Intro to Biology PDF

BIO SCIENCE Scientific information can usually be classified into one or two main types: INTRO TO BIOLOGY ▪ Qual...

BIO SCIENCE Scientific information can usually be classified into one or two main types: INTRO TO BIOLOGY ▪ Qualitative ▪ Quantitative Quantitative information Biology Numerical data Study of life Numerical values are compared Bio means life Quantitative data may be used to make graphs Logy (Greek) means study of or tables Biologist International System Study the interactions of life. Scientists use a form of the metric system called Study the diversity of life the International System of measurements or ▪ No living thing exists in isolation SI ▪ The study of biology includes the Advantage of SI: ▪ Only a few basic units investigation of living interactions ▪ Decimal system, measurements can be ▪ The study of one living thing always expressed in multiples of ten or tenths of involves the study of the others in which a basic unit by applying a standard set of it interacts prefixes to the unit Biologists study problems and propose In biology, the metric units you will encounter solutions. most often are: ▪ Medical treatment ▪ Meter – Length ▪ Disease prevention (humans and other ▪ Gram – Mass organisms) ▪ Liter – Volume ▪ Endangered species prevention ▪ Second – Time ▪ Kelvin – Temperature Qualitative information Observational data Some phenomena aren’t easily expressed as quantitative information Herbivores (Plant Eaters) Science and Society Eat only plants, leaves, fruits, seeds, or algae. Some people blame scientists for the existence Examples: Cows, deer, rabbits, giraffes, of controversial things in science elephants, caterpillars To comprehend the nature of science, people Carnivores (Meat Eaters) must understand that knowledge gained Eat only other animals (meat). through scientific research is never inherently Examples: Lions, tigers, wolves, eagles, good or bad sharks, snakes Society as a whole must take responsibility for Omnivores (Both Plant & Meat Eaters) the ethical use of scientific discoveries Can eat both plant-based and animal-based food. Ethics Examples: Humans, bears, pigs, raccoons, The moral principles and values held by humans crows, chickens Tools To carry out investigations, scientists need tools that enable them to record information ▪ Ruler ▪ Graduated Cylinder ▪ Compound Light Microscope ▪ Scanning Electron Microscope ▪ Gel Electrophoresis Maintaining Safety Technology Safety is another important factor that Technology scientists consider when carrying out The application of scientific research to societies investigations needs and problems Safety Symbol Technology has helped us in many ways: ▪ Increase production of food A symbol that warns you about a danger that ▪ Decrease the amount of manual labor may exist from chemicals, electricity, heat, or ▪ Aided in the reduction of wastes and procedures you will use environmental pollution Kinds of Information  BIO SCIENCE The advances of technology has resulted in (runners), and onions (bulbs) reproduce some serious problems too: through their vegetative parts. ▪ Too much fertilizer can contaminate ▪ Asexual Reproduction in Flowers – water Some plants, like roses and tulips, can ▪ Automobiles have led to increased air reproduce through grafting or bulb pollution formation without the need for seeds. In Conclusion Hermaphrodite ▪ Science and technology will never answer all of Is an organism that has both male and female the questions we ask, nor will they solve all of reproductive organs or can produce both sperm our problems and eggs. ▪ However, during your study of Biology you will False hermaphrodite ( also called as have many of your questions answered, and pseudohermaphrodite) you will explore new concepts Has the reproductive organs of one sex but ▪ Don’t forget, you are part of this living world looks like the opposite sex due to hormone or and you can use the process of science to ask genetic differences. and answer questions about that world Example: a person with male chromosomes (xy) but female-like traits. CHARACTERISTIC OF LIVING THINGS Gametes Gametes are the reproductive cells used in To be classified as a living thing, an sexual reproduction. object must have all eight of the Sex cells following characteristics: Types of Gametes: ▪ Sperm Cells – Male gametes. 1. Living things are made up of units called ▪ Egg Cells (Ova) – Female gametes cells Asexual Reproduction Cell - smallest unit of life Sexual reproduction involves two parents Unicellular = single celled contributing genetic material, resulting in Multicellular = many celled genetically diverse offspring. It requires the fusion of male and female Robert Hooke gametes (sperm and egg). Discover the cell This process occurs in most animals, plants, and Acellular some fungi. Not made up of cells. Examples of Sexual Reproduction: Viruses are acellular because they are not made ▪ Humans and Animals – Mammals, of cells but consist of genetic material (DNA or birds, and reptiles reproduce through RNA) inside a protein coat. fertilization. Viruses are not considered as living things. ▪ Flowering Plants – Plants like roses, mangoes, and sunflowers reproduce through pollination, where pollen from the male part (stamen) fertilizes the female part (carpel), leading to seed formation. ▪ Amphibians and Fish – Frogs and fish lay eggs that are fertilized externally. 