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THE CELTS (SOSAIETY) ca 700 BC (iron age) - 43AD From: north-western Germany  They were tribes (traibs)of warriors (Guerrieri); they gradually settled in Britain between 500 and 100 BC.  They were hunters, fishermen and metal workers. Iron was used because it was cheap and easily available. The Celt...

THE CELTS (SOSAIETY) ca 700 BC (iron age) - 43AD From: north-western Germany  They were tribes (traibs)of warriors (Guerrieri); they gradually settled in Britain between 500 and 100 BC.  They were hunters, fishermen and metal workers. Iron was used because it was cheap and easily available. The Celts practiced agriculture and introduced the iron plough. They lived in small villages or in farming communities (a farming comunity)(comunità agricole) but sometimes they built (bilt)hill forts. These were groups of houses built on the top of a hill, surrounded (sorraunded) (circondate) by banks and ditches (fossi). The people there lived in huts (capanne) made of wood with thatched roofs (tetto a capanna). The basic unit of Celtic life was the clan. The chieftains (ciftains) were the leaders of the Celtic clans. (Anche militarmente) (sacrificavano gli uomini) They worshipped the natural elements (plants, in particular the oak, water, moon, sun) and the rites were performed by the Druids.  Celtic women had more rights and a more equal status to men: they could choose the man they wanted to marry and have their own property. (they had the right to give their opinion) Druid: doctor, teachers, magician, priests, they administered justice and were responsible for the education of the young. (intellectual/intelligence part of the society) Bard: one for each village, he sang, he is like a poet (a bard rappresent the literature (litteraciur)in the village) THE ROMANS  43-409 The conquest of Britain began in the years 43-47 AD under Emperor Claudius. Towns had public baths, which were open to everyone, and were centers of commercial activity. (They copy the social, the urban and political organization in Britain as Rome. The imported the same) The Romans also built roads, and they built the first “London Bridge''(bridgh) which became the central point for the new network of roads. They called their settlement, on the north side of the bridge: “Londinium”. (they had some places) The most important monument was the Hadrian’s Wall, (also(oulso) antonine) constructed as a defensive fortification and a commercial barrier (barriera commerciale/doganale); it ran/ goes from the east(ist) coast to the west coast (between England and Scotland). In 409 AD, Emperor Honorius withdrew (ritirò) his soldiers to defend Rome against (agenst) Barbarian raiders. (conquerors- concherors) The Romanized Celts (=Britons) were left alone to fight against the Anglo-Saxon peoples from Germany and Scandinavia, who invaded the island in the 5 century and destroyed the Roman British towns. The Romans were Pagans. Then they became Christians, and the Celt followed their religion. HADRIAN’S WALL:  117.5 km long ---- Constructed between 122-125 AD  ----- 4,4 meters high ----3 meters wide ---- Every mile there is a gate (portone) ---- Every gate have two tower ---- A fort every 7 miles ---- 15, 000 men employed Roman weapons in Britain ---- Destroyed in 409 ROMAN BATH: The original name was AQUAE SULIS, le acque di minerva. Minerva was the guard of loyalty and hot springs. They believed that the hot water could help to recover from pregnancy. THE ANGLO-SAXONS From: Scandinavia more precisely(presaisly) Denmark and southern Sweden. (came) Where: in Britain (At that time in Britain there were several peoples: Scots, Picts, Jutes, Anglesaxons) Why: They went to Britain because their land was always flooded (alluvionata) and because Celts asked Anglo Saxons to help defend themselves from the attacks of the Scots and the Pits. The land was also more fertile: rich in gold and silver. When: 410 AD - 1066 AD (the Normans conquered Britain) The Anglo-Saxons (and Jutes) were Germanic tribes. They lived in wooden houses which they built near rivers and were made of wood; the animals lived there. The houses had just one room and there weren't any windows. There was a fire in the middle and a hole in the ceiling. They built great halls in the center of their villages. Unless (they were) rich families, boys never went to school. At ten years old they were considered adults, so they had all the responsibilities and had to work. The women followed all the stuff in the house like cheese making, ale brewing (beer making – ale is a kind of beer). The men instead breed animals, cattle (=bestiame) => cattle breeding. They also cut the wood. (chores- faccende) Most of them were farmers and breeders. They cultivated the lands. They were divided into clans (big family groups). They live from agriculture (used plough), farming (had cattle) and working metals. They were deep-sea fishermen who hunted(cacciare) seals (foche) and whales (balene).  