INST 203 Study Guide PDF

Study Guide, Activities and Assessments: Study Questions (webpage) - Explain briefly the origin and development of the term "Indian." - European explorers and colonizers who mistakenly believed they had reached India when they arrived in the Americas. It became a blanket t...

Study Guide, Activities and Assessments: Study Questions (webpage) - Explain briefly the origin and development of the term "Indian." - European explorers and colonizers who mistakenly believed they had reached India when they arrived in the Americas. It became a blanket term for the indigenous peoples of North America. Over time, it was formalized in legal contexts, such as the Indian Act in Canada, which defines who is recognized as an \"Indian\" and eligible for certain rights and benefits. - The Indigenous peoples of the United States and in Canada have reluctantly accepted the term Indian as a shared self-identification. Why? - it\'s used in laws and government policies that give them certain rights. Even though the term is not accurate, it helps them work within these systems. - What accounts for the higher number of Indigenous women than men in urban centres? (Frideres and Gadacz) - They often move to cities for better job opportunities, education, and services. There are less opportunities to be an independent or powerful woman in Aboriginal cultures. Abuse rates towards women are high on reserves and housing is scarce. - Since World War II, Indigenous people have been migrating to urban centres in ever increasing numbers. What factors prompt this migration? (Frideres & Gadacz) - Leaving behind poor living conditions, lack of infrastructure, and limited opportunities in rural or reserve areas. There was also a lack of resources and healthcare provided on the reservations. - What factors tend to influence an Indigenous individual's decision to migrate to an urban centre? (Frideres & Gadacz) - Education and career opportunities. They also have more of an existing network and community ties in Urban areas. - Describe the effect of the reserve system on the daily lives of registered Indian people. How did this system help to define Indian identity among people of Indigenous descent? (Dyck) - Effects of Reserve System on Daily Lives - Geographical Restriction: Confined to specific lands, limiting mobility and opportunities. - Economic Limitations: Poor resources and infrastructure; dependency on aid. - Cultural Impact: Disruptions in traditional practices; conflicts with imposed regulations. - Administrative Control: Government oversight clashed with traditional governance. - Social Challenges: Overcrowding; inadequate services; health and social issues. - Defining Indian Identity - Legal Classification: Indian status linked to reserve residence and regulations. - Cultural Identity: Shared experiences on reserves shaped collective identity. - Political/Social Distinction: Reinforced separation from non-Indigenous Canadians. - Assimilation Pressures: Promoted separation from traditional life; integration into mainstream society. - What arguments are advanced by those who contend that present legal identifications of Indigenous people are arbitrary and should be ended in favour of an all-inclusive Indigenous identity? (Dyck) - Historical Injustice: Current legal identifications are seen as a continuation of colonial policies that fragmented Indigenous identities. - Arbitrary Distinctions: Legal categories like "status" and "non-status" create artificial divides among Indigenous peoples. - Unified Identity: An all-inclusive identity could foster greater unity and collective strength within Indigenous communities. - Cultural Continuity: Emphasizes shared cultural heritage and traditional practices over legal classifications. - Political Empowerment: A unified identity might strengthen political advocacy and self-determination efforts. - How might a leader of an organization of status Indians rebut such arguments? (Dyck) - Historical Basis: Legal distinctions are based on historical agreements and treaties. - Rights Protection: They ensure specific treaty rights and resources are preserved. - Representation: They support political and cultural organization and representation. - Specific Needs: They address unique needs of status Indians effectively. - Practical Concerns: Changing the system could create uncertainty and disrupt existing arrangements. - What is the difference between an "ethnic group" as defined by Barth and an "ethnostatus group" as defined by Waldram? - Ethnic Group (Barth): Defined by shared cultural traits and practices. - Ethnostatus Group (Waldram): Defined by legal or formal status and rights. - What cultural factors make the legal distinction between "Indian" and "Métis" appear absurd and arbitrary to some Indigenous communities? (Waldram) - Shared Heritage: Many Indigenous communities have interconnected histories and cultures, making the legal distinctions seem irrelevant or artificial. - Blended Identities: Many individuals and communities have mixed heritage and cultural practices, which do not neatly fit into legal categories. - Cultural Continuity: The distinctions ignore the continuous and evolving nature of Indigenous cultural practices and identities. - According to Waldram, what is a "white-status Native"? - refers to Indigenous individuals who do not have legal status under the Indian Act. This means they are not recognized as \"status Indians\" and thus do not receive the same legal rights and benefits associated with that status. (ie. metis, inuit) - According to Waldram, the legal distinction between Indian-status and white-status Natives leads to inequities in the delivery of government services. What inequities exist in the delivery of social assistance and economic development programs? - Social Assistance Inequities: Status Indians get more federal support, while white-status Natives rely on less generous provincial aid. - Economic Development Inequities: Status Indians have priority in federal projects, causing resentment among white-status Natives who may be excluded from these opportunities. - How has the legal distinction between Indian-status and white-status persons affected political developments in some Indigenous communities? (Waldram) - Political Conflict: Differing rights and benefits cause tensions within communities, often resulting in divisions and conflicts over representation and resources. - Exclusion and Inequality: Non-status individuals may feel marginalized or excluded from political and economic benefits, affecting their political power and community cohesion. Unit 1 - Section 2: The Indian Act and Racial Categorization (web page) Study Questions (web page) - According to officially recognized categories, what is the difference between: (Frideres and Gadacz) - a treaty and a non-treaty Indian person? - **Treaty Indian person:** An individual who belongs to a First Nation that has signed a treaty with the federal government. Treaty Indians are recognized as having rights and entitlements based on the specific terms of their treaty agreements. These treaties often include rights to land, resources, and other benefits. - a status and a non-status Indian person? - **Non status indian:** are not considered registered Indians because they have not been defined as Indian by the Crown. Included in this category are those Indians who have undergone "enfranchisement"---that is, they have lost their Indian status through changes in the definition of an Indian, are the product of an Indian--non-Indian marriage, or have been dropped from the Indian roll by the Indian Register. - a registered and a non-registered Indian person? - **Registered Indians:** are defined in a legal manner and are different from other types of Aboriginal persons who do not have the same legal status. - What are the seven parts of the colonization process? (Frideres and Gadacz) - 1\. The first concerns the incursion of the colonizing group into a geographical area. This usually takes the form of forced-voluntary entry; acting in its own interests, the colonizing group forces its way into an area. (ex. Lands and resources were taken from Aboriginal people and reallocated to settlers.) - 2\. Destructive effect on the social and cultural structures of the Indigenous group. (ex. uropean colonizers destroyed the Native peoples' political, economic, kinship, and, in most cases, religious systems. The values and norms of Aboriginal people were either ignored or violated.) - 3\. External political control. (ex. Until 1940, what was then Indian Affairs created a "pass system" which determined who could leave reserve lands, when, and for what purpose) - 4\. Aboriginal economic dependence (ex. band funds could not be used by Aboriginal people to develop social and political organizations of their own) - 5\. The provision of low-quality social services for colonized Aboriginal individuals in such areas as health and education. New diseases (e.g., diabetes, AIDS), alcohol abuse, welfare dependency, and water pollution have increased. - 6\. Social interactions between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people and refer to racism. (widespread agreement among the colonizers that Aboriginal people lacked several basic qualities essential to being "men"---order, industry, and manners.) - 7\. The establishment