic manner Background What is a stroke? A stroke occurs when blood flow to a part of the brain is disrupted due to a clot or bleeding Brain cells are deprived of oxygen and nutrients, leading ot damage Brain Localisation: Specific brain areas control distinct functions Stroke provide insights into these functions People who have a stroke display certain symptoms eg memory deficit - if a patient is experiencing problems with memory look at principle of brain localisation and that brain area looks after distinct functions e.g in this example the hippocampus - would identify arteries that reach that area of the brain or the hippocampus Broca's Area: Located in the frontal lobe (usually left hemisphere) Associated with speech production A stroke here can cause speech difficulties (Broca's aphasia) Ischemic Stroke Either arty being narrowed down or build up of fat or plaque in the artery Risk factors Symptoms may include High blood pressure Muscle weakness Smoking Paralysis Diabetes Speech difficulties Obesity Lack of coordination And ageing And visual changes Haemorrhagic Stroke High blood pressure weakens brain arteries making them prone to rupture Brian aneurysm rupture or abnormally formed blood vessels Leads to bleeding in and around the brain and then artery ruptures Symptoms are similar to ischemic stroke and may include Muscle weakness  Paralysis Speech issues And visual changes Week 7: Organisational Psychology I Defined as the science of people at work Apply to the workplace, theories and methods from psychology, helping to solve problems and improve outcomes Referred to as: Industrial and Organisational Psychology, I/O Psychology and Industrial Psychology Applied psychology in the context of work: consulting firms, business, government, universities Organisational Psychology is a specialisation that focuses on the application of psychology in a particular context (work) Organisational psychologists focus on creating environments and developing strategies that are intended to prevent deteriorations in psychological health Areas that are focused on e.g Job demands, Violence and aggression, Bullying, Harassment including sexual harassment, Conflict, Traumatic events, Low job control, Poor support Specialist Skills and Capabilities: - Coaching and Wellness - Psychosocial Health - Rehabilitation Counselling - Recruitment and Selection - Learning and Development - Culture Assessment and Evaluation  - User Experience and Design - Talent Management - Accident Investigation - Risk Assessment and Analysis History The focus is on the history of the Battle of Agincourt in the context of organisational psychology: - Henry V faced a difficult battle situation, outnumbered by the French. - Henry had about 5,000 troops; the French had between 30,000 to 100,000. - He needed to motivate and build the courage of his troops. - Shakespeare's quote from Henry V emphasises camaraderie and shared experience. - Henry created a strong group identity, leading to motivation and courage. - Henry V won the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 and the victory is considered one of the great victories in British history. Concept W.L. Bryan (1904) first coined the term ‘industrial psychology’ (apparently by accident). He was referring, in a presidential speech to the newly formed American Psychological Association, the need for psychological science to be applied to understanding ‘real life’ Industrial Psychology (Field Psychology) - Experimental Psychology - Individual Differences Psychology - Industrial Engineering Key Periods 1910 Unskilled workforce with rapid industrialisation Taylorism and Principles of Scientific Management. Wilhelm Wundt is widely regarded as the father of experimental psychology, known for establishing psychology as a distinct scientific discipline. Key Contributions First Psychology Laboratory: Founded the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879, marking the formal beginning of psychology as an experimental and scientific discipline. Introspection Method: Developed the method of introspection, where trained subjects reported their conscious experiences in response to stimuli, aiming to analyse the structure of the mind. Influence on Students: Mentored many students who became prominent psychologists, including Hugo Munsterberg, James McKeen Cattell, and Walter Dill Scott, spreading his experimental approach worldwide. Theoretical Contributions  Voluntarism: Proposed that the mind has the capacity to organise content into higher-level thought processes, a theory known as voluntarism. Cultural Psychology: Also contributed to cultural psychology, studying how cultural and social factors influence human behaviour. Hugo Munsterberg Significant figure in applied psychology: known for contributions to industrial, clinical and forensic psychology Key Contributions Industrial Efficiency: Focused on improving industrial efficiency and safety, developing methods for selecting the best candidates for jobs. Psychology and Industrial Efficiency: Authored "Psychology and Industrial Efficiency" (1913), which explored how psychological principles could enhance workplace productivity and safety. Practical Applications Selection Systems: Developed a selection system for streetcar motormen to improve attention and reduce accidents, demonstrating early use of simulation in selection. Forensic Psychology: Contributed to forensic psychology by studying eyewitness testimony and the reliability of memory in legal contexts. Clinical Psychology: Applied psychological principles to treat mental health issues, contributing to the development of clinical psychology. Hugo Munsterberg's work in applying psychological principles to real-world problems laid the foundation for various branches of applied psychology. His contributions continue to influence contemporary practices in industrial, clinical, and forensic psychology. James Cattell Pioneering figure in the field of psychological assessment and a key advocate for the scientific study of