Interpretation Techniques PDF

Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan Interpretation Techniques What is Interpretation? Interpretation can be defined in a nutshell as conveying understanding. Its usefulness stems from the fact that a speaker’s meaning is best expressed in his or her native tongue but is best understood in...

Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan Interpretation Techniques What is Interpretation? Interpretation can be defined in a nutshell as conveying understanding. Its usefulness stems from the fact that a speaker’s meaning is best expressed in his or her native tongue but is best understood in the languages of the listeners. In addition, the respect shown by addressing an interlocutor in that person’s own language is conducive to successful diplomacy or negotiation. For example, US President John F. Kennedy undertook the task of mastering French specifically with a view to negotiating with French President Charles de Gaulle. But not all statesmen and diplomats have the time, energy, or linguistic talent to master the language of each party with whom they must speak. By bridging the gap between languages, the interpreter helps speakers to discharge their duty to make themselves understood and helps listeners to satisfy their need to understand what is being said. How Does Interpretation Differ from Translation? A translator studies written material in one language (the “source language”) and reproduces it in written form in another language (the “target language”). An interpreter listens to a spoken message in the source language and renders it orally, consecutively or simultaneously, in the target language. Both the translator and the interpreter must have a thorough mastery of the target language, as well as a very good passive understanding of the source language or languages with which they work. For most interpreters, the target language will be his or her native tongue. Page 1 of 40  Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan The translator relies mainly on thorough research with background materials and dictionaries in order to produce the most accurate and readable written translation possible. The interpreter relies mainly on the ability to get the gist of the message across to the target audience on the spot. No translation is ever “perfect” because cultures and languages differ. However, in practice, the translator is usually held to a higher standard of accuracy and completeness (including the ability to reproduce the style of the original), while the interpreter is expected to convey the essence of the message immediately. The translator’s activity is more like that of a writer, while the interpreter’s performance is more like that of an actor. A good translator will spend much time searching for the correct technical term or the right choice of words, but a good interpreter must immediately come up with a satisfactory paraphrase or a rough equivalent if le mot juste does not come to mind, in order not to keep the audience waiting. Some people are able to do both translation and interpretation. Others find that, for reasons of temperament and personality, they cannot do one or the other. Generally, some experience as a translator provides a good foundation for becoming an interpreter. What is the Difference between Consecutive Interpretation and Simultaneous Interpretation? A consecutive interpreter listens to the speaker, takes notes, and then reproduces the speech in the target language. Depending on the length of the speech, this may be done all at one go or in several segments. The consecutive interpreter relies mainly on memory, but good note-taking technique is an essential aid. A simultaneous interpreter, usually sitting in a soundproof booth, listens to the speaker through earphones and, speaking into a microphone, reproduces Page 2 of 40  Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan the speech in the target language as it is being delivered in the source language. Because the simultaneous interpreter cannot fall too far behind, this method requires considerable practice and presence of mind. Consecutive interpretation was long the standard method, until simultaneous interpretation was first tried out on a large scale, and found to be workable, at the Nuremberg trials. Thanks to that breakthrough and to modern sound equipment, simultaneous interpretation has now become the most widely used method, in every type of meeting from business conventions to summit conferences and can even be done via remote communications links. It is much less time- consuming and enables a multi-lingual conference, with participants speaking several languages, to proceed without interruption. However, consecutive interpretation is still preferred in certain situations, such as one-on-one interviews, confidential hearings, brief public appearances by prominent persons, or some legal proceedings. It has the advantage of not requiring much equipment. Occasionally, interpreters may be asked to do “whispering” or “chuchotage”, which consists of sitting behind a participant at a meeting and simultaneously interpreting the proceedings sotto voce only for that person. Simultaneous interpreters normally work in teams of two per booth, taking turns in shifts of about 30 minutes each for a maximum of about three hours at a time, which has been found to be the maximum average time during which the necessary concentration and accuracy can be sustained. They generally work only into their “A” (best) language, or their mother tongue. In certain situations (e.g. in a meeting where one language largely predominates), a single team of three people, known as a “petite equipe”, will work both ways, rather than two booths of two people each. The number of languages spoken at the meeting may also determine the make-up of the team. Page 3 