of a colour-line (What they perceived to be "disorder" and "idleness" were thought to be weaknesses that characterized Aboriginal culture as well as the individual) - What is "collective" identity? (Frideres and Gadacz) - The identity formed by Indigenous peoples as a result of shared experiences, such as colonization, and their collective efforts to maintain their cultural heritage, traditions, and rights. First Nations people have suffered a collective distortion in their relation to self and have internalized this negative self-image; this has prevented them from developing a healthy cultural identity of their own. - According to Frideres and Gadacz how were Aboriginal people first defined by Canada? - Aboriginal people were hunters and gatherers (although there were some agricultural tribes) who lived in harmony with their physical environment. Their limited technological developments made few demands on the ecology, and the small numbers of people meant that population pressures were light. - How were non-status Indians defined by the Department of Indian Affairs? (Frideres and Gadacz) - they have lost their Indian status through changes in the definition of an Indian, are the product of an Indian--non-Indian marriage, or have been dropped from the Indian roll by the Indian Register. - How did enfranchisement (loss of Indian status) occur, and how could an Aboriginal person become reinstated? (Frideres and Gadacz) - For example, until 1960, Indians had to give up their legal status in order to vote in a federal election. Until 1980, an Indian could choose to give up his or her Indian status by applying formally to Ottawa. In so doing, that person also surrendered status for all heirs. For years, one of the most common ways of losing Indian status was through intermarriage. Under the old Indian Act, any legal Indian female who married a non-legal Indian male lost Indian status for herself and for her children. Obtaining the right of title (fee simple) of land. - Bill C-31 provided for the partial reinstatement of people who had lost their Indian status. - Those individuals whose ancestors (more than one generation removed) lost their status are not eligible. Those individuals applying to regain their Indian status are reviewed by Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development (AAND) and a decision is made as to whether the individual has a legal right to claim it. - How has the official description of the Inuit person changed from 1867 to the present? (Frideres and Gadacz) - a "disc" number was allotted to each Inuk; for a time, only those with numbers were officially defined as Inuit. - According to Frideres and Gadacz, what are some of the divisive effects of terminology and labelling of Aboriginal people? - Labelling of Aboriginal people is to obscure the variations among Aboriginal peoples. - Identity Confusion, Negative Stereotypes, Political Implications, Social Division, Loss of Cultural Identity. - These divisive effects are part of a broader colonial strategy to control and assimilate Indigenous peoples by categorizing and labeling them in ways that serve the interests of the dominant society, rather than the interests of the Indigenous communities themselves. - What is meant by the term "enfranchisement" as applied to Indian people in Canada? Identify the legislation passed to facilitate enfranchisement of Indian people before and after Confederation. - Enfranchisement: lose their legal status as an \"Indian\" under the Indian Act - Before Confederation: It encouraged Indigenous men to renounce their Indian status in exchange for a plot of land and the rights of a British subject. - After Confederation: Under this Act, various amendments were made over the years to promote or enforce enfranchisement, sometimes even making it compulsory under certain conditions, such as when an Indigenous person obtained a university degree. - What was the reaction of Indian leaders to the policy of enfranchisement? (Leslie and Maguire) - Indian leaders generally reacted negatively to the policy of enfranchisement. They viewed it as a direct attack on their cultural identity and a means of erasing their status as Indigenous people. Enfranchisement was seen as a way for the government to assimilate Indigenous people into Euro-Canadian society, stripping them of their rights, lands, and recognition as distinct communities. This policy was met with strong resistance from Indian leaders, who fought to preserve their identity, rights, and self-governance. - Describe particular amendments to the *Indian Act* aimed at eradicating Indian cultural and religious practices. (Leslie and Maguire) - **The 1884 Amendment**: This amendment outlawed the Potlatch ceremony, a central cultural and spiritual event for many Indigenous communities, particularly on the West Coast. The Potlatch was a significant social and economic event that involved gift-giving, dancing, singing, and the redistribution of wealth. The government viewed it as a barrier to assimilation and sought to eliminate it. - **The 1895 Amendment**: This expanded the prohibition to include other Indigenous ceremonies such as the Tamanawas dance, the Sun Dance, and other similar gatherings. These ceremonies were integral to the spiritual and cultural life of various Indigenous groups, and their prohibition was an attempt to force Indigenous peoples to abandon their traditional practices and adopt Euro-Canadian ways of life. - Analyse the arguments advanced during the first half of the twentieth century by various politicians, government officials, and influential members of the public, and write a paragraph or two on the composite picture that Euro-Canadians had of Native peoples. (Leslie and Maguire) - In the first half of the twentieth century, Euro-Canadians, including politicians and government officials, viewed Indigenous peoples as culturally inferior and in need of assimilation into Euro-Canadian society. This perspective justified policies that aimed to strip Indigenous peoples of their cultural identities and autonomy, portraying them as dependent and unable to adapt to modern life. The Indian Act and its amendments were tools used to enforce this assimilation, reflecting a paternalistic attitude that positioned Euro-Canadians as superior and Indigenous peoples as needing to be \"civilized\" according to Euro-Canadian standards. This outlook ignored Indigenous rights and contributed to the continuation of harmful assimilation policies. Unit 1 - Section 3: Indian Act and Indian Women (web page) Study Questions - Kathleen Jamieson. [Sex Discrimination and The Indian Act](http://drr2.lib.athabascau.ca/index.php?c=node&m=detail&n=30371) , reproduced in the DRR. - "Virtually all subsequent legislation for Indians had three main functions: (1) "civilizing" the Indians -- that is, assimilating them (and their lands) into the Eurocanadian citizenry; (2) while accomplishing this, the ever more efficient "better management" of Indians and their lands was always a goal to be pursued and, following on this, an important element in better management was controlling expenditure and resources; (3) to accomplish this efficiency it became important to define who was an Indian and who was not." (pg. 117) - "Testifying before a House of Commons committee, the Deputy Minister of Indian Affairs, scholar Duncan Campbell Scott, explained to Members of Parliament: Our object is to continue until there is not a single Indian in Canada that has not been absorbed into the body politic, and there is no Indian question and no Indian Department. That is the whole object of this Bill." (pg. 120) - How did the role of women in Iroquoian society differ from that of women in Euro-Canadian society in the nineteenth century? (Jamieson, p. 113) - Iroquoian society: The society was centered around women. Descent was traced through the mother\'s side, and after marriage, the husband moved in with his wife\'s family. Homes were owned by senior women, and these women had significant political power, including choosing and removing leaders. They also had the final say on decisions about war and peace. Men were often away for long periods due to hunting or military duties. - Euro-Canadian: the wife was virtually the property of her husband. - Discuss "the concept of victimization," as defined by St. Clair Drake. (Jamieson, p. 114) - "implies that some people are used as a means to other people's ends -- without their consent -- and that the social system is so structured that it can be deliberately manipulated to the disadvantage of some \.... The victims, their autonomy curtailed and their self-esteem weakened by the operation of the caste-class system, are confronted with identity problems; their social condition is essentially one of powerlessness." - After 1867, how were Indian women legally punished for marrying spouses who were not registered Indians? (Jamieson, pp. 117--118) - shall cease to be an Indian within the meaning of this Act. \..." Her children in such a marriage also lost their status. - What is meant by "commutation of annuities"? How did commutation affect Indian women who had "married out" after the promulgation of the *Indian Act of 1951*? (Jamieson, pp. 120--122) - \"Commutation of annuities\" refers to the process of converting regular, ongoing payments (annuities) into a