Intro To Motor Development PDF

4 -study exam CHAPTER 5 DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN LOCOMOTIO...

4 -study exam CHAPTER 5 DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN LOCOMOTION What Is Locomotion? Early Locomotion moving lifting do act of head to prone - to - Moving from place to place Crawling - moving on hands and abdomen Moving on one, two, or four limbs Creeping - moving on hands and knees -Crawling, walking, running -Hopping, skipping, galloping, using other modes js+ - types Walking - both feet on ground followed by single support Early Walking Walking is the first form of upright, M Maximizes stability and balance over mobility: bipedal locomotion -Arms are in high guard -Feet are out-toed and spread wide apart Walking is defined by the following: -No trunk rotation -short steps -50% phasing between the legs - opposite leg opposition -Independent steps are taken - independent unstable , each step -Period of double support (both feet on -Rate controllers are strength (to support body the ground) followed by period of single on one leg) and balance S support atypical walking Affordances learned for crawling must Developmental Changes delays Early childhood (treadmill) be learned for walking - what constraints afford me to crawl -By 4 years, essential components of an Proficient Walking upright bipedal gait - advanced walk are present Stability is traded for mobility -Support time on the stance leg lengthens -Stride length increases -Velocity increases -Base of support is reduced wider stance - Midadolescence 10 years - -Increased range of motion -Pelvis is rotated -Stride length increases with fuller range of -Opposition (arms to legs) occurs motion and growing legs -Pattern improvements are subtle Walking in Older Adulthood Maximizing stability over mobility Running -Out-toeing increases Occurs 6 to 7 months after walking starts -Stride length decreases Running is defined by the following: -Pelvic rotation decreases -Speed decreases -50% phasing between the legs -Objects are used as balance aids -Flight phase followed by single support Speed Early Running change speed - in Proficient Running Stability over mobility Reduce stability to increase mobility: -Arms in high guard -Increased stride length -greater force -Limited range of motion -Planar movement -Decreased stride length -Sagital plane – arms and legs move forward -Little rotation -Narrow base of support -Trunk rotation coordination , strength , balance -Opposition between arms and legs  CHAPTER 5 DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN LOCOMOTION Development Changes of Running Later running (~ adulthood) Patterns help increase stability and balance Decreases appear in: qualitative physical improved -stride length not long as changes ↓ growth and I quantative of in -range of motion running maturation measures - running -number of strides running -speed Rate controllers are balance and strength Exercise can allow seniors to run for years Rate Controllers in Later Running Describing change in motor patterns Running requires greater Quantitatively product - fastoutcome : How , How far generation of force and ability to balance Qualitatively – relative to mature Smaller changes in constraints can patterns developmental sequence/movement - pattern affect later running decrease Strength in An individual may have the ability Body component approach Steps qualitative change , to run but may not have the opportunity to do so or chooses not to Early Jumping Other Types of Locomotion Begin simple jumping before 2 years Jump - propels self off ground with 1 or 2 feet -> lands on 2 feet Vertical or horizontal Early characteristics: Hop - propels self off ground with 1 -Jumping only vertically foot -> lands on same foot complex more -1 foot takeoff or landing -No or limited preparatory movements ~ walk into it Leap - propels self off ground with 1 -Continual growth in body size and strength contribute to quantitative improvements foot -> extended flight period -> lands -It is not guaranteed that every child will eventually master jumping on opposite foot Proficient Hopping Early Hopping Swing leg leads hip and moves Hopping starts later than jumping through full range of motion Early characteristics: Support leg extends fully at hip -Support leg is lifted rather than used to project body Oppositional arm movement -Arms are inactive generates force -Swing leg is held rigidly in front of body Support leg is flexed on landing Developmental Changes in Hopping Few children under 3 can hop repeatedly Rate Controllers in Hopping Adaptations of the neuromuscular system Depend on the postural system’s ability to balance the body moderates the force of landing on one limb for a succession of hops Due, at least in part, to an interaction of individual constraints in the body and within the Ability to generate enough force to lift the body with one framework of principles of motion limb, recover, and quickly generate enough force to hop again  CHAPTER 5 DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN LOCOMOTION Galloping, Sliding, Skipping Early Galloping, Sliding, Skipping Gallop and slide are asymmetric Arrhythmic and stiff movements -Gallop - forward step on 1 foot -> leap on other Little or no arm movement -Slide - sideways step on 1 foot -> leap on other Little or no trunk rotation from the front Exaggeration of vertical lift Skip is symmetric: alternating step-hops on 1 foot, Short stride or step length then on the other Proficient Galloping, Sliding, Skipping Developmental Changes The arms are no longer needed for balance Galloping is the first to emerge ~ 2-3 years In skipping, the arms swing rhythmically in opposition to the legs and provide momentum Sliding comes next Child can use arms for another purpose Skipping is usually last to emerge during galloping + sliding (e.g., clapping) ~ 4-7 years Rate Limiters Gallop Assessing LM Skills: TGMD-3 –Coordination (uncoupling legs) The locomotor scale is 1 of 2 subscales –Differential force production (legs Skills: run, gallop, hop, skip, jump, slide performing different tasks) Demonstration is followed by 1 practice and 2 scored trials Slide 3 to 5 performance criteria for each skill -Coordination (turning to one side) Scores for each skill can be summed to provided a locomotor score out of 46 Skip -Coordination (ability to perform 2 tasks with 1 leg)  assignment 4 = Q 6. soccer throw in Newton's 1st law baseball - soccer - CHAPTER 6 DEVELOPMENT OF BALLISTIC SKILLS Throwing Characteristic of Early Throwing Patterns / Forms: Limited trunk rotation -Underhand (one- or two-hand) -Forward-backward movement -Sidearm -Overarm (one- or two-hand) Mostly arm action Elbow is pointed up Throw executed by elbow extension alone Developmental Changes in Early Throwing No step -> homolateral step side Step - same Throwers do not achieve same step for each body component at same time Some step combinations are more likely Throwing in (older) Adulthood -Structural constraints limit possible Older adults demonstrate moderately combinations advanced steps (but qualitatively different) Not everyone reaches the highest step in -Structural (musculoskeletal) constraints each component body size strength I likely to influence movement patterns strength - -Girls and women often remain in Decline is usually gradual overnight - Not intermediate boy - likely are more sports to be in those. -Variability in movement patterns Change is typically in the control rather than coordination of movements Throwing for Force pitching catcher Football - ,. -Slowed speed - Force less Preparatory windup -Decreased range of motion control - less -weight shifts to back foot -trunk rotates back Throwing for Accuracy Force /distance - -arm swings down and around s Throwers may use lower developmental Long step with opposite leg Differentiated trunk rotation Upper arm and forearm lag wer run force may Trunk rotation - steps for throws requiring accuracy vs fully extend- Step size ar m not , Movements are sequential to trunkrotatea When required to throw a greater transfer momentum Flow - * distance, differences between throws differences are minimal gender · Sidearm Striking Char. of Early Striking Arm remains at or below shoulder level Chopping motion (elbow extension) Various body parts can be used Little leg and trunk movement Implements can be used Proficient Sidearm Striking Sideways preparatory stance and long step Differentiated trunk rotation Horizontal swing through large range of motion (arm extended beforecontact) Sequential movements  CHAPTER 6 DEVELOPMENT OF BALLISTIC SKILLS Overarm Striking Without an implement - upward motion Char. of Early Overarm Striking -e.g., volleyball serve hitting objeca Trunk rotation limited - * - bent elbow With an implement - hitting wh a - little/no lag -e.g., tennis serve tool above head - ball contact is low Proficient Overarm Striking Developmental Changes in Overarm Striking Lower and upper trunk are rotated (back) Elbow action in ball-contact phase more than 90° rotational velocity - 1. Very small or very large angle 2. Intermediate angle (2° to 89°) Elbow is held between 90°and 119 ° at start 3. Ideal angle (90° to 119°) of forward movement generate - more room to force Spinal and pelvic range of motion Racket lags behind arm in forward swing 4. Rotation of less than 45° Force a time generate more 5. Rotation of 45° to 89° Movement is sequential flow , full range of motion 6. Rotation of > 90° Racket action Jagacinski. Greenberg , & liao (1997) 1.No racket lag - iron Shot 2.Racket lag - older golfers reach peak Force earlier in swing. 3.Delayed racket lag older may need more Force than - younger Haywood & Williams (1995) Kicking - tennis "first" Serve (more force) Kicker strikes ball with foot - older servers at moderate levels Kicker must have perceptual abilities and early Intermediate eye–foot coordination to make contact Steps Forward wh -Stationary -> moving ball ·KickinglSeward · non- kicking leg. · Bends Knee · No Step is taken limited kickers - arm/trunk young use action · movement wh non-kicking leg just leg from hands Proficient Kicking punting dropped Preparatory windup early-tossed up rather dropped 6 -trunk is rotated back - contacts ball w/ toes O -kicking leg cocked + knee bent Elongated step (~ leap) will based pattern change Trunk rotates forward -> full ROM - distance (of steps , follow through) on Movement is sequential -thigh rotates forward -> lower leg extends -follow through (full ROM) Arms move in opposition to legs -in response to trunk and leg motion  Consider how you hold certain objects catching is