2. Living Things Reproduce 3. Living things are based on a universal Sexual Reproduction genetic code Asexual reproduction involves only one parent, Amino acids and the offspring are genetically identical to the Are the building blocks of proteins. parent. The human body uses 20 different amino acids This type of reproduction is common in single- to make proteins. celled organisms, plants, and some animals. 4. Living Things Grow and Develop Examples of Asexual Reproduction: Differentiation ▪ Binary Fission – Bacteria and amoeba Is the biological process where unspecialized divide into two identical cells. cells develop into specialized cells with distinct ▪ Budding – Yeast and hydra develop functions. small buds that grow and detach. This occurs during growth and development in ▪ Fragmentation – Starfish and multicellular organisms. planarians regenerate new individuals Examples of differentiation: from body parts. ▪ Human development – stem cells in ▪ Vegetative Propagation – Plants like embryos differentiate into nerve cells, potatoes (tubers), strawberries muscle cells, and blood cells.  BIO SCIENCE ▪ Plants – meristem cells differentiate 7. Living Things Maintain a Stable Internal into roots, stems, and leaves. Environment ▪ Tissue repair – Skin cells regenerate to Big Ideas in Biology heal wounds. Science as a Way of Knowing Water Interdependence in Nature Water is called the "universal solvent" Matter & Energy because it can dissolve many substances, Cellular Basis of Life including minerals from rocks. Information and Heredity Fertilization Unity & Diversity of Life The union of an egg cell and a sperm cell Evolution When they combine, they form a zygote. Structure & Function Types of Growth Homeostasis Accretion Science, Technology & Society Growth by external addition. Happens in non-living things (e.g., layers of Branches of Biology rock forming over time). Zoology = animals Intussusception Paleontology = ancient life Growth by internal addition. Cytology = cells Happens in living things (e.g., humans grow by Botany = plants absorbing nutrients from food). Entomology = insects 5. Living Things Obtain and Use Materials Microbiology = Microorganisms (bacteria, and Energy viruses, fungi, and protozoa) Metabolism Ecology = Relationships between organisms and Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions in their environment living organisms that convert food into energy Histology = The study of tissues and build or break down molecules to sustain life. Levels of Organization It is essential for growth, repair, and The living world can be organized into different maintaining body functions. levels. For example, many individual organisms Sucrose can be organized into the following levels: Chemical Formula: C12H22O11 Molecule Commonly known as table sugar The smallest unit of a chemical compound, Found in many plants, especially in sugar cane made up of atoms and sugar beets. Examples: It's a disaccharide, meaning it's made up of two ▪ Water ▪ Proteins simple sugars: ▪ DNA ▪ Glucose Cell ▪ Fructose. The smallest, basic, functional unit of life Glucose formed when different atoms and molecules Chemical Formula: C6H12O6 combine and function together. Monosaccharide, which is a single sugar Examples: molecule. ▪ Skin cells It’s a major source of energy for the body and is ▪ Blood cells found in many foods like fruits and vegetables. ▪ Neurons Types of Metabolism ▪ Muscle cells or fibers Anabolism Tissue Building Process Group of cells Uses energy to build complex molecules. Work together to form a specialized function Example: Examples: ▪ Protein synthesis, where amino acids ▪ Muscle tissue form proteins. ▪ Nervous tissue ▪ Photosynthesis in plants, where Organ sunlight is converted into glucose. Group of tissues Catabolism Examples: Breaking Down Process ▪ Skin Breaks down molecules to release energy. ▪ Heart Example: ▪ Liver ▪ Digestion of food to produce energy. Organ System ▪ Cellular respiration, where glucose is broken down to produce ATP Group of organs (energy). Work together to perform a certain process in the body. 6.Living Things Respond to Their Environment  BIO SCIENCE Examples: Refers to a cell that has only one set of ▪ Endocrine System chromosomes ✓ Made up of glands that produce In humans, a haploid cell has 23 hormones. chromosomes, which is the number found in ✓ Regulates growth, metabolism, and gametes reproduction. Diploid ▪ Integumentary System Cells that contain two sets of ✓ Includes the skin, hair, and nails. chromosomes—one from each parent. ✓ protects the body and regulates In humans, 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). temperature. ▪ Lymphatic (Immune) System ✓ Composed of lymph nodes, lymph PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE vessels, and the spleen ✓ defends against infections. Microscope Organism An instrument that makes things look bigger. Formed by different organ systems Horse-shoe shape. Things Creates a complex interactions with one another Anton