one-time lump sum payment. - Indian woman who "married out" was that until this time she had to some extent had a dual status as an Indian and an ordinary Canadian citizen. Until 1951 she had usually retained the right to go on collecting annuities and band moneys if she did not choose to accept a lump-sum "commutation." Thus she would continue to be on the band list and to enjoy some band benefits as well as treaty rights (if her band had taken treaty), though she was no longer an "Indian Act" Indian. - As of 1951, however, she was to be automatically deprived of both her Indian status and her band rights from the date of her marriage. - What financial and economic disadvantages were suffered by women who had married out? (Jamieson, pp. 123--125) - Not only may the children be denied access to the cultural education programs offered in the reserve school, but they will also lose their entitlement to free tuition and supplies, a noon lunch supplement, sports equipment, and, at the post-secondary level, the educational allowance covering tuition, books, living expenses, travel, and clothing. - Nor does the enfranchised former-Indian woman herself have the right to Department of Indian Affairs support in upgrading her own education. - Non-status women lose their eligibility for both off-reserve and on-reserve financial assistance for housing. More importantly, they lose their right to live on the reserve where they can be close to friends and family and the support they offer; the children and grandparents may also thereby be deprived of much of the contact that is often so vitally important to both generations. - are excluded include: loans and grants from the Indian Economic Development Fund to start a business; exemption from taxation while living on the reserve; exemption from provincial sales tax on goods delivered to a reserve in certain provinces; free medicines to which the members of some bands are entitled; hunting, fishing, animal grazing, and trapping rights on (and under certain conditions, off) a reserve; and cash distributions derived from the sale of band assets or moneys surplus to band needs. Canadian Indians, but not non- status Indian women, may also be employed in the United States without a visa and have certain border crossing privileges under the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Act. - Finally, the non-status woman may suffer the further indignity and deprivation of being refused burial with her forebears on reserve grounds that to her, too, are sacred. - How did Bill C-31 (*An Act to Amend the Indian Act*) remove discriminatory measures that had previously affected Indian women who had married out? (Jamieson, p. 128) - It finally amended to eliminate sex discrimination. It also eliminates enfranchisement, provides for the reinstatement of those women who lost their status in the past. - How could previously enfranchised Indian people and their children regain their Indian status once Bill C-31 became law? (Jamieson, p. 131) - eligible upon application to the Department of Indian Affairs for reinstatement to band membership and for re-registration as Indians under the Act. - Curiously and unfairly, all those who received a payment of over \$1,000 from band moneys on enfranchisement must pay it back with interest before they receive any further disbursements from their band. - Lilianne Ernestine Krosenbrink-Gelissen. [The Native Women's Association of Canada](http://drr2.lib.athabascau.ca/index.php?c=node&m=detail&n=26399) , reproduced in the DRR. - Why did some Indian bands oppose the reinstatement of Indian women who had married out to their status as band members? (Krosenbrink-Gelissen)\ Do you agree or disagree with the position taken by these bands? State your reasons. - **Resource Allocation:** Bands were concerned that reinstating women and their descendants would increase competition for land, housing, healthcare, education, and other resources. Many bands were already struggling with scarce resources, and adding more members could exacerbate these problems. - **Funding Issues:** Indian bands receive government funding based on the number of registered band members. The return of previously disenfranchised women could increase the band population, but funding levels might not keep pace with the growing demand for services, leading to further financial strain. - **Disruption of Social Structures:** Some bands felt that the reinstatement of women who had married non-Indigenous men could disrupt traditional family and community structures. There was also concern that the return of these women, who may have lived outside the community for many years, could alter the social and cultural dynamics within the band. - The Native Women's Association of Canada supports the attainment of Native self-government as a political priority, but thinks that there is a fundamental prerequisite to the attainment of that objective. Discuss this prerequisite, and the position of the Association toward it. (Krosenbrink-Gelissen) - NWAC argues that true self-government cannot be attained until Indigenous women are guaranteed equal rights and representation. - How does the Native Women's Association of Canada define sexual equality? (Krosenbrink-Gelissen) - is primarily concerned with constitutional protection of Aboriginal women's rights. The Association considers law a valid instru- ment with which to seek changes in women's positions within their own communities. Constitutional law is considered fundamental, since federal legislation and administrative proce- dures, as set out in the *Indian Act,* cannot be resolved before the constitutional rights of women are resolved. - What categories of Indian people are created under Bill C-31? (Krosenbrink-Gelissen) - **Reinstated Indians:** Indian women who lost their status due to sex discrimination before Bill C-31 and were reinstated under the Bill, along with their children. - Status Indians with Fewer than Two Indian Grandparents: Section 6(2) of the Indian Act still affects individuals with fewer than two Indian grandparents. This provision affects children born after the bill\'s enactment and children of women, but not men, who married out before 1985. - The Native Women's Association of Canada was not represented at the First Ministers' constitutional conferences. How did the Association influence constitutional changes that affected the interests of Native women? (Krosenbrink-Gelissen) - it influenced constitutional changes affecting Native women through: **Advocacy and Lobbying:** Pushing for the inclusion of women\'s rights in constitutional reforms. **Public Campaigns:** Raising awareness about issues affecting Native women. **Legal Challenges:** Addressing gender discrimination and pushing for legal reforms. **Collaboration:** Working with other organizations to advocate for changes. - Royal Commission on Aboriginal People. [Excerpt from Chapter 2, Women's Perspectives](http://drr2.lib.athabascau.ca/index.php?c=node&m=detail&n=26400) , reproduced in the DRR. - What was the nature of the roles held by Indigenous women in their societies prior to interaction with Euro-Canadian peoples? - Women were highly respected in many traditional Aboriginal societies; their thoughts and views were sought before decisions affecting the community were made. - In our community, the woman was defined as nourisher, and the man, protector, and as protector, he had the role of helper. He only reacted: she acted. She was responsible for the establishment of all the norms --- whether they were political, economic, social or spiritual - According to the Report of the Royal Commission, what has been the enduring impact of Canadian governmental policy and legislation on Indigenous women? - Loss of Status: Indigenous women who married non-Indigenous men lost their Indian status, which affected their rights and their children\'s rights, such as access to resources and community membership. - Economic and Social Disadvantages: The policies created significant economic hardships for Indigenous women, as they were often cut off from their communities, land, and resources. This led to increased poverty and social marginalization. - Diminished Role in Communities: Historically, many Indigenous societies were matrilineal or had women in significant leadership roles. Government policies undermined this, reducing the influence and power of Indigenous women within their communities. - Gender Discrimination: The Indian Act imposed patriarchal values that prioritized male authority, stripping women of traditional roles and rights, particularly in decision-making and political participation. - What effect did 1951 amendments to the *Indian Act* have on Indian women/children? - an Indian woman who married out would not only lose Indian status, she could also be enfranchised against her will as of the date of her marriage. - under the new rules, upon marriage she was not entitled to registration. Loss of the right under Canadian law to hold land on the reserve and loss of status for any children of the marriage. With the loss of status and membership came the forced sale or disposal of any reserve lands she may have held. Adding forced enfranchisement to loss of status meant that she was also struck off the band list and was no longer entitled to distributions of band moneys. Before these new