harder g CHAPTER 7 get/maintain object DEVELOPMENT OF MANIPULATIVE SKILLS Fundamental Manipulative Skills Early Catching · Catching is a manipulative skill · little force absorption very do after something - · Hug (arms wide) , Scoop/trap · performer control of object gains possession or away head · turn or close eyes Proficient Catching Developmental Changes in Catching · hands position of prior to catch & Task constraint speed glove size distance ball size : , , , - weight trajectory , balls + · Fingers up for High Specific to environment/fast constraints down for low balls interception Success Catcher · moves side to side or Assessment of Catching ball forward/back to intercept the · task/environmental constraints consistent "give" bend for · arms force absorption · How many times catch scored) they Anticipation Dev’t of Coincidence Anticipation · movement anticipating completion of · Speed (change performance) to coincide arrival accuracy wh of moving. object · · younger is better wh larger balls practice & repitition helps · flatter trajectory Perception–Action Perspective Catching in Older Adulthood ⑨ · considers all info in the environment improve wh practice repetition at the same time. · w h at - movement does this environment provide to me? not a lot of change/research Invariants stable patterns movement their speed of motion reach affect range charaistic of set of - , , constraints optical array how patterns are perceived by eye & expands when getting closer light waves How Do Children Learn to Arrive at the Right Place? · practice , repetition , experience still ball they stand · I catch a ratio is when · teacher , coach , parents affordance - action or behavior  CHAPTER 7 DEVELOPMENT OF MANIPULATIVE SKILLS Reaching and Grasping Grasping · 2 * prehension-grasping w/ single skill I or 2 hands forward · arm reaches power grip to precision grip-influenced Snape or size by hand · grasps object constraints impact how they pick it up by 9 · mo. Shape hands by looking Body Scaling in Grasping - doesn't matter * · VISION 7 age => good at age Children · of hand object · ratio to more dependent on visual Feedback at hand · looking Consistent Stable the lifespan · for from over transitioning I hand to 2 hands weight , Fragile Hand–Mouth Movements Learning to Reach - learn to control arms · 3-4 : moving hand to mouth (practice) · random arm movements 0-12 mo. · Smo : open mouth as object arrives repeated · practice prereach to reach 3 · + 04 mo. Bimanual Reaching + Manipulation toyl food motivated ↳mo. pulling apart/insertion objects , as tools Bimanual Reaching + Manipulation D #mo. manipulate wh both hands cooperatively · 2 mo - bilateral arm extension #mo-practice/more efficient · l-reach for objects w/ both arms hand first one gets there * Manual Performance in Adulthood · Imo. reach wh or 2 arms as approviate for object · decline in speed + coordination 50 yr cross midline oo · manipulate wh both hands cooperatively - · can be maintained wh practice · declined strength & Role of Posture · loss in handwriting- · adjust posture to reach (4mo · maintain postural control Rapid Aiming Movements reaching improves when · arm picks up speed , slows once close · more deceleration in older  anaerobic power-rate at meet which someones body can demand for short intense activity anaerobic capacity max oxygen deficit a person Chapter 10 can tolerate Development of Cardiorespiratory Endurance Importance of Physical Fitness CR Endurance and Children fitness Physical individual Constraint reflects ability to sustain vigorous activity Relationship w/ CR systems related to endurance level growth + aging - cardiac , vascular. respiratory systems Training - · children have risk for heart disease Physiological Responses to Short-Term Exercise Developmental Changes in Anaerobic Performance anderobic - who oxygen body size anaerobic system helps less + aerobic takes over metabolize fuel in muscles reserve muscle mass energy Individual Differences in Anaerobic Performance meant peak improve small effec t maturity = gender difference = muscle mass difference * neuromuscular coordination - training Anaerobic Training in Youth more mature - more muscle mass - more anaerobic - small training of both sexes have higher peak/mean power · - boys increase after puberty Stop training , peak / mean power decrease training improves Anaerobic Performance in Adulthood Gender Differences adult body size is attained men have higher anaerobic power anaerobic performance is stable men t women decline sharp after 70 older adulthood loss of muscle mass * women decline faster (less muscle mass , ↓ 2 type muscle fibers = decrease atrophy Anaerobic Training in Adulthood Assessing Anaerobic Performance resistance training 10-30 seconds Wingate bicycle Total Quebec , 1-mile run Peak Oxygen Uptake work output , mean , peak power VO2 of Physiological Responses to Prolonged Exercise peak-highest rate Oxygen consumed by muscles aerobic power-rate at which term long demand is met oxygen related to lean body mass aerobic capacity total available energy - childhood & adolescence for prolonged activity increases throughout endurance declines in cardiac output = HRx Stroke I til 13 adulthood in girls  Chapter 10 Development of Cardiorespiratory Endurance Aerobic Performance During Childhood Changes in