They were craftsmen (= artisan and metal workers), in particular smiths (=fabbro) and goldsmiths (=orefici). Animals bred: smaller cows and pigs, not many donkeys, poultry (=pollame: oche, chickens, duck). Animals weren’t mainly bred for meat but for eggs, milk, leather (=pelle) and fat. From fat they produced tallow (=sego) used to make candles because wax (=cera) was too expensive and available in little quantities.  Meat wasn’t eaten too much. They were mainly vegetarian, red meat was just for rich people. They ate meat only when the animal died and from the fat of animals they created wax for candles, the name was tallow. Anglo-Saxons ate foods such as red meat (only for the richest that ate game (selvaggina) and dry fish (exported from Scandinavia). (To cook) They also used species (coriander (coriandolo) and ginger (zenzero)); they ate garlic, onion, and leek. They also ate peas and beans. They ate different cereals, such as: oats (avena), barley (orzo, con cui facevano anche la birra), wheat (grano), rye (segale) and einkorn (tipo particolare di grano). These cereals were planted in furrow (solco nel terreno) Also, for the Anglo-Saxons water was not a common drink, because it came from the spring and was not safe. They mainly drank beer, wine, and mead (alcoholic drink, made with honey). (made of honey by women) Sutton Hoo: in 1939 in Suffolk, England, (it was discovrd)an archaeological discovery was made in Sutton Hoo. Under a large burial mound (tomba a tumulo), there was the outline of a ship with treasures inside it like helmet, coins, and objects in gold e silver. The ship burial contained(containd)) (from that age) helmet → the eyebrows, the nose and moustache form the shape of a bird or a dragon. sword (spada)→ made of iron. shield →on the front of the shield there were two emblems: a large bird of prey and a dragon. Language: They were almost illiterate, and they used only the runic alphabet for craving inscriptions on stone or metals, not for writing long records. The language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons is called (cold)Old English. Religion: At first, they were pagans and then Pope Gregory I the Great sent a monk, Augustine, to bring Christianity back to England. Augustine went first to Canterbury and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was the first to use the word “Angle-Land” (the root name of England). They believed in magic. (Also because the romans cristianaise) Heptarchy: Heptarchy is a form of government of 7 kingdoms in which the Anglo-Saxons from Great Britain settled.  After the Anglo-Saxon invasions, the Britons took refuge in Scotland, Ireland, and Wales (waeles- land of foreigners). By the beginning of the 7 century the rest of the country was divided into seven main kingdoms. These kingdoms were constantly at war with each other, so 3 or 4 bigger kingdoms incorporated the smaller. These were called the Heptarchy, and some of them still mark counties or regional names to this day. The three largest kingdoms, Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex had become the most powerful by the middle of the 7th century. (loro erano costantemente in guerra) East Anglia (East Angles), Essex (East Saxons), Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex (South Saxons) and Wessex (West Saxons) VIKING (come from Denmark) (vaiking) The name “Viking” is an Anglo-Saxon word, in fact they call themselves with the name “Dane” or “Norse”(to call) that means “people of the nord”. The name Viking came from Wic, that means camp. (accampamento) (the place viking came from) The vikings were very skilled sailors and shipbuilders. They built a particular kind of boat called longboat that allowed them to cross the sea. Karvi boats were used for commercial reasons, Dreki boats, instead, were war ships with a dragon or a snake on the bow (prua). The navigation was usually near the coast, but they crossed the sea. Their attacks were mainly in the summer, in the good season when the sea was able to be crossed and, in the winter, they returned to Scandinavia. In the viking’s society women were well considered. They considered the British territory to be a rich territory because they were isolated and not defended but they were very rich because of the gold of the churches. They first arrived in the south from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.  