van Leeuwenhoek to maintain balance or homeostasis, and sustain Known as the "Father of Microbiology." life. He made his own microscope Examples: First to observe and describe bacteria, protozoa, ▪ Humans sperm cells, and red blood cells under a ▪ Grasses microscope. ▪ Dogs/ Cats More Organizational Levels Hans and Zacharias Janssen Population Dutch spectacle makers (father and son). Organism that belongs to the same species. Credited with inventing the first compound Live in the same area microscope Examples: MAGNIFYING PARTS ▪ Humans living in the same house Eyepiece (Ocular Lens) Community Description: The lens at the top of the Different population living in the same area microscope where you look through. Lens Examples: closes to the eye ▪ Humans, cats, and dogs living in the same Function: Magnifies the image house High Power Objective Ecosystem Description: A longer objective lens with higher All the communities interacting with one magnification. Longer of the two lenses close to another and with their environment. the slide. Examples: Function: Provides a detailed view of the ▪ A forest with trees, animals, soil, and specimen at a high magnification. microorganisms. LPO (Low Power Objective) ▪ A coral reef with fish, algae, and ocean Description: A shorter objective lens with lower currents. magnification. Shorter of the two lenses close Biome to the slide A large region characterized by specific climate, Function: Gives a broader view of the specimen, plants, and animals. used for initial focusing. Examples: Scanner ▪ Tropical Rainforest Description: The shortest objective lens, usually ▪ Tundra with 4x magnification. ▪ Grassland Function: Used for quickly scanning the ▪ Desert specimen at low magnification. Biosphere MECHANICAL PARTS The global sum of all ecosystems where life Pillar exists, including land, water, and air. Description: A vertical support that connects Diversity of Life the base to the body. Archaebacteria Fungus Function: Provides stability and support for the Bacteria Plant microscope structure. Protist Animal Drawtube Description: A small tube that connects the OTHER INFORMATION!! eyepiece to the body tube. Haploid  BIO SCIENCE Function: Maintains the correct distance Mirror between the eyepiece and objective lenses. Description: A small, adjustable mirror below Body tube the stage. Description: A long cylindrical tube that holds Function: Reflects light onto the specimen the lenses in place. when there is no built-in light source. Function: Gives the distance needed between Light Source the eyepiece and objective. Description: A built-in lamp or external light Arm source beneath the stage. Description: A curved or straight structure Function: Provides illumination for viewing the attached to the base and body tube. specimen. Shines light into the tube. Function: Holds the tube and lenses. Connects to the base. PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL Coarse Adjustment Knob Description: A large knob on the side of the microscope. COMMON PARTS Function: Moves the tube up and down. Cell Membrane Fine Adjustment Knob The outer lining of the cell which encloses all Description: A smaller knob near the coarse other cell organelles. adjustment knob. also known as the plasma membrane Function: Also moves the tube up and down but semipermeable. only slightly. Mostly consist of Phospholipids (a form of lipid Revolving Nosepiece molecule) Description: A rotating disc that holds the Functions: objective lenses. ▪ It supports and protects the cell. Function: Holds objective lenses ▪ It also controls the movement of Dust Shield materials in/out of cell. Description: A protective cover over the ▪ It forms a barrier between cell and its nosepiece and objectives environment. Function: Prevents dust from entering the Cytoplasm lenses. It is the fluid substance that fills the cell. Stage Composef of cytosol. Description: Platform for slide to rest All the cell organelles are suspended in the Function: An opening in its center lets light cytoplasm. pass through. Function: ▪ The cytoplasm maintains the osmotic concentration of the cells and prevents Stage Clips (2) them from bursting or shrinking. Description: Metal clips on the stage. Function: Hold the slide in place on the stage. Cell Shrinking Holds the specimen. Crenation in animal cells Plasmolysis in plant cells Inclination Joint This happens when a cell loses water due to Description: A hinge at the base of the arm. being placed in a hypertonic solution Function: Allows the microscope to be tilted for Water moves out of the cell, causing it to comfortable viewing. shrink. Base Examples: Description: The bottom part of the Wilting in plants microscope. When a plant is watered with salty or dry soil, Function: Holds up the entire microscope. water leaves its cells, making the plant wilt due to plasmolysis. ILLUMINATING PARTS Eating salty food & dehydration: Diaphragm When you eat very salty food, your body loses water to balance the high salt concentration Description: A rotating disk with different-sized in your blood. This can cause red blood cells holes. to shrink due to water leaving them. Function: Circular disk that let more or less Cell Bursting light pass through. Lysis in animal cells Iris Diaphragm Turgid in plant cells Description: A adjustable diaphragm with a This happens when a cell takes in too much lever water due to being in a hypotonic solution Function: Precisely controls light intensity. In animal cells, excessive water intake can Condenser cause the cell to swell and burst. Description: A lens system below the stage. In plant cells, the cell wall prevents bursting, Function: Focuses light onto the specimen but the cell becomes swollen (turgid).  