Infosys Reviewer M1-M3 PDF

TOPIC 1 – INFORMATION SYSTEMS CONCEPTS Information processing consists of the system activities of Information – processed, manipulated, and 1. Input - Capture the data to be processed interpreted data....

TOPIC 1 – INFORMATION SYSTEMS CONCEPTS Information processing consists of the system activities of Information – processed, manipulated, and 1. Input - Capture the data to be processed interpreted data. 2. Processing - Change the data into It is the collection of data organizes in such a information way that they have value beyond the data 3. Output - Disseminate the information itself. product to its destination Information is created by defining and 4. Storage organizing relationships among data. 5. Control Characteristics of the information AACEFFRRSTV Information Systems Accurate: Information must not contain any Can be any organized combination of people, errors. It must be accurate hardware, software, communication Accessible: Authorized users should be able networks, data resources, and policies and to access the information whenever required. procedures that stores, retrieves, transforms, Complete – Information must contain all and disseminates information in an important and related data. organization. Economical – Information should be People rely on modern information systems economical to produce both in terms of time to communicate with one another using and cost o Hardware – A variety of physical Format – Information should be available in devices the desired format. o Software – Information processing Flexible – Information should be flexible instructions and procedures enough to be used for different purposes. o Networks – Communication Reliable – Information is dependable and is channels generated using correct data. o Data resources – Stored Data Relevant – Information must be relevant so that it can be used by the organization Secure – Unauthorized users should not be able to access the information. Access is allowed only to authorized individuals. Timely – Information must be available when it is needed. Late or outdated information is of no use. Verifiable – There should be a means to cross check the available information. System A set of components that work together to achieve a common goal. Accepts input, processes it, and produces an output Composed of one or more subsystems Framework of Information System May be a closed or open system. Foundation Concepts – Fundamental behavior, technical business, and managerial Closed System concepts about information systems A stand-alone system that does no interact Information Technologies – Major concepts, with other systems developments, and management issues in IT. Business Applications – Major uses of IS for Open system operations, management and competitive Interacts with another system. communities Development Process – How an IS is planned, developed, and implemented to meet business opportunities. Management Challenges – Effectively and ethically managing IT at the end-user, enterprise, and global levels of business. Five Components of Information System 1. People Resources a. Specialist – systems analysts, software developers, system operators b. End users – anyone else who uses IS 2. Hardware Resources a. Machine – computers, video monitors, magnetic disk drivers, printers, optical scanners b. Media – floppy disk, magnetic tape, optical disks, plastic cards, paper forms. 3. Software Resources a. Programs – operating system programs, spreadsheets programs, word processing programs, payroll programs The conceptual overview emphasizes the main b. Procedures – data entry procedures, purpose of information systems that support error correction procedures, business operations and management decision paycheck distribution procedures. making. 4. Data Resources a. Include data and knowledge bases, Information Systems and the Decision-Making product descriptions, customer Process records, employee files, inventory Information systems also helps store databases. managers and other business professionals b. transformed by information make better decisions. processing activities into a variety of Examples: Decisions about what time of information products for end users. merchandise need to be added or 5. Network discontinued and what kind of investments a. Communications media they require are typically made after an b. Communications processors analysis provided by computer-based c. Network access information systems d. Control Software This function not only supports the decision making of store managers, buyers, and Information Products – Management reports and others, but also helps them look for ways to business documents using text and graphics gain an advantage over other retailers in the displays, audio response and paper forms. competition for customers Types of information Systems operations support management support Operations Support System Help run the daily business, but do not provide much information for managerial decision-making) Transaction processing system (batch or real-time) Process Control Systems (industrial processes) Enterprise Collaboration Systems (office automation, team communication/productivity) Management Support System When information system applications focus on providing information and support for effective decision making by managers. Management Information System (pre- defined