They attacked the monastery of Lindisfarne (lindisfarn) in 793 and gradually settled in the country. (attaccano I monasteri per i soldi(coins)) They particularly concentrated on the monasteries as they were generally isolated, near the coast or on islands and had a lot of wealth. Lindisfarne was destroyed, and the habitants and the monks were enslaved. In 865 the Vikings decided to settle down in England and they found(found) their capital in 866; it was called Jorvik, the Vikings name for York. King Alfred the Great of Wessex united the Anglo-Saxons against the Vikings. Vikings continued graining and Alfred made a kind of agreement (accordo) with the Vikings King (Guthrum) and the territory had been divided into 2 parts (tra Wessex e Mercia fino a Londra):  north part → from London and all the parts in the north. It was ruled by the Vikings. Danelaw is the territory given to the Vikings to end the war.  south part → the Anglo-Saxon part For Alfred the culture was important, he promoted education and encouraged the writing of a history of England, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. (erano I monaci a scrivere) He (Alfred) is considered the first king of England after 879 when Mercia accepted (acspeted)his lordship and created a United Kingdom. He was succeeded by his son Edward who tried to continue his work. In 927 Athlestan, Edward’s son, conquered Northumbria and with that he created a kingdom of all England by establishing the idea of royal authority, law, and coinage. After the formation of the new Anglo - Saxons kingdoms the Vikings continued to attack and the king of (to)the Anglo-Saxons offered them danegeld (dangeld)tributes (a kind of tax, money that was given to the Danes) for the peace. There was a period(piriod) of British England where there wasn’t an Anglo-Saxon king but there was the succession of 3 Vikings kings who administered in a quite good way (Sweyn Forkbeard, Canute and Archie Canute, the son of Canute). Archie Canute was succeeded (sucseshion)by Edward the confessor. He was always in France, he wasn’t married, and he promised the English throne to a French man, a Norman, William. But when he died childless again the council of noble people put Harold (the)II of Wessex (to be the king)on the throne because they didn’t want a Viking or French king. Then in 1066 the Normans arrived. VIKING MYTHS They wore hornet helmet → they used skullcaps (calotte craniche) The warriors wore helmets with horns. They were extremely violent → it is not completely true that everyone was violent, many were peaceful. The took what they wanted and left → it's not true that they just looted but they settled down. They were ignorant and treated their women badly → women had an important role, and when the men were abroad, they took care of the city. (when the men went away the woman took the main role of the house) They were unkempt → they took care of their appearance and lived in large, bright rooms. The Oslo Museum focuses on ship burials. In the York Museum, however, you can find the life of the Vikings. The Osenbergh ship was then found (faund), where the graves of two women were found, one of that was the queen. Along with them there were some animals such as dogs, cows, and horses. THE NORMANS  Edward the Confessor is an Anglo-Saxon king who spends a lot of time in France, in Normandy because he was afraid of the attack of the Vikings and because in France he promised the English throne to a Norman duke, William, also called William the Bastard. When he died in 1066 the Anglo-Saxons, who still lived in the country, did not want to have a Norman king so the council of Anglo-Saxon lords called Witan, decided that the new king should be Harold Godwinson who was Edward's brother-in-law (no relatives of blood(cognato)). Harold was the last Anglo-Saxon king. During his reign he received several attacks from populations who wanted to recall the throne. The Vikings attack because there had been three Viking kings before Edward. With King Harald the Vikings attack England at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. The battle was very alternating, then an ancient custom of hero against hero was introduced and the Anglo-Saxons won. From the south he attacks William of Normandy who wants the throne. The Battle of Hastings breaks out between the Normans and the Anglo-Saxons. The Normans won and conquered England and became the rulers. The Normans win for several reasons: because the whole army was defending the territory from the Vikings, they also had to move on foot and the army didn't have the strength to walk for that long. they had cavalry while the Anglo-Saxons only had infantry. they had a long-range bow. It was not predictable to understand where the arrows fell because the Anglo-Saxons did not know that type of weapon(armi). Harold died when Harald hit him in the eye. According to the rules of war, if the king died in battle, the army had to surrender. Thus(inoltre), William became the new ruler of England and took the name of William I and William the Conqueror from 1066. From 1066 history changed because the Normans brought different habits and customs, language (old France) and the feudal system. Bayeux Tapestry: branch-embroidered strip(tela) of fabric in which we can read the English history of England in which William's coronation starting from the "war" is explained. You can observe: the landing at Hastings, Harold being hit in the eye, the coronation of William. NB: The