BIO SCIENCE Examples: Ribosomes are the organelles that use Drinking too much water (Water intoxication): instructions from the nucleus, written in If a person drinks excessive water in a short mRNA, to build proteins. time, their blood becomes hypotonic, causing Function: red blood cells to absorb water and burst ▪ Together they help in manufacturing (hemolysis), which can be dangerous. proteins for the cell following Overwatering plants: instructions of the nucleus. When a plant is watered too much, its cells Golgi Apparatus become turgid because they absorb water. Unlike animal cells, plant cells do not burst They are flattened stacks of membrane bound due to their rigid cell walls. sacs. It serves as a warehouse and processing station for products manufactured by the endoplasmic Nucleus Reticulum. It is a membrane bound organelle, spherical in It looks like the ER, and are located near the shape. nucleus. Most of the activities of the cell is directed by Functions: the nucleus ▪ Its function is to modify proteins made Nucleolus: by the cell and pack and export proteins ❖ It is darkly stained are in the nucleus, it to the cell parts aids in protein formation and RNA synthesis. Vacuole They are organelles for storage. Functions: ▪ All the cells in an animal has one Small membrane bound vacuoles filled with complete set of genes in its nucleus. fluids and water are present in animals. ▪ The genetic material DNA help in In plant cells the vacuoles perform functions of protein formation. secretion, excretion and storage. ONLY IN PLANT CELLS Mitochondria Cell wall The largest organ of the cell known as the 'power A rigid layer that surrounds the plant cells. house of the cell'. It is located outside the cell membrane whose The mitochondria house the cellular respiration main function is to provide rigidity, strength, of the cell protection against mechanical stress and a spherical or rod shaped organelles and is infection. enveloped by a double membrane The cell wall of most species of bacteria contains Functions: peptidoglycan - a complex of polysaccharides ▪ The mitochondria aids in conversion of that cannot be found in the cell wall of archae glucose to high energy molecules (ATP) Cell walls of plants: consist of cellulose fibers for the cell. (a polysaccharide made of glucose) Endoplasmic reticulum Cell walls of fungi: consists of chitin It is a large network of interconnecting Chloroplasts membrane tunnels composed of both: It is an elongated or disc-shaped organelle o Rough endoplasmic reticulum containing chlorophyll. o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum. It is the site for photosynthesis Rough endoplasmic reticulum Plastids These ribosomes produce proteins that will Plastids are storage organelles. be inserted into the growing endoplasmic They store products like starch for synthesis of reticulum membrane, transported to other fatty acids and terpenes. organelles and eventually exported It synthesize proteins. ONLY IN ANIMAL CELLS Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Continuous with the nuclear envelope and Lysosome the rough endoplasmic reticulum but it does membrane bound organelles, they contain not have attached ribosomes digestive enzymes. it also forms vesicles that transport They break down the waste products and molecules to other parts of the cell detoxify the cell. Another function of smooth endoplasmic Suicidal sacs reticulum is the storage of ions. It is present in animal cells. It also houses enzymes that detoxify drugs and poisons. It synthesize lipids Ribosomes Ribosomes are found on the endoplasmic reticulum. BIO SCIENCE  BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE: HISTOLOGY Tissue Level of Organization Epithelial Connective Muscle Nervous Epithelial Tissue Epithelium Characteristics Consists almost entirely of cells Covers body surfaces and forms glands Has free and basal surface Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Specialized cell contacts Intermediate form between simple squamous Avascular and simple columnar epithelium. Undergoes mitosis Nucleus is round and located in the centre of Avascular the cell. It refers to tissues or structures in the body Sources that do not have their own blood supply and Ducts of exocrine glands instead rely on diffusion from surrounding Surface of ovary tissues for nutrients and oxygen. Kidney tubules Thyroid follicles Classification of Epithelium Functions Simple Secretion Squamous, cuboidal, columnar Absorption Stratified Surface barrier Squamous, cuboidal, columnar Pseudostratified columnar Transitional Cuboidal to columnar when not stretched and squamous like when stretched Types of Epithelium