reports) o Provide Information in the form of prespecified reports and displays to support business decision making o Examples  Annual budgeting  Sales analysis  Production performance  Ccost trend reporting systems. Decision Support Systems (modeling: what if analysis) o Provide interactive ad hoc support for the decision-making process of managers and other business professionals. o Examples  Contract cost-analysis  Product pricing  Profitability forecasting  Risk analysis systems. Executive Information System (internal/external sources) o Provide critical information from MIS, DSS, and other sources tailored to the information needs of executives. o Examples  5-year operating plan  Systems for easy access to analyses of business performance  Actions of competitors  Economic developments to support strategic planning. TOPIC 2 – COMPUTER RESOURCES Example: IBM 7090 Computer Resources – refers to a wide range of o Used to develop the first weather tools and components, both tangible and intangible, forecasting models, and it was also required for performing computational tasks used to perform the calculations for the Apollo moon landing. Key Categories Characteristics and Limitations Hardware o Transistors still generated heat, Software although less than vacuum tubes. Data o Computers remained relatively large Network o Operating systems were basic, Human Resource limiting multitasking Energy Resource o Required specialized, knowledge for operation and maintenance. Early Beginnings of Computer Resources Pre-computing Tools – The early tools and devices Third Generation (1960s – 1970s) used for calculation and data processing Brought the invention of Integrated Circuits Abacus (ICs) which combined multiple transistors Punch Cards onto a single chip Slide Rule Example: Minicomputers Napier’s Bones o Smaller, less expensive computers Mechanical Calculators like the DEC PDP-8 Characteristics HARDWARE o Reduced cost, size, and improved Hardware – refers to the physical components of a computer performance computer system, such as the CPU and storage o Powerful computers for complex devices. business and scientific operations. o Constrained memory capacity Characteristics of Hardware o Basic and complex programming Tangible and can be physically touched and tools for non-experts seen (Physical Presence) Fourth Generation (1970s – 1990s) Built to last for extended periods but susceptible to wear over time (Durability) Development of Microprocessors – entire CPUs integrated onto a single chip. This Dependent on Software: Require software to generation marked the beginning of personal function properly. computing Can be replaced or upgraded to enhance Example: The introduction of microprocessor system performance (Upgradeable) like the Intel 4004 led to the development of Requires energy to operate and can vary in personal computers, including the Apple II, efficiency (Power Consumption) IBM, and Commodore 64 Characteristics and Limitations HISTORY OF HARDWARE o Graphical User Interface (GUIs): First Generation (1840s – 1950s) mode user interfaces more Era characterized by the use of Vacuum Tubes accessible, enabling, non-technical First Computer to utilize Vacuum Tubes: users to operate computers but pretty o Electronic Numerical Integrator basic (ENIAC) o Early PCs still experienced hardware o Universal Automatic Computer failures and software bugs (UNIVAC) o Programs were not compatible across Characteristics and Limitations platforms o Extremely large often filling entire o PCs experience hardware and rooms software issues. o Generated a substantial amount of heat, leading to frequent overheating Fifth Generation (1990s – Present) and malfunctions. Defined by advancements in o Limited and basic arithmetic and Artificial Intelligence – Machine Learning logical operations with relatively slow and neural networks transform fields like processing speeds compared to later healthcare, finance, and robotics by allowing generations. computers to process data like humans Quantum Computing – Utilize quantum Second Generation (1950s – 1960s) mechanics to solve complex problems Replacement of Vacuum tubes with beyond traditional computers. Still in the Transistors, which were smaller, more research phase. efficient, and reliable.  Supercomputers – Exponential growth in modular design and portability, computational power, used in weather serving as the foundation for many forecasting, drug discovery, and space modern systems. exploration. Characteristics and Limitations: Limitations o Enabled time-sharing, file o The rise of cloud computing and IoT management, and memory allocation introduces significant concerns o Introduction of multi-user capabilities regarding data privacy and but still limited in functionality. cybersecurity. o OS tied to specific hardware, reducing o Performance heavily relies on data portability. quality and is susceptible to inherent biases. Software Boom (1980s – 1990s) The 1980s and 1990s saw a dramatic SOFTWARE expansion in the software industry, the PC Software - refers to a collection of programs, data, revolution expanded the software industry and instructions that tell a computer or electronic with user-friendly applications for the public. device how to perform specific tasks. It is the non- Example: tangible component of a computer system, as o Microsoft Windows: Launched in opposed to