provisions were introduced in 1951, women who had lost their Indian status through marrying out had often been able to retain their links to their communities. Unit 1 - Section 4: Terminology and Identity (web page) Study Questions (web page) - According to Diamond Jenness, what were some of the major causes of prejudice between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in Canada? (Jenness, pp. 158--159) - "the reserve or apartheid system which separated the Indians from the Whites and conferred on them a special status. It exempted them, for example, from the income and other taxes that their white neighbours paid, released them from any law-suits for debt, prohibited them from selling or renting any part of their reserves except through the government, and debarred them from the white man's privileges if purchasing alcoholic liquor." - What examples does Jenness cite to describe prejudice between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people? (Jenness, p. 159) - Economic status of the indians: their clothes were shabbier and inferior quality, their houses smaller and more ramshackle, when possessed any, model-T Fords whose clatter was audible half a mile away. - Lack of education, only some could speak fluent english or french and a high percent could not read or write. - To what does Jenness refer when he describes the "Apartheid system"? (Jenness, pp. 160--161) - Segregation: Indigenous peoples were kept separate from the rest of society. Some places even had the Jim Crow Law that wouldn't allow an indigenous person to walk beside a white person. - Discrimination: They faced unequal treatment in areas such as education, land rights, and political representation. They got paid less for the work that they did. - Control: The government imposed strict regulations on their lives and communities. - How was the policy of enfranchisement related to assimilation policies? (Jenness, pp. 161--162) - - Residential schools took kids to give them better education and life skills and would make them return to their reserves at 16 not connected to their people and not accepted by whites. - How does the "Declaration of The First Nations, 18 November, 1981" define Indigenous rights? (Jenness, p. 338) - Self-Governance: The right to govern themselves. Historical Rights: Rights that come from their long-standing connection to their lands and culture. Cultural Rights: The right to keep and practice their cultures and languages. Land Rights: The right to control and use their traditional lands. - How is colonialism defined in J. Rick Ponting's "Relations between Bands and the Department of Indians Affairs: A Case of Internal Colonialism?" (Ponting, pp. 85--86) - "beginning with the forced integration of the indigenous people into the dominant society on terms controlled by the dominant society. Second, under his definition of colonialism the colonizing power carries out a policy that constrains, transforms, or destroys the culture (and, we might add, the economy) of the indigenous people. Third, racism as a system of domination (and a justifying ideology) is said to characterize the society. Fourth, the members of the colonized group are said by Blauner to be administered by members of the dominant power, especially in such a way as to be managed and manipulated in terms of their ethnic status." - In the study presented by Ponting, what were the criticisms against the Department of Indian Affairs concerning self-administration, economic development, and the flow of information? (Ponting, pp. 87--98) - Self-Administration: Top-Down Control: The Department often imposed decisions on Indigenous communities rather than allowing them to manage their own affairs. For example, administrative decisions were frequently made by non-Indigenous officials with little input from Indigenous leaders. Limited Autonomy: Indigenous leaders complained about having to go through excessive bureaucratic red tape to get approval for basic community projects, stifling their ability to govern effectively. - Economic Development: Underfunded Programs: Economic development programs initiated by the Department often lacked adequate funding, leading to half-hearted projects that failed to address the real needs of Indigenous communities. For instance, some programs were set up but didn't offer the necessary resources or long-term support to create sustainable economic growth.Misguided Initiatives: The Department pushed economic projects that didn't align with local realities or cultural values, such as trying to force industries that weren't suitable for the environment or community interests. - Flow of Information: Delayed Communication: Indigenous leaders reported that important policy changes or funding decisions were not communicated in a timely manner, resulting in lost opportunities for planning or responding to critical needs. Opaque Processes: The decision-making processes were often unclear to Indigenous communities, leading to frustration and confusion about how to access support or appeal decisions. - What purpose does Ponting's parallel case study of the Newfoundland Workmen's Compensation Board serve? (Ponting, pp. 98--102) - case study of the Newfoundland Workmen's Compensation Board shows that the bureaucratic problems Indigenous communities face, like poor communication and top-down control, also affect other areas of government. It highlights that these issues are part of a wider pattern of inefficiency in Canadian governance, not just Indigenous affairs, and calls for broader reform. - What are Ponting's conclusions? (Ponting, pp. 102--109) - Ponting concludes that Indigenous communities need more self-governance, better communication with the government, and greater control over economic development. He calls for reforms that respect Indigenous rights and support community-led decision-making for a more equitable partnership with the government. **Unit 2: Section 1: Background to Treaties:** **Study Questions:** - How do treaty rights differ from Aboriginal rights? - **Treaty Rights**: These are specific rights that are negotiated and agreed upon in treaties between Indigenous groups and the government. They often pertain to land use, hunting, fishing, and self-governance. Treaty rights are legally binding and can vary widely depending on the terms of the individual treaty. - **Aboriginal Rights**: These are inherent rights that Indigenous peoples hold by virtue of their ancestral connection to the land, predating colonial laws. Aboriginal rights include broader claims to land, self-governance, and cultural practices. Unlike treaty rights, they do not depend on formal agreements but are recognized under common law and have been affirmed by courts. - What doctrines did European powers devise to rationalize their rule over Indian people in the New World? - **Doctrine of Discovery**: This principle held that European powers could claim lands they \"discovered\" if those lands were not occupied by Christians. Indigenous peoples were deemed to have lesser rights to the land. - **Terra Nullius**: This doctrine implied that lands not cultivated or visibly used according to European standards were considered \"empty\" and available for European powers to claim and colonize. - **Doctrine of Natural Rights**: European thinkers like Francisco de Vitoria argued that Europeans had \"natural rights\" to travel, trade, and even wage war in Indigenous territories if these rights were denied, thereby justifying European intrusion and control. - **Doctrine of Just War**: De Vitoria also suggested that Indigenous peoples could be conquered if they resisted European rights to access their lands, framing wars of conquest as \"just.\" - **Doctrine of Natural Slavery**: Promoted by philosophers like Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, this doctrine argued that some people were naturally suited to be slaves, justifying the subjugation and \"civilizing\" of Indigenous peoples by Europeans. - Contrast the arguments advanced by Las Casas and Sepúlveda about Indian sovereignty and title to land. - **Las Casas** argued that Indigenous peoples had sovereignty and deserved respect, advocating for their land rights. **Sepúlveda** believed Indigenous peoples were inferior and justified European colonization, claiming they needed European control to become \"civilized.