of 40  Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan In the United Nations, for example, the standard “English booth” team consists of two interpreters, one of whom interprets from Russian, one of whom interprets from Spanish, and both of whom can interpret from French. For certain language combinations, relay, or two-step, interpretation is also sometimes used: a speaker will be interpreted in one booth from language A into language B, and then in another booth from language B into language C. Is it Useful to Specialize in a Particular Subject Area? Yes. It is easier to translate or interpret with an understanding of the subject. Some translators, for example, specialize in medical translation and obtain regular work from pharmaceutical manufacturers. Some translation agencies specialize in technical, business, or legal translation and rely on translators and interpreters with expertise in those areas. Specialist translators can usually command higher fees. Many translators and interpreters make an effort to keep abreast of certain fields in which their language combination is useful. However, most translators and interpreters are of necessity generalists, since it is not possible to be an expert in every field in which there is a demand for translation. Accordingly, translators and interpreters must cultivate the ability quickly to assimilate the basic issues and vocabulary that go with a particular assignment. Among conference interpreters, the usual practice is to obtain back-ground materials from the conference organizer prior to the meeting and study the materials to gain a basic understanding of the subject and the specialized vocabulary. A translator or interpreter who works regularly for a particular organization or client will soon become familiar with the subject and its jargon. Page 4 of 40  Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan Are Some Languages More Important than Others for Translation and Interpretation? It depends on the market. There is more work to be found in the “major” world languages that are most widely spoken and written, but there is also more competition. On the other hand, a translator or interpreter who knows a “rare” or “exotic” language in a particular market is harder to find and can often command higher fees even though there may be fewer work opportunities. Most institutional employers, like multi-national corporations and governmental or intergovernmental agencies, use a specific set of languages in their operations and will often test the applicant’s knowledge of those languages. The United Nations, for example, has six “official languages” (English, French, Spanish, Chinese, Arabic, and Russian) and requires most applicants to know at least two of these in addition to their native tongue. Some court systems in America regularly employ interpreters with a knowledge of certain Asian languages, like Vietnamese, or certain indigenous languages, like Navajo. Some corporations, like multi-national banks, operate mainly in English but hold their board meetings and publish their annual reports in two or more languages and hire interpreters and translators for that purpose. Some national governments conduct all of their official business and issue all of their official publications in two or more languages, e.g. Canada (English and French) and Switzerland (French, German, Italian, and Romansh). Are There Any Formal Professional Requirements? There is no single, uniform accreditation process to become a translator or interpreter. Each employer has different standards and requirements. Book publishers generally employ translators based on their academic credentials. Court systems will usually administer a formal interpretation exam and certify Page 5 of 40  Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan those who pass. Corporate employers and translation agencies will sometimes administer an entrance test or require a college degree or a certificate from a translation school. Governmental and inter-governmental employers will usually administer a competitive examination and/or require a college degree in languages or a certificate from a recognized translation school. The European Union administers a competitive general knowledge exam as well as language tests. The United Nations holds periodic worldwide competitive examinations for translators and places the highest-scoring candidates’ names on a roster from which applicants are recruited as vacancies occur. At the UN, free-lance interpreters must pass a test and staff interpreters are recruited through a formal exam before a panel. Professional associations, like The American Association of Language Specialists (TAALS) and the Association Internationale des Interprètes de Conférence (AIIC) also administer tests to their members in order to list them in their yearbooks according to language competence. Some employers, because of the nature of their workload, will require staff linguists to do both translation and interpretation, e.g. the UN International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) or the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Other employers may require applicants to do both simultaneous and consecutive interpretation (e.g. court systems) or may require more than one active language (e.g. the World Trade Organization). Most international organizations, and the languages they use, are listed in a large directory entitled Yearbook of International Organizations, which can be consulted at major libraries. Is it Advantageous to Be Bilingual? Only if one is truly bilingual, i.e., thoroughly conversant with both languages, sensitive to the differences between them, and able to use both Page 6 of 40  Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan equally well as a medium of expression. Few people are truly bilingual. Early exposure to