hardware, which consists of the physical 1985, Windows popularized graphical components. user interfaces, making computing more accessible to the general public. Characteristics of Software o Apple Macintosh: Released in 1984, Intangible: Unlike hardware, software cannot it further showcased the potential of be physically touched or held. GUI, influencing software design Modifiable: Software can be updated or across platforms modified to improve functionality or address Characteristics and Limitation security vulnerabilities. o Shift from system to consumer Dependent on Hardware: Software requires applications (word processors, hardware to run and perform its functions. database) o Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) HISTORY OF SOFTWARE emerged, promoting code reuse. Early Software (1950s – 1960s) o Increased complexity brought Software in this 1950's to 1960's era was software bugs, security flaws, and designed for specific tasks, mainly for compatibility issues. scientific and military purposes, as computers were large and expensive. The Internet and Cloud Era (2000s – Present) Example: FORTRAN (Formula Translation) The 21st century has seen the rise of the o introduced in 1957, this high-level internet and cloud computing software programming language was designed distribution into services over the web. for scientific and engineering Examples: calculations, enabling users to write o Amazon Web Services (AWS): complex programs more easily than Launched in 2006, AWS using assembly language. revolutionized the tech landscape by Characteristics and Limitations providing scalable cloud computing o Low-level languages like assembly services and early high-level languages like o Google Cloud Platform (GCP): FORTRAN and COBOL were used. Launched in 2008, provides cloud o Software was single-purpose and services for building and scaling hardware-dependent. applications on Google’s o Informal methods of development, infrastructure. It offers tools for lacking portability, and automation. computing, data storage, and o Programs were input manually, often machine learning error-prone, with limited storage and Characteristics and Limitations: power. o Rise of SaaS, web applications (e.g., Google Docs), Agile/DevOps Rise of Operating Systems (1970s) methodologies. The 1970s witnessed the emergence of o Cloud computing and virtualization operating systems, standardizing resource allowed scalability but rely on management and enabling multitasking. constant internet access. Example: Unix o Security and data privacy concerns o Developed at Bell Labs in 1969, Unix increased with cloud adoption. became one of the most influential operating systems, known for its SOFTWARE IMPORTANCE C BEES (SEA BEES) Network Interface Card (NIC) – Enables the Communication computer to connect to a network, such as Instant Connectivity and Collaboration - the internet. Enhance global connectivity by enabling Motherboard – The main circuit board that instant communication through the internet, connects all the components of the social media, and digital platforms. computer. Power Supply Unit (PSU) – Converts AC Business power from the wall outlet into PC power for Streamlined Operations the computer’s components. Business Intelligence – Collect and analyze large amounts of data sets to gain insights to TYPES OF SOFTWARE RESOURCES SAU ayieeeee make informed, growth-focused decisions. System Software Enhanced Customer Experiences – Enable o This type of software manages the personalized marketing, efficient customer computer’s hardware and provides a support and smooth online transactions. platform for the other software to run. o Examples: Education  Operating systems (like Access to Information - Computers and the Windows, macOS, Linux) internet provide pupils, students, and  Device drivers educators with access to virtually limitless  Firmware amounts of information and educational Application Software resources. o Design to perform particular functions Interactive Learning – Offers interactive for users. learning experiences through multimedia, o Examples: simulations, and other educational software.  Word processors, Digital Literacy - Promote skills in navigating spreadsheets, web browsers, digital environments, crucial for academic games, media players. and career success in the modern era. Utility Software o Specialized tools for system Entertainment maintenance Diverse Access and Creation - Offer o Helps manage and optimize the entertainment and creative tools for computer’s performance streaming, gaming, and content creation, o Examples: enabling global sharing and expression.  Antivirus software  Disk cleaners Security & Crime  Backup tools Awareness of Risks – Introduce risks such as  Compression utilities cybercrime, identity theft, and online fraud. Security Measures – Employing antivirus Network Infrastructure software and strong passwords is essential refers to the hardware and software that for online safety. enable network connectivity and communication between users, devices, TYPES OF COMPUTER RESOURCES apps, the internet, and more. Input Devices Types o Keyboard Input devices are controlled o Hardware infrastructure o Mouse by the users. Output devices o Software infrastructure are controlled by computers. o Scanner o Network Services o Microphone Network Infrastructure Management Output Devices o Network administrators ensure o Monitor optimal network performance by o Printer identifying bottlenecks, solving o Speaker issues, and scaling infrastructure to Central Processing Unit (CPU) - The “brain” support business growth. of the computer, it processes instructions o Five Key Areas and performs calculations  Network Infrastructure Memory – Stores data and instructions that Monitoring the CPU need to access.  