\" - Outline the main provisions of the peace and friendship treaties with respect to: maintaining peace and settling disputes, trading of goods in Aboriginal lands, hunting, fishing, and fowling, acknowledging Aboriginal title and sovereignty. - Maintaining Peace and Settling Disputes: Aboriginal peoples agreed to maintain peace, lay down arms, and resolve disputes through colonial governments rather than private revenge. - Trading of Goods in Aboriginal Lands: Aboriginal peoples were allowed to trade with the English, but were often required to favor English traders and avoid trade with European rivals. - Hunting, Fishing, and Fowling: Aboriginal peoples retained the right to hunt, fish, and fowl on their lands as part of the treaty agreements. - Acknowledging Aboriginal Title and Sovereignty: Treaties often recognized Aboriginal title to land, liberties, and properties not already sold or possessed by English settlers, although sovereignty was frequently contested. - How did the rivalry between France and England affect the Aboriginal people's way of life before 1760? - Indigenous groups were drawn into European conflicts, forming alliances for survival. They played the powers against each other, but this often undermined their sovereignty and disrupted their traditional way of life. Indigenous people generally aligned with the French before 1760, as the French were more inclined to maintain trading relationships and were seen as less of a threat to Indigenous lands. However, some groups also allied with the English, especially when it benefited their interests or survival. Their alliances were often pragmatic, shifting based on which side offered the most advantage or posed the least threat. - How did gift giving become part of establishing friendly relations between Indian people and European powers? Discuss the different British and French views on gift giving. - Gift-giving was crucial for friendly relations between Indigenous peoples and Europeans. - British: Initially opposed gift-giving, later adopted it to prevent Indigenous alliances with the French. - French: Emphasised gift-giving to gain loyalty and counter British influence. - Briefly comment on Aboriginal diplomacy during the rivalry between the French and the British. - During the French-British rivalry, Aboriginal diplomacy involved strategic alliances and negotiations with both sides. Indigenous groups used their position to play the French and British against each other, seeking gifts and favourable terms while leveraging their support to protect their interests and lands. This diplomacy allowed them to navigate the complex power dynamics and maintain some control over their territories. - How does David McNab define "Colonial Office Indian policy"? (McNab, pp 85--86) - "Attempted to "insulate" the Micmac by confining them to Indian reserves, until they were ready for Indian assimilation. Its aim in Canada was "amalgamation"." - What was the priority for administrators of the Indian Department in the 1840s and 1850s? (McNab, p. 86) - "They aimed at all costs to prevent conflicts between the indigenous inhabitants and white settlers concerning specific issues related to land and labour." - What four alternatives were put forward to address the "native question" in 1841? (McNab, p. 87) - "Extermination, slavery, insulation and amalgamation." - How did Merivale and the Indian Department respond to requests from bands in Rupert's Land to enter into treaty negotiations in the 1850s? (McNab, pp. 92--96) - Pre-Treaty Relations: Aboriginal peoples and Europeans in Rupert's Land shared land and resources through trade. - Territorial Flexibility: Territories were defended but adapted to wildlife conservation and tribal strength. - Hudson\'s Bay Company: Claimed land around posts for the fur trade. - Resource Pressure: European settlement and Métis growth strained resources, especially buffalo. - Loss of Commons: Buffalo extinction led to the loss of shared lands. - Numbered Treaties: Began in 1870 amid changing land-use pressures. **Unit 2: section 3 meaning of treaties** 1. What is the significance of the *Royal Proclamation of 1763* to treaties made with Indian people? a. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 is significant to treaties with Indigenous peoples because it recognized Indigenous land rights, required that land could only be acquired through formal treaties with the Crown, and established the legal framework for treaty-making. It remains a foundational document in Canadian law regarding Indigenous land rights and sovereignty. 2. According to Opekokew, the treaties confirmed certain principles and guaranteed certain rights in perpetuity. Outline and discuss five of these principles and rights. b. **Land Sharing and Use**: The treaties established that Indigenous peoples would share their lands with the Crown and settlers but retain the right to use and occupy them. This principle ensured that Indigenous groups could continue traditional activities like hunting, fishing, and gathering on their lands. c. **Right to Self-Government**: The treaties often included recognition of Indigenous political autonomy and self-governance. Indigenous peoples were seen as independent nations with their own laws and leadership structures, and treaties confirmed their right to govern their communities and lands. d. **Protection of Indigenous Lands**: The treaties guaranteed that the Crown would protect Indigenous lands from encroachment and ensure that lands would not be taken without proper consent. This principle was based on mutual respect and promised to safeguard the territorial rights of Indigenous peoples. e. **Economic Support and Compensation**: Many treaties included provisions for financial compensation, annuities, or resources, such as tools, livestock, or money. These were intended to help Indigenous communities transition to new ways of life, such as farming, while maintaining their economic stability. f. **Health Care and Education**: Some treaties guaranteed the provision of social services, such as health care and education, as part of the Crown\'s obligations to support Indigenous communities. These services were meant to improve the quality of life for Indigenous peoples while respecting their cultural values. 3. Indian people have argued in litigation that the federal government has not lived up to its legal and moral responsibilities in the implementation of the treaties made with Indian people. Identify and describe key examples of outright breaches of the federal government's treaty obligations. (Opekokew) g. **Land Appropriation Without Consent**: One of the most significant breaches is the government taking control of Indigenous lands without proper consultation or consent, as required by treaties. Indigenous peoples often found their lands sold, leased, or used for development without fair compensation or adherence to the original agreements, violating treaty obligations to protect Indigenous lands. h. **Failure to Provide Adequate Economic Support**: Many treaties promised economic support, such as financial compensation, tools, livestock, and assistance with farming or other means of livelihood. The government frequently failed to deliver these resources in a timely or sufficient manner, leaving many Indigenous communities economically disadvantaged and unable to transition to the promised new ways of living. i. **Denial of Education and Social Services**: Treaties often included guarantees for health care, education, and other social services to support Indigenous communities. However, the government has been criticized for failing to provide adequate education systems, underfunding Indigenous schools, and failing to ensure access to quality health care, leaving many Indigenous communities underserved. j. **Imposing Colonial Governance Systems**: In violation of the treaties that respected Indigenous self-governance, the federal government imposed the Indian Act and other colonial systems of governance on Indigenous peoples. This undermined traditional leadership structures and imposed external control over Indigenous communities, in direct conflict with treaty promises of autonomy. k. **Mismanagement of Resources**: Indigenous peoples have accused the government of mismanaging the resources, such as lands and natural wealth, that were supposed to be shared or protected under the treaties. This includes the exploitation of timber, minerals, and other resources on Indigenous lands without proper compensation or consultation, breaching the spirit of treaty agreements. 4. What reasons could one give to argue that the views expressed by the British, American, and Canadian courts on treaties made with Indian people are merely European views? l. **Colonial Legal Framework**: The courts apply European-based legal systems and principles, such as contract law, to interpret treaties. These systems often prioritize written agreements and legal doctrines that are foreign to Indigenous traditions, which emphasize oral agreements, relationships, and community responsibilities. Thus, Indigenous understandings of treaties may be ignored or minimized in favor of European legal interpretations. m. **Eurocentric Worldview**: The courts tend to view treaties through a Eurocentric lens, which emphasizes land ownership and control. In contrast, many Indigenous cultures view land not as something to be owned but as something to be shared and cared for collectively. This fundamental difference in worldview can lead to the courts misinterpreting the spirit and intent of the treaties. n. **Power Imbalance**: The treaties were often negotiated under conditions of coercion or imbalance of power, where Indigenous nations were pressured to sign agreements with colonial powers. The courts generally fail to account for these power dynamics, treating the treaties as agreements made between equal parties, which aligns with European concepts of sovereignty but disregards the reality of Indigenous experiences. o. **Focus on Written Text**: European legal systems place a heavy emphasis on the written word, whereas Indigenous peoples often relied on oral traditions and understandings. By focusing only on the written versions of treaties, courts overlook the oral promises and understandings that were integral to Indigenous conceptions of these agreements, reducing the treaties to European-style contracts. p. **Doctrine of Discovery**: Many court rulings are influenced by the **Doctrine of Discovery**, a European legal principle that justified the colonization of lands inhabited by non-Christians. This doctrine, rooted in European imperialism, disregards Indigenous sovereignty and assumes European superiority, often framing treaties as tools of land acquisition rather than mutual agreements between nations. 