Normans were Vikings, they never had anything more Viking than those who attacked at Stamford Bridge (they even speak French). THE NORMAN CONQUEST The Norman conquest brought political, social, and cultural changes. Many Anglo-Saxon nobles had died in battle, been exiled, or lost their lands. The Anglo-Saxon aristocracy was replaced by William's followers, who built castles to maintain their power. Members of the English clergy were replaced by the French or the Italian one, and numerous new churches and cathedrals were built across the country. An important political change was the introduction of the feudal system. All the land belonged to the king. The king distributed it to the barons in exchange for goods and services. The barons distributed lands to knights in exchange for military service. Some Anglo-Saxons, in order not to lose everything, decide to submit and must start speaking French. The one who didn't ask for this permission or obey (obbedire)could be trialed (approvato), judged, and accused of being a traitor.  William did not know the English territory then, to find out how much he could earn from it by imposing taxes, he had the Domesday Book written. The book contains the different types of land in the country and their uses, the number of people working on them, their status, and animals. The English called the book Domesday because they felt it was as if their souls were being weighed on the "judgment day." This census is written in Anglo-Saxon, because it was the language of the people still living there. (deriva da dome) MEDIEVAL SOCIETY  Before the feudal system there was another subdivision of society: king barons - knight → aristocracy, those who fought. clergy → those who prayed and collected taxes. peasants - servants → those who worked In the Middle Ages, society was divided into three orders, or ‘estates’. These were:  the nobles, those who fought. They were aristocratic lords and ladies who lived on manors. Higher nobles had vassals: lower nobles who swore fealty to them in exchange for protection. These vassals fought as knights for the lord and performed a certain number of days of military service per year. the clergy, those who prayed (pregavano).  It was inferior to the nobles, but members of the clergy often came from noble families. Monasteries and churches had many lands, and they could collect taxes.   the peasants, those who worked.  At the bottom of the society there were the peasants. They could cultivate the land and take some products for themselves. They were related to a lord as serfs and they needed to ask for his permission even to do the most basic things, like getting married. As serfdom they could be the object of a series of taxes. WILLIAM II - PLANTAGENET DYNASTY After William I (of Normandy, the conqueror - reigned 1066 to 1087), his son William II became king who reigned from 1087 to 1100. Then his brother Henry I reigned from 1100 to 1135. His heir should be his son but he dies in a shipwreck(affondare) in the English Channel. Henry I had another daughter, Matilda, who by law could not ascend the throne, but Henry I asked the barons to sign a treaty accepting his daughter as the new sovereign. But Henry had not told the barons that Matilda would marry Godfrey of Anjou, a Frenchman from the Anjou region, who were enemies(nemici) of the Normans. When after the wedding the barons realize that their future queen was married to a Norman, they decide not to accept Matilda, not to respect the pact. Thus, a nephew of Henry I, Stephen I crowns himself the new king of England supported by the barons. He reigned from 1135 to 1554. Matilda decides to wage war against Stephen together with the French and a civil war breaks out in a period in which there is no complete stability. This period is called the Anarchy. In 1153 they made a treaty(trattato) called the treaty of Wallingford which established that the new king after Stephen's death should be Matilda's son. When Steven died, Matilda's son became king as Henry II. He is a member of the Angevin family. Steven was the last Norman king and Henry II was the first member of a new dynasty, the Plantagenet dynasty (Henry Plantagenet). THE NAME ‘PLANTAGENET’  The name ‘Plantagenet’ came from the word planta genista, which is Latin for ‘yellow broom flower’. Geoffrey, Count of Anjou, is the one who starts the Plantagenet dynasty. A legend says that during the arrival of his cavalry Geoffrey fell from his horse. He was about to fall down a ravine but clung(avvinghiarsi) to a broom to save his life. From that moment he decided to put a broom branch on his helmet. HENRY II The last Norman king, Stephen (1135–1154), was succeeded by the first Plantagenet king, Henry II (1154–1189). He reduces the power of the barons with the help of professional soldiers. Knights could now pay the king a sum of money, or “scutage,” in lieu of service. With this money the king was able to pay mercenaries. In this way the