Configuration Management Storage Devices – Store data persistently,  Performance Management even when the computer is turned off.  Fault Management Examples include hard drives and solid-state  Security Management drives. Data Forms Alpha numeric DATA Image data  Text data Software as a Service (SaaS) - a distribution Audio Data model that delivers software applications over the internet; these applications are often Cloud and Virtual Resources called “web services”. Ex. Microsoft 365 Describes infrastructure and computer Function as a Service (FaaS) - known as services that are hosted online as opposed to “serverless computing”, where developers being physically locates on-site. run small pieces of code in response to Without requiring actual hardware, these events without managing servers. remotely accessible resources which include Storage as a Service (StaaS) – scalable storage, processing power, and applications storage resources over the cloud. allow enterprise to scale up or down as needed. Remote Access Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) - Microsoft Cloud Computing protocol allowing users to remotely control a It is the use of hosted services, such as data Windows computer via a network connection. storage, services, databases, networking, and Virtual Private Network (VPN) - A secure software over the internet. tunnel that enables remote users to access private network resources, as though they were connected locally. Secure Shell (SSH) - A protocol that allows secure remote access to servers and computers, primarily used for command-line access and administration. Virtual Network Computing (VNC) - Allows graphical desktop sharing, enabling users to remotely control a computer. Energy Monitoring Systems By using software, an energy monitoring system makes it possible to monitor on how much energy is used within a company. It has the capacity to simultaneously track a full building or just one room. Provides significant such as: o Real-Time Energy Data o Measure Results Deployment Model o Improve Facility Performance Public Cloud – Services are delivered over o Reduces Operational Costs, and the internet to multiple customers, often in a o Improve you company’s brand image multi-tenant environment. Private Cloud - Infrastructure is dedicated Internet of Things (IoT) toa single organization, either hosted on- Load Handling premises or by a cloud provider. o The load that a power grid needs ot Hybrid Cloud – Cloud Combines both public supply towards is ever-changing. and private clouds, allowing data and o Smart grids can help advise applications to be shared between them. consumers o change their usage Community Cloud – Community Cloud patterns during times of heavy load. Shared infrastructure between several Demand Response Support organizations with similar requirements. o Smart grids can helps consumers reduce their electricity bills by Cloud Computing advising them to use devices with a Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) - lower priority when the electrical rates providers, such as Amazon Web Services are lower. (AWS), supply a virtual server instance and o This also helps in the real-time storage, as well as application programming analysis of electrical usage and interfaces (APIs) that let users migrate charges. workloads to a virtual machine (VM). Decentralization of Power Generation Platform as a Service (PaaS) – cloud o Smart grids help decentralize power providers host development tools on their grids since they can easily help infrastructure. incorporate renewable energy sources such as solar panels at an individual scale and direction. Sustainable IT – It is an approach to corporate o Cybersecurity issues in computer information technology that aims to minimize the resources (CR) arise when systems environmental impact of IT operations and their are exposed to risks that could contribution to climate change. compromise the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of data and Benefits of Sustainable IT operations. Energy efficiency o As organizations increasingly rely on Renewable energy complex IT infrastructures, protecting Cloud computing these resources from cyber threats Virtualization becomes more challenging. Sustainable sourcing Product lifecycle Future Trends Sustainable software development Emerging technologies – When talking about New technologies emerging technology it is mainly used for describing two things: CHALLENGES OF COMPUTER RESOURCES o New technology o Development in existing technologies Resources allocation and scalability o Overutilization in computer Al and Machine Learning resources, especially within the o AI – trained final output machine context of information systems, refers which mimic like human brain to the situation where computing o ML – subset of AI. Technique to resources such as processors, achieve AI memory, storage, or network Edge Computing – a distributed information bandwidth are used beyond their