two or more languages is helpful because it trains the ear to recognize the sounds of both languages, to grasp difficult accents, and to recognize nuances and idiomatic expressions. But, without additional study and training, it is usually not sufficient to enable a translator or interpreter to use both languages actively at a professional level. Is Simultaneous Interpretation a Stressful Occupation? Yes. The sustained alertness and concentration required to perform this job well have been compared with those required to be an air-traffic controller. However, for that very reason, interpreters’ associations have developed standards governing workload, team strength, and equipment, based on medical studies, which are intended to keep the workload and cumulative stress within reasonable limits. At the UN, for example, simultaneous interpreters are usually required to cover a maximum of seven three-hour meetings per week, except during peak periods. The average workload at the European Union is somewhat heavier. Speaking Public speaking is an important part of training to become an interpreter for several reasons. First, many people studious enough to have acquired a thorough grasp of two or more working languages tend to be of a somewhat shy and retiring disposition and, when faced with an audience, may freeze up and develop mental blocks. Second, interpretation assignments – especially the better ones – often require interpreters to perform before large audiences of important people, which can be rather intimidating even for those of us who are not especially shy. But stage fright can be overcome by the same method that student actors use: rehearsal. Finally, an interpreter, like an actor, a talk- show host or a news announcer, must learn how to use his or her voice. Page 7 of 40  Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan In order to understand the kind of language used by public speakers and at international conferences, interpreters should appreciate how it differs from everyday speech. We use language in our daily lives primarily to communicate information and express feelings. But the main function of language as used by public speakers such as diplomats, officials, and corporate executives, who are usually acting as spokesmen for groups, is advocacy. A campaign speech by a candidate for office is designed to win the listeners’ votes. A speaker praising a public figure is seeking to persuade listeners of that person’s merits. An official making a public explanation or apology for an error or embarrassment is trying to persuade the public to forgive and forget. A diplomat making a lengthy policy statement is trying to persuade other diplomats to support her positions by striving to portray her country and its policies in a favorable light. Even a speaker using expository language to relate facts or report information is often doing so in order to support a particular viewpoint, thesis, or proposal. Public speakers have usually acquired some proficiency in the art of persuasion, and interpreters must be able to mirror that skill. So, interpreters should strive to be good public speakers. An important step in Preparation/Anticipating the Speaker Consistently good performance in conference interpreting depends on sustained mental alertness. An interpreter must maintain attention and concentration through many hours of meetings and absorb the contents of lengthy discussions on many subjects. This means keeping fit, notably by getting enough sleep and following good habits of nutrition and exercise. An interpreter must also adopt an attitude of intellectual modesty and willingness to learn, keeping up with changes in his or her languages as well current events and the related jargon. Interpreters must be able to understand and clearly state a wide range of possible ideas and arguments representing Page 8 of 40  Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan different sides of any issue, even arguments which may seem implausible, or with which they may strongly disagree. Gaining familiarity with the subject matter to be discussed at an upcoming assignment is important and attending a meeting in advance will be especially helpful to get a grasp of procedural rules and terms. Careful observation of speakers’ gestures and demeanor, as well as the reactions of listeners, will provide additional clues to the intent behind the words. Knowing the specific themes of a conference in advance and obtaining a copy of the agenda, background documents, list of speakers, and any prepared speeches available can also be very helpful. Many speakers prepare their speeches well in advance of delivery and will gladly give or send a copy to an interpreter who takes the trouble to ask for it. Copies of formal speeches and policy statements by public officials can often be readily obtained from their offices or looked up on their Internet web sites. Sometimes a translation of the speech to be delivered will also be made available by the speaker or his institution (known among interpreters as “a Van Doren”) and can be read out by the interpreter if the translation is of good quality. Yet, despite those elementary precautions, every speech still has its surprises. A speaker may change his or her mind at the last minute, discard or amend prepared remarks, and say something quite unexpected. (Be especially alert to this when the speech is marked “Check Against Delivery”.) And even an experienced interpreter can be caught off guard by a novel idea, an unusual turn of phrase, a breakthrough in the debate, an eccentric speaker, a spur-of- the-moment argument, an impenetrable accent, a mispronounced key word, a halting delivery, poor sound quality, an obscure reference or acronym, or a deliberately ornate way of saying a perfectly simple thing. Overcoming problems of that kind involves a certain amount