barons could be subject to revenge by the king because he had an army that was not made up of barons. Henry wanted to establish a national law system in England. Before, people took revenge on themselves. He sent itinerant judges to hold courts in the larger cities of each county. The law they administered became known as Common Law because it was used everywhere. The justice system is not based on a civil or criminal code but on comparisons of previous cases and decisions. Henry II also established a system for settling land disputes using a jury of twelve freemen appointed to arbitrate and helped in the trial. These twelve were citizens (someone important for the town). The king also wanted to reduce the power of the Church. This was very rich and had its own court, namely the ecclesiastical court (2 types of ecclesiastical courts (church) and secular/temporal court). The students of the religious university were called clerks. These students were tried by the church. Henry thought that the easiest way to control the Church would be to make Thomas Becket (1118–1170), his friend and chancellor, head of the Church in England. However, once appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, Becket became an adversary of the king. Their conflict lasted a long time and ended with the murder of Becket in Canterbury Cathedral on 29 December 1170. There was a reaction from society, they wanted Henry II to repent, and he made a sort of pilgrimage to Canterbury. Thomas Becket was made a saint. In Canterbury they built a shrine (altar with tomb) which became a place for pilgrims. MEDIEVAL BUILDINGS At the end of the 12th century in England there was a huge campaign to build cathedrals and castles. For several reasons: the construction of new roads and bridges made it easier to transport materials; urban growth had created a diversity of labor and artisans; ecclesiastical income had increased. A church was called a "cathedral" because it contained a "cathedra", or a throne for a bishop. THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE After the Norman invasion of England under William the Conqueror in 1066, three languages were used in England: English, French, and Latin. Upon Chaucer's death, the English language reigned triumphant. Latin had entered England during the 8th century, when the Latin alphabet and italic(corsivo) script replaced the ancient Germanic runic script of Old English, especially since most scribes were monks or clergymen. The French language arrived in England with the Norman invaders and quickly became the language of power and privilege, being the language of the king and the court. (lingua della corte per I normanni) Modern English is a heterogeneous language, includes Roman, Germanic and Greek elements and reveals the history of the nation in its lexical and structural composition. We have three development phases: Old English (OE): from the invasion of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in the first half of the 5th century to 1066 Middle English (ME): Norman Conquest to c. 1500. Modern English (ModE): from the beginning of the 16th century Old English was a standardized form of the Wessex dialect. This language was spoken by the Anglo-Saxons and derived from a Germanic linguistic root. This language was brought to England by northern invaders who drove the Celts out of England. (The language of Beowulf, the Elegies and Riddles of the Exeter Manuscript and some scoop, poemi tramandati orlmente, ci sono molte alliterazioni) Le cose diverse sono: Suoni 1 – th Aggettivi e nome with case endingh Plurale words Le cose uguali sono: Preposition Relatives Pronomi Modale Around 1100, Old English virtually became extinct. After the Norman Conquest, London replaced Winchester as the center of the nation. The spelling and pronunciation of the dialects of south-east England, represented by the London dialect, became the core of Middle English. With the political influence of the Normans on English life, the linguistic influence of French on the English language grew. French was the language of the Court, and therefore of the Government and subsequently of the literate society. French was the language of public administration, high society, religious tradition, fashionable food and clothing, war, and diplomacy, so we can find it. In the 14th century there was a general reaction against the use of the French language in England. In 1362, the Chancellor opened the English Parliament for the first time. That same year, Parliament passed a series of laws requiring courts to conduct some proceedings in English. In 1385 the schools began to systematically teach English grammar and became known as Grammar Schools. When William Caxton, printer, began printing in 1475, he settled in Westminster, he chose the London dialect in which to print his work (standardization). At the beginning of the 16th century the literary language was practically the same as today.