technology (IT) architecture in which client optimal capacity. data is processed at the periphery of the o When resources are overutilized, the network, as close to the originating sources system cannot handle additional as possible. requests efficiently, leading to several Quantum Computing – represent a radical problems. departure from classical computing, o Ex. When the system’s CPU or promising to solve complex problems that are memory is overutilized, response currently intractable for classical computers. times increase, making applications Augmented Reality (AR) and processes run slower than o Overlay of Real and Digital World expected. o Registration and alignment in 3d Obsolescence o Real time interaction o Hardware obsolescence refers to the Virtual Reality (VR) process by which hardware becomes o The creation of virtual world where outdated, no longer supported, or others may react. unable to meet current technological o Graphics used are made to trick needs due to advances in technology, minds in believing that there is no changes in software requirements, or difference between that world and our a lack of compatibility with modern world. systems. Cybersecurity and Privacy Solutions – o As newer and more efficient hardware create a safe digital environment where is developed, older hardware may individuals can trust that their data is secure struggle to keep up, leading to and handled properly performance issues, inefficiencies, High Performance Computing (HPC) – the and increased costs. practice of using supercomputers and Security and Data Privacy - Some of the parallel processing techniques to solve cybersecurity issues that the resources might complex computational problems at face: significantly higher speeds than traditional o Data Breaches and Unauthorized computers Access – Unauthorized access to 5G - current advancements in mobile network sensitive data. technology but also the ongoing evolution o Distributed Denial of Service towards even faster, more reliable, and (DDoS) Attacks – exploit the fact that interconnected systems many systems have limited capacity to handle a surge in traffic Applications for Engineers o Insider Threats – occur when 1. CAD Software - Computer-Aided Design individuals within an organization (CAD) software is essential for engineers to misuse their access to computer create precise 2D and 3D models resources for malicious purposes. 2. Numerical Computing Tools - Numerical computing tools, such as MATLAB, are used  for performing complex calculations, simulations, and algorithm development. 3. FEA Software – FEA software or the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Software, like Abaqus, is crucial for assessing how structures will behave under various conditions. 4. Data Analysis – Data analysis tools, such as Microsoft Excel, enable engineers to manipulate and interpret data effectively. 5. Simulation Software – allows engineers to model and test systems under various scenarios without physical prototypes. 6. BIM Software - BIM software, such as Revit, revolutionizes the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry by providing a digital representation of a building's physical and functional characteristics. 7. Automation Software – Automation software streamlines repetitive tasks, reducing manual labor and increasing efficiency. TOPIC 3 – GENERAL SYSTEMS MODEL OF A FIRM The General System Model - a conceptual framework that views an organization as an open Firm – business entity that aims to profit by selling system interacting with its environment. goods and services. Physical Resource Flow – refers to the movement of tangible resources within a firm. Types of Firms Virtual Resources Flow – referes to the Sole Proprietorship movement of intangible resources within a o business owned and run by one firm. individual o This person is entirely accountable for Firm’s Control Mechanism all expenses and obligations and Performance Standard – a benchmark or holds ownership of all assets related target set by management that defines the to the business. expected level of performance in specific Partnership areas, such as productivity, quality, efficiency, o business owned by two or more or financial results individuals, with no maximum limit on Information Processor – collects, analyzes, the number of partners who can hold and reports data regarding the organization’s an ownership interest. performance. This can include automated Corporation systems or manual processes. o public companies that are legally Management – responsible for interpreting distinct from their owners, setting the data and making decisions based on how them apart from other types of firms. actual performance compares to the Cooperative performance standards o A cooperative is like a corporation in that its owners enjoy limited liability; Feedback Loop in a Firm - a process in which o however, unlike a corporation, its information about the outcome or performance members have a voice in the which involves collecting inputs from customers, company's operations. employees, or other stakeholders, analyzing the data, and utilizing the insights to help identify the areas for How do Firms function? improvement and drive positive changes. 1. Input – are the resources that a company Positive Feedback Loop uses to create goods or services. o A positive feedback loop starts when 