of intuition. Although an interpreter should avoid wild guesses, it is often possible, relying Page 9 of 40  Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan on the context, to “fill in the blanks” of a statement when an element of it is unclear or indistinctly heard. It can be helpful if one tries, by an effort of imagination, to anticipate what the speaker is likely to say, how he or she is likely to say it, and how it can be made comprehensible to the audience for which one is interpreting. Complex Syntax/Compression When speakers use short, declarative sentences and speak at moderate speed, the interpreter’s task is made easier. More complex sentences can also be interpreted without too much difficulty if spoken at moderate speed. However, when speakers use long, complex structures and deliver them at high speed, the interpreter’s task is greatly complicated. A lag of a single sentence or phrase can lead to an omission and inability to catch up. This chapter presents several strategies interpreters use to help cope with the combined difficulty of complexity and speed. Word Order/Clusters It is important to avoid automatically following the word order and structure of the source language when translating and interpreting. The words of the source language must be recognized, and the sentences must be understood. But the words are only the trees, and it is more important to see the forest. The “meaningful structures” with which translators and interpreters deal are neither words nor sentences. They are units of meaning, which may comprise a number of words, or part of a sentence, or more than one sentence at a time. (See Barbara M.H. Strang, Modern English Structure, Arnold, London, 1968, p. 73.) Notice, for example, that the units of meaning in the following text, marked off with brackets, do not correspond to single words or to whole sentences: Page 10 of 40  Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan [Once upon a time] [there was] [a lovely little girl] [by the name of] [Little Red Riding Hood]. [One fine day] [she decided] [to go and visit] [her poor, dear old grandmother], [who lay sick in bed]. [Taking a basket] [filled with flowers and fruit] [under her arm], [Little Red Riding Hood] [set out happily] [through the forest]. [Little did she know] [that] [deep in those dark woods] [lurked] [the Big Bad Wolf]! It is important quickly to identify units of meaning by scanning a speech as you hear it for phrases or clusters of words that can be translated into corresponding clusters of words in the target language. The way words are organized into clusters in the source language will not necessarily correspond to the way they should be organized in the target language. But the meaning will correspond. Two kinds of clusters are especially important: noun + adjective clusters verb + object clusters Noun + adjective clusters must be dealt with as units because adjectives in different languages fall into different sequences in a noun phrase. For example, in English, the adjective of size must come before the adjective of color (“big black dog”, not “black big dog”), whereas in French the adjective of size comes before the noun and the adjective of color comes after (“grand chien noir”, not “grand noir chien”). Moreover, in English, adjectives of age generally precede adjectives of color (“old blue car”, not “blue old car”), adjectives of size precede adjectives of age (“big old house”, not “old big house”), and all of the foregoing precede an adjective of nationality (“old blue French car”, not “French old blue car”). As a result of the complex rules governing adjective sequence in different languages, a phrase like “la grande conférence Brésilienne sur l’environnement mondial de 1992” becomes “the big 1992 Brazilian global environment conference”. Phrases containing Page 11 of 40  Dr. Gamal Al-Tahan several adjectives will become unmanageable for a simultaneous interpreter unless they are mentally processed as a unit. Verb + object clusters should be dealt with as units because, as a practical matter of usage, some verbs will not work with some objects and vice versa. For example, in French the verb that usually goes with “plainte” is “enregistrer” or “porter” and the verb that usually goes with “progrès” is “enregistrer”; but in English you do not “register” or “carry” a complaint; you “make” or “file” or “lodge” a complaint; and you do not “register” progress, you “make” progress. In other words, these verb + object com-binations have become crystallized by usage into clusters: “porter plainte” = “file a complaint”; “enregistrer des progrès” = “to make progress”. Treating clusters as single units of meaning will also help you to identify those cases where you can compress wordiness by translating several words with one, which is especially useful in interpreting a fast speech, for example: “aboutir à une conclusion heureuse” = “to succeed” / “para facilitar la comprensión de nuestra propuesta...” = “to clarify our proposal...”. A good way to identify these cases is to “listen for defini-tions” and then use the word corresponding to the definition you have just heard. For example, if you hear a speaker say “Nous traversons une période de grande prospérité...” you can say “We are experiencing a boom...”. To develop this skill, it is helpful to browse dictionaries and do crossword puzzles. General Adverbial Clauses A general adverbial clause modifies the main verb in the sentence. It is often used to set the scene for the rest of the sentence. The following two examples are taken from a speech made by the representative of Belarus at the 48th session of the UN General Assembly. First is a translation following the original phrasing or structure, then the official English translation as it appeared in the UN Official Records after being interpreted and edited. Page 12 of 40