5. How do Leslie Green and Delia Opekokew differ in their views of the importance of interpretation in treaties made with Indian people? ### Leslie Green's View ### Delia Opekokew's View ### Key Differences: 1. 2. 3. 6. What does Leroy Little Bear mean by the "Grundnorm approach"? (Little Bear, pp. 243--244) 1. 2. 3. 4. 7. What four points does Leroy Little Bear use to describe what Indians surrendered in the Treaty negotiations? (Little Bear, pp. 246--247) Leroy Little Bear describes four key points regarding what Indigenous peoples surrendered during treaty negotiations. These points reflect the misunderstandings and differing perspectives between Indigenous peoples and the Crown. According to Little Bear, Indigenous peoples did not intend to surrender the full scope of their rights and sovereignty, but the interpretation of the treaties by the colonial powers suggested otherwise. The four points are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 8. According to Leroy Little Bear, what is the importance of treaties with regard to rights and title to land in Canada? How does he interpret treaties and land title? (Little Bear, pp. 251--253) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 9. Using the case law Leroy Little Bear provides as examples, describe how the Canadian Courts have interpreted treaty rights. (Little Bear, pp. 251--255) ### **1. St. Catherine's Milling and Lumber Company v. The Queen (1888)** - - ### **2. R. v. Syliboy (1929)** - - ### **3. Calder v. Attorney-General of British Columbia (1973)** - - ### **4. R. v. Sioui (1990)** - - ### **5. R. v. Sparrow (1990)** - - ### **Summary of Interpretation by Canadian Courts:** - - - **Unit 2: section 4 The Numbered Treaties, 1871--1923** **INST 203: Unit three notes: Section 1: What's in a Name? The Emergence of the Métis** **Study questions:** 1. How, according to Olive Dickason, have historians, especially Quebec historians, determined that *métissage* did not lead to the emergence of a "New Nation" in Northeast Canada? (Dickason, pp. 20--21) - **They have largely ignored the existence of the eastern métis.** This is particularly true of Quebec historians, culminating with Lionel Groulx, who denied the existence of Amerindian ancestry in the modern French-Canadian community. - **They have focused on the lack of officially recorded intermarriages.** Historians like Emile Salone, using Cyprien Tanguay's genealogy, found only four French-Amerindian marriages in the 17th century. Salone believed such marriages were not tolerated because missionaries opposed them, and that métis children were left to their tribes. - **They have downplayed the significance of racial mixing even when they acknowledged it.** Marcel Trudel, for example, based his estimate of *métissage* in 1663 on what he could find explicitly stated in official records, and believed intermarriage fell out of favour in New France because of the poor quality of the offspring. 2. What was the policy of the Company of New France on the assimilation or "Frenchification" of Indigenous people? (Dickason, p. 22) - **A belief in the inherent "whiteness" of Indigenous people**: It was widely thought that Indigenous people were white underneath their tanned skin, which would make them easier to assimilate. - **The need for a workforce**: France was hesitant to depopulate its homeland by sending large groups of colonists overseas. A smaller group of colonists could potentially create more French subjects by intermarrying with Indigenous populations. - **Demographic concerns**: Memories of the Black Death\'s devastation lingered, and a larger population was seen as crucial for national power. 3. What was marriage *à la façon du pays*? What was the attitude of the church in New France to such marriages? (Dickason, pp. 22--23) - Marriage *à la façon du pays*, meaning \"according to the custom of the country,\" refers to marriages conducted according to Indigenous customs rather than Christian rites. - Missionaries actively worked to regularise these informal unions by: **Baptising native brides**, ideally before the marriage ceremony. **Formalising the union** according to Christian ritual. **Ensuring the children were baptised and raised within the colonial community.** - **A rebellion for indigenous peoples to keep their culture.** 4. What social and economic benefits resulted from intermarriage for Amerindians and the French in Acadia during the fur trade period? (Dickason, pp. 23--24) - **Strengthened Trading Alliances, Access to Essential Skills and Knowledge, Military and Diplomatic Advantages, Social Integration and Stability.** 5. What political and military benefits did the French derive from *métissage* in Acadia? (Dickason, pp. 25--27) - **Stronger Alliances with Indigenous Groups:** The sources state that intermarriage between French men and Amerindian women helped to forge and strengthen alliances between the French and the Micmac, Malecite and Abenaki peoples. These alliances, rooted in kinship ties, proved crucial for the French in their conflicts with the English. - **Access to Valuable Military Skills and Knowledge:** The sources highlight the military value of the offspring from mixed marriages. These individuals, often raised in both French and Amerindian cultures, possessed valuable military skills and knowledge, particularly in guerilla warfare tactics and knowledge of the local terrain. - **Influence over Indigenous Allies:** Intermarriage provided the French with a significant degree of influence over their Indigenous allies. 6. Why did missionaries in Acadia encourage intermarriage between Amerindians and the French? (Dickason, p. 27) - **Conversion and Expansion of the Faith, Assimilation into the Colony, Stabilisation of Marriages and Family Life, Addressing the Shortage of French Women, Creating a Workforce for the Colony.** 7. Which region of North America is referred to as the "Old Northwest"? (Dickason, pp. 28 and 30) - **\"Old Northwest\"** as the region encompassing the **Great Lakes and the Ohio Valley**. 8. Why was it that the *métis* of the Old Northwest did not emerge as a "New Nation"? (Dickason, p. 30) - **Rapid Influx of Settlers, Shifting French Policies and Attitudes, Intensified Anglo-French Rivalry, Lack of Sustained Economic and Political Power.** 9. Discuss the circumstances that favoured the emergence of a New Nation in the region of Canada referred to as the "Far Northwest." (Dickason, pp. 30--31) - **Isolation and Slow Settlement, The Enduring Importance of the Fur Trade, The Influence of the North West Company, The Arrival of Settlers as a Catalys, Anglo-French Rivalry** 10. What does Foster mean by the "classical image" of the Métis in the pre-1870 West? - refers to the widely accepted idea of what a Métis person was before 1870. This image focused on the French-speaking, Roman Catholic, buffalo-hunting Métis from the Red River Settlement. - this \"classical image\" came from the Métis' unique role as brokers in the fur trade, linking Indigenous and European communities. However, he points out that this view doesn't represent all mixed-ancestry peoples of the time. 11. What was the French tradition of the fur trade? (Foster) - The French tradition of the fur trade, as described by Foster, was based in the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes region and was very different from the Hudson Bay system. It focused on building alliances with Indigenous groups to gain access to furs and block European rivals, using a mix of trade, diplomacy, and family ties. - Key points: - The French actively traveled to Indigenous territories for trade instead of waiting for furs to be brought to them. - They formed strong social bonds with Indigenous groups, often through marriage or adoption, to create trust and partnerships. - The \"Indian trader,\" often of mixed ancestry, was a key figure who acted as a middleman between Indigenous and French traders. - Families with mixed ancestry played an important role, forming alliances that helped maintain the fur trade system. - This approach emphasized relationships and kinship, unlike the Hudson Bay system, which relied on Indigenous trading chiefs for their exchanges. 12. Who were the *coureurs de bois*? (Foster) - Coureurs de bois, or \"wood runners,\" were early fur traders in the French system who traveled into the wilderness to trade with Indigenous groups. After the Iroquois destroyed Huronia in 1649-50, the French relied on them to maintain alliances and keep the fur trade going. - Key points: - They were skilled in trading, diplomacy, and building relationships with Indigenous groups, often through marriage or adoption. - They acted as early \"Indian traders,\" connecting Indigenous bands and the French. - Over time, their roles split into voyageurs (focused on transport) and commandant-traders (ran trading posts), but their work as brokers between cultures remained essential. - The coureurs de bois helped create the social and kinship ties that were the backbone of the French fur trade system. 