Simple Squamous Epithelium Sources: Lining- pulmonary alveoli loop of Henle parietal layer of Bawman capsule Simple Columnar Epithelium inner and middle ear, Cells are taller and appear columnar in sections blood and lymphatic vessels at right angles to the basement membrane. pleural and peritoneal cavities Nuclei are elongated and may be located Function: towards the base, the centre or occasionally the Fluid transport apex of the cytoplasm, this is known as polarity. Gaseous exchange Present in: Lubrication Small intestine & colon Reducing friction Stomach lining and Lining membrane gastric glands Gall bladder Function: Transportation Absorption Secretion Protection  BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE: HISTOLOGY Simple Columnar Ciliated Epithelium In relaxed state (contracted) state, transitional Described as a special entity because of the epithelium appear to be about 4-5 layers thick. presence of surface specialisation called cilia. basal cells are roughly cuboidal , the Each cilia consists of a finger like projection of intermediate cells are polygonal, and the surface the plasma membrane. cells are large and rounded and may contain 2 Not common in humans except in the female nuclei. reproductive tract. Present in: Function: Urethra Protection Ureters Secretion of mucus Bladders Renal calyces Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium The term pseudostratified is derived from the appearance of this epithelium in section which conveys the erroneous impression that there is more than one layer of cells. True simple epithelium since all the cells rest on the basement membrane. Nuclei are disposed at different levels thus creating the illusion of cellular stratification. Function: Sources: Secretion Trachea & bronchial Absorption tree Lubrication Ductus deferens Transportation Auditory tube and Protection tympanic cavity HISTOLOGY OF THE LIVER Nasal cavity & lacrimal sac Male urethra Large excretory ducts Transitional Epithelium Form of stratified epithelium. Highly specialized to accommodate a great degree of stretch. So named because it has some features which are intermediate (transitional) between stratified cuboidal and stratified squamous epithelia.  BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE: HISTOLOGY However, it has striations like skeletal muscle. Cardiac muscle cells are branching together and fit tightly together at functions called intercalated disks. These disks contain gap junctions that facilitate the rapid conduction of electrical impulses across the heart. Muscle Tissue Muscle Tissue Muscular tissue, or simply muscle is made up of specialized cells that can shorten or contract to produce movements. Muscle tissues consist of long and extensive muscle fibers. There are three types of muscle tissues that differ in structure and function. Characteristics Contracts or shortens with force Moves entire body and pumps blood Smooth Types Nonstriated and involuntary Skeletal Smooth muscle or visceral muscle is a type of Striated and voluntary muscle tissue commonly found in the walls of Skeletal muscle is a muscle tissue attached to hollow organs such as intestines, stomach, the skeleton or bones. bladder, blood vessels, and uterus. These muscles can be controlled consciously or It involuntarily contracts slower than the other voluntarily. two types of muscle tissue. Skeletal muscle cells are long, cylindrical, Smooth muscles are nonstriated, uninucleated, striated (with visible stripes), and multinucleated and spindle-shaped (have pointed ends) cells. (with more than one nucleus). When they contract, they pull the bone and the skin to cause movement. DICOT AND MONOCOT LEAF ANATOMY Monocot Monocots have one cotyledon (seed leaf) in their embryo. Their leaves have parallel venation (long, unbranched veins). Their vascular bundles in the stem are scattered, making them less woody. Cardiac They have fibrous roots, meaning many thin Striated and involuntary roots grow from the base. Cardiac muscle is a muscle tissue found in the Their flowers usually have parts in multiples of heart. three (e.g., 3 or 6 petals). Unlike a skeletal muscle, it is uninucleated (one Examples: Grasses, corn, wheat, rice, lilies, and nucleus) and it moves involuntarily (cannot be orchids. controlled consciously).  BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE: HISTOLOGY Dicot Dicots have two cotyledons in their seed embryo. Their leaves have net-like venation, with branching veins. Their vascular bundles in the stem are arranged in a ring, often forming woody growth. They have a taproot system, where a main root grows deep with smaller branches. Their flowers usually have parts in multiples of four or five (e.g., 4, 5, or 10 petals). Examples: Sunflowers, beans, roses, oak trees, mangoes, and tomatoes. Epidermis It covers both upper(adaxial epidermis) and lower surface(abaxial) Cuticle is present Upper epidermis consist stomata Stomata Are tiny pores on plant leaves and stems that control gas exchange and water loss. They open and close through guard cells to regulate carbon dioxide intake, oxygen release, and transpiration. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE: HISTOLOGY