Aerobic Performance During Childhood smaller stroke volume t smaller Cardiac output with growth/maturation -heart size higher resting heart rate hemoglobin - increase need more blood to muscles lower hemoglobin (blood protein Sustain exercise related to carries 02) body size/mature cannot exercise for that long trained men have an advantage Training Effect in Children Aerobic Performance - Adulthood considered growth/maturation Maximal falls about O2 uptake 1% per kilogram of body weight per year after 20s Training intensity : improvement aerobic training leads to improvement after puberty Respiratory Structure + Function · aging Assessing Aerobic Performance - lung +issue decrease Vital decrease Treadmill 1600m capacity , run , cycle down 4% to S% per decade ↑ intensity Performance graded in stages Long-Term Training Effects women wh more DE in exercise youth more adult level Youth sport participation predicts young activity men who stay engaged had highest maximal O2 uptake Effects of Diseases on Endurance Performance diseases always impact Never max testing  CHAPTER 11 Development of Strength and Flexibility Strength Muscle Mass and Strength · · force follows ability to exert sigmoid a pattern · · enhances performance in sports/daily living depends on cross-sectional · involved (Notes) !! neurological Assessment of Strength · strength is not proportional to muscle size remainstates * tension first · motor unit recruitment strength goes Force resistance against isotonic/isokinetic if limbs move - dumbbell Developmental Changes in Strength * controlled speed isometric if exerted immorable resistance against · similar strength until puberty in movement no change · peak strength follows peak muscle increase · specify muscle group , movement , speed , joint angle · the child who reaches maturation first are stronger Strength in Adolescence and Young Adulthood · males add more muscle mass I stronger in arms/ shoulders Strength in Middle + Older Adulthood · · Size does for differences 30s not account all gender strength declines after lifestyle related · · done its to loss after training in than muscle mass growing more strength · coord involved in decrease muscular strength Flexibility · affected by less exercise · ability to move joints through full range of motion · benefit sport/dance performance Assessment of Flexibility · limited be factor in · measured for assessed joint each can a injury · · Specific to each joint goniometer · sit a test Developmental Changes in Flexibility reach flexible Flexibility in Adulthood · infants are very · decline starts in childhood · flexible people maintain/improve levels · gradually lose flexibility little used + after 50 · in joints girls generally more flexible · training maintain = maintain levels Flexibility Training training · can maintain of range motion in those w/ full range · limited training can improve range of motion in those w/ range  ↑ motor physical activity = comp CHAPTER 12 WEIGHT STATUS, FITNESS & MOTOR COMPETENCE Body Composition * Impt of Body Composition · how · 2 of tissues L someone looks types lean (muscle bone organs) * - , , · related to overall health adipose (fat) - % fat limits Motion · · of fat free and fat excess range of tissues make up body comp. · related to WORK CAPACITY Body Composition and Youth · + factors Body Composition + Exercise Teenage Boys genetic environmental 2 100 4 years (10 7-14 7y) for · · environmental factor can be manipulated boys.. diet + exercise 4 activity level) · No groups Body Composition + Exercise Teenage Boys ↓ most active ( (h/week > basketball /track) 41 3 years (14 7). 2 boy 1-10 ·.. intermediate active was weighs more). 3 - heavier at 16 7. muscle · 16 4 boys 6 years. least active unorganized · by variable/reflected lifestyle active maintained fat levels - 21· fat weight was Body Composition + Exercise Boys vs Girls Body Composition + Exercise Teenage Girls boy& · 32 45 non-training · from 12-16 + girl gymnast swimmers 12 5 (12/13-16/17) age , both about same years · age 15 , boystaller , heavier , leaner girls who didn't train gained fat both showed increased body · who trained lean mass girls at expense of fat weight add fat weight - no overall trend to Body Composition + Exercise Adulthood - gained subcutaneous fat during inactivity · middle fat-free body and lose fat loses again muscle-training - age mass fat gains - increase caloric intake · regular exercisers maintain levels resistance training motor comp- common foundational movement skill that enable participation in everyday activities  CHAPTER 12 WEIGHT STATUS, FITNESS & MOTOR COMPETENCE Exercise to Reduce Obesity Obesity in Childhood · · the ↓ in offset rate that basal metabolic increasing everywhere , all age accompanies caloric restriction · obese kids are obese adults · muscle tissue which needs of promotes more , amount · more calorie maintenance energy needed one-quarter of US kids/adults to sustain vital expends calories 9% · Functions - 13 % children obese · effective to control obesity Fitness + Physical Activity Obesity - 30 0. + BMI · ↓ fitness during childhood associated wit walking/running during addescence 1% * · less than metabolic t thyroid disorders ↓ performance · · rapid increase - environment rather genetic factors tied to ↓ in PA * less active people ↓ ↑ ↑ body -