13. Identify the people Foster calls the "Home Guard Indians." What was their importance in the emergence of a mixed population in Western Canada? - The \"Home Guard Indians,\" as described by Foster, were Indigenous groups who lived near fur trading posts in Western Canada and formed close relationships with European traders. These groups often provided essential services to the fur trade, such as supplying food, acting as guides, and assisting in the preparation of furs for trade. - children of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry were associated with their mother\'s way of life. If the mother remained within her Indigenous community, the child was considered \"Indian\" or \"Native\". This suggests that relationships between Home Guard Cree women and European traders could have contributed to a mixed population within Indigenous communities. 14. How did matrilocality determine the ethnic identification of children of mixed parentage? (Foster) - Matrilocality, where children were raised in their mother's community, played a big role in deciding the ethnic identity of children with mixed European and Indigenous parents. - Key points: - If the mother stayed in her Indigenous band, the child was seen as \"Indian\" or \"Native.\" - If they lived near a trading post for a long time, the child might be identified as \"Canadien,\" \"Scots,\" or \"English,\" depending on the post. - For example, the Inksetter brothers, raised at a Hudson's Bay post, were called \"English,\" but when they moved to live with Indigenous groups, they became \"Indian\" or \"Native.\" - Matrilocality ensured children grew up with their mother's culture, shaping their identity and sense of belonging. This was different from European traditions, which focused on the father's lineage. 15. Which group of people of mixed parentage became known as the "New Nation"? How did they acquire this name? (Foster) - The Métis of the Red and Assiniboine River valleys became known as the "New Nation." - This name emerged in the early 19th century due to: - **Buffalo hunting and trade:** They supplied pemmican and dried meat to fur traders, becoming vital to the fur trade. - **Influence of the North West Company:** The company encouraged the Métis to see themselves as a unified group to oppose Selkirk settlers and the Hudson's Bay Company. - **The Battle of Seven Oaks (1815):** This conflict strengthened the Métis\' sense of unity and identity, giving them a shared history and a vision for the future. - The term \"New Nation\" reflected their growing self-awareness and distinct identity, even though it was partly created to serve the North West Company\'s interests. 16. How did Indian people who were brought to the Canadian West from Eastern Canada come to be classified as Métis? (Foster) - Indian people who were brought to the Canadian West from Eastern Canada were classified as Métis due to the blending of cultures and the social practices they adopted in the fur trade. - Key points: - These individuals often intermarried with European fur traders or Indigenous groups in the West, forming families of mixed ancestry. - As they became more integrated into the fur trade economy, they adopted some of the social and economic practices of the Métis, like buffalo hunting and trading. - Over time, their mixed heritage and involvement in the fur trade led to them being grouped with other Métis people, even though they came from different backgrounds. - In essence, their identification as Métis was shaped by their involvement in the fur trade, their mixed ancestry, and the new social roles they took on in the West. 17. What is Frits Pannekoek's thesis on relationships between Catholic Métis and Protestant Halfbreeds at Red River before 1870? (Spry, p. 95) - the tension between Catholic Métis and Protestant Halfbreeds at Red River started long before the 1869-70 Red River Resistance led by Louis Riel. He argues that this conflict, which was based on religious and racial divisions, was rooted in the society at Red River and played a big role in causing the Resistance. Pannekoek believes these deep-rooted conflicts, rather than outside influences from Canadians, were a key factor in the first Riel resistance. 18. What are some of the examples from primary documents that Spry gives to support a friendly relationship between the Métis and the Halfbreeds? (Spry, pp. 96--100) - Irene M. Spry argues against Pannekoek\'s view by showing evidence that the Métis and Halfbreeds at Red River had friendly relationships. Some examples from primary sources include: - **Shared language**: Métis and Halfbreeds often spoke a mix of English, French, and Indigenous languages, showing they communicated and interacted. For example, a Métis cart train south of Red River had drivers speaking a mix of languages. - **Intermarriage**: Spry notes that Protestant parish records show many marriages between people with French and non-French names, suggesting intermingling between the groups, even though some marriages weren\'t officially recorded. - **Social interactions**: Sources like *Women of Red River* mention shared social events and activities, such as parties and school attendance, involving both Métis and Halfbreeds. - **Economic cooperation**: Spry highlights instances where Métis and Halfbreeds worked together in the fur trade, freighting, and buffalo hunting, showing they collaborated economically. - **Joint political action**: She provides examples of Métis and Halfbreeds uniting in protests against the Hudson\'s Bay Company, demonstrating shared political interests. - Spry concludes that while there were divisions, they were more about socio-economic differences than ethnic or religious ones. 19. What other examples does Spry give to support a friendly relationship between the Métis and the Halfbreeds? (Spry pp. 102--110) - Spry gives more examples to show that the Métis and Halfbreeds had friendly relationships: - **Working together on projects**: Métis and Halfbreeds often teamed up for various ventures, such as Arctic explorations and boundary surveys. For example, John Rae\'s Arctic expeditions and the \"49th Rangers\" on the Boundary Survey included both groups. There was also a pleasure party led by Lord Dunmore with Métis and Halfbreeds working together. - **Shared emigration experiences**: In 1841, a group led by James Sinclair moved to the Columbia River. The group had almost equal numbers of French and non-French individuals, showing cooperation between the two groups. - **Challenging the Hudson\'s Bay Company**: Both Métis and Halfbreeds worked together to challenge the HBC\'s control over the fur trade. They signed petitions and protested together, including a 1845 petition with both French and non-French names, and others in both English and French in 1846. - **Common struggles**: Spry points out that the younger Métis and Halfbreeds shared frustrations about their lack of opportunities and power in Red River. They both wanted free trade and political recognition, and they had a similar lifestyle focused on hunting, trading, and adapting to the land. The arrival of settlers and new land rules threatened their way of life, uniting them in their concerns for the future. - Overall, Spry shows that while there were some differences, Métis and Halfbreeds worked together and shared many common interests and challenges. **Section 2: First Nations Women and the Emergence of the Métis** **Study questions:** 1. What is your understanding of the term "matriorganization" as used by Jennifer Brown? How does it help to trace the family histories of the Métis? - "Matriorganisation," a term used by Jennifer Brown, refers to a social system where women play a central role in organizing and leading families or communities. It involves two main ideas: - **Matrilocality**: Where a man moves to live with his wife\'s family after marriage. - **Matrilineality**: Where family heritage is passed down through the mother\'s side. - Brown suggests that this system was common in Subarctic Indigenous groups and may have continued in Métis communities. By studying matriorganisation, we can learn more about Métis family histories: - **Residence patterns**: Looking at how families were structured, with women often staying in the same place while men moved, helps us understand how Métis families grew and formed. - **Tracing ancestry**: By focusing on the maternal side, we can trace Métis lineage back through female ancestors, revealing connections to both Indigenous and European backgrounds. - **Women\'s roles**: Matriorganisation highlights the importance of women in Métis communities, which is often overlooked in history focused on male figures. - **Maternal filiation**: Children's identities and rights were often linked to their mothers, which helped Métis people claim Indigenous status and inheritance, even if European laws didn't recognize it. - **Motherhood\'s symbolic importance**: The role of mothers is central in Métis identity, as seen in figures like Louis Riel, who emphasized the importance of motherhood and the idea of the Northwest being a \"motherland.\" 2. Describe the distinction between matrilocality and patrifocality. (Brown) - **Matrilocality**: Where a man moves to live with his wife\'s family after marriage. - **Patrifocality** focuses on the father\'s role in the family. In some fur trade families, fathers had more control and made decisions about which children were educated and how they were raised. Sons were often sent away for schooling, while daughters stayed in the community, helping to grow the Métis population. 3. When did the Métis start thinking of themselves as a "New Nation"? How did maternal filiation influence their thinking on this? (Brown) - The Métis began to see themselves as a "New Nation" in the early 19th century, especially during conflicts between the Hudson's Bay Company and the North West Company in the Red River Settlement. This period brought up questions about Métis identity, with both the Métis and others debating who they were. - One key influence on this idea of a "New Nation" was **maternal filiation**, which means that children trace their identity through their mothers. Under British law, Métis children were often denied rights from their fathers, but this helped the Métis claim their Indigenous heritage through their mothers. For example, William McGillivray, a Métis, argued that since they couldn't claim rights from their fathers, they should still be recognized as a distinct group based on their maternal connections. This helped the Métis see themselves as a unique and independent people with their own identity and rights. 4. Define the term "enculturation." How were the Country-born enculturated in patrilocal families of European fur traders? (Van Kirk, pp. 207--208) - "enculturation" is the process by which individuals learn and adopt the values, beliefs, and behaviours of their culture. - In patrilocal families of European fur traders, the **Country-born** (mixed-blood children) were encouraged to adopt the British Protestant culture of their fathers. Their fathers, with help from the church and schools, focused on raising them to be part of the British community, even though they lived in a remote part of the Empire. Marriage, particularly to white men, was seen as an important step in this process, showing their connection to British society. 5. Using the daughters of the Alexander Ross family as an example, explain what usually happened to Country-born British--Indian women in Rupert's Land. (Van Kirk, pp. 208--210) - Four of the six Ross daughters who reached adulthood married white men, which helped the family be seen as \"British\" and connected them to the \"progress\" of the Red River area. These marriages also gave the women a chance to move up socially and be accepted by the white community. 6. What was the attitude of the Red River colony élite toward Country-born children? - The Red River elite had complex, often prejudiced attitudes toward Country-born children. - Country-born families, like the Rosses, tried to assimilate into British Protestant culture. - Despite efforts, the Country-born faced racial prejudice from the white community. - The Ross children, including Henrietta and Jemima, experienced disapproval and prejudice due to their mixed heritage. - Even if some Country-born families gained social standing, they were still not fully accepted. - The prejudice stemmed from racist beliefs about mixed-race individuals and their place in society. 7. What does Van Kirk mean by James Ross's "crisis of identity"? How did Ross's actions in 1869--70 alienate British--Indian people and other Canadians in the Red River colony? (Van Kirk, pp. 213--216) - James Ross\'s \"crisis of identity\" refers to his internal struggle during the Red River Resistance of 1869--70. He was torn between his loyalty to both the Canadian and Métis communities, feeling conflicted due to racism and his mixed-blood heritage. - Ross grew up in a family trying to integrate into white society and had a good education and a white wife, but still faced prejudice because of his mixed ancestry. - When the Red River Resistance began, Ross initially supported Canada, but later sided with Louis Riel and the Métis, partly due to shared Indigenous heritage and the racism he faced from Canadians. - His decision to support Riel caused tension. Many in the British--Indian community felt he betrayed them, and Canadians saw his actions as treason. - Ross ended up alienating both groups, leaving him isolated and struggling with alcohol and health problems. - His story highlights the challenges mixed-race people faced in a society divided by racial boundaries, where assimilation was difficult and they were rejected by both sides. Study Questions: 1. What similarities does Jacqueline Peterson present between the Métis at Red River and the Métis in the Great Lakes region? (Peterson, pp. 37--40) - Jacqueline Peterson compares the Métis at Red River and the Métis in the Great Lakes region by highlighting key similarities: - **Shared Identity**: Peterson argues that the Métis \"nation\" at Red River wasn't new but built on a shared identity that had developed earlier in the Great Lakes region. - **Fur Trade**: Both groups were deeply involved in the fur trade, with communities often forming around trading posts. - **Intermarriage**: The Métis in both regions developed through the intermarriage between European fur traders and Indigenous women, creating a unique mixed-race culture blending European and Indigenous elements. - **Growing Métis Identity**: By the early 1800s, both regions had developed a strong sense of Métis identity based on shared heritage and the fur trade. The Métis had established a network of communities across these areas, leading to a nationalist movement at Red River. - **Influence of the Great Lakes Métis**: Peterson suggests that the Métis communities in the Great Lakes region helped shape the Red River Métis nation, as their shared history and identity laid the groundwork for the development of Métis nationalism. 2. What was the impetus for the emergence of the Métis in the Great Lakes area? (Peterson, pp. 41--45) - The emergence of the Métis in the Great Lakes area was driven by several factors: - **French Fur Trade**: In the early 18th century, the French set up trading posts across the region, which became key spots for interaction and intermarriage between European fur traders and Indigenous women. This created the foundation for Métis communities. - **Lack of Agricultural Settlement**: The French didn't encourage large-scale farming, focusing instead on military-mission centers. This helped maintain the fur trade's importance and kept fur traders isolated, relying on Indigenous communities for support. - **French Fur Traders**: Many French fur traders, including outlaws (coureurs de bois), settled in the region, married Indigenous women, and formed families. These early mixed communities were the foundation for future Métis settlements. - **Strategic Location of Michilimackinac**: Michilimackinac became a major fur trading hub, drawing traders and Indigenous peoples together, which encouraged intermarriage and the growth of a Métis population. - **British Control**: After the British took control in 1763, the pattern of intermarriage continued. British policies still discouraged widespread settlement, and many Métis families moved to form new communities like Frenchtown on the River Raisin. - **Variety of Métis Communities**: By the late 18th century, Métis settlements ranged in size, from larger trading centers like Michilimackinac to smaller family-run posts, all relying on the fur trade and strong ties to Indigenous communities. - Overall, the fur trade, French and British policies, and intermarriage created the conditions for the development of Métis communities in the Great Lakes region, with a unique mixed heritage that shaped their identity. 3. According to Peterson, what eventually led to the disintegration of Métis settlements in the Great Lakes area? (Peterson, p. 64) - several factors led to the decline of Métis settlements in the Great Lakes area: - **Geographic Mobility**: While the Métis\' mobility helped with the fur trade, it made their communities spread out and lacking unity. This made it hard to resist American expansion. - **Ties to Indigenous Tribes**: The Métis had strong connections with various Indigenous tribes, but this became a problem as American settlers encroached on Indigenous lands. The Métis were caught between their Indigenous connections and the pressure from American settlers. - **Lack of Property Rights**: The Métis didn't have a strong sense of individual land ownership, which made them vulnerable to land speculators. Their communal way of using land clashed with American land laws, allowing speculators to take their land. - **Decline of the Fur Trade**: As the fur trade declined, the Métis lost their main economic base. The new American settlers brought opportunities, but these often benefited the settlers more than the Métis. - **American Settlers and Capitalism**: The influx of American settlers overwhelmed the Métis, bringing new values and economic practices that displaced traditional Métis ways of life, leading to their marginalization. - Overall, a combination of these factors, including the decline of the fur trade and American expansion, caused the disintegration of Métis settlements in the Great Lakes region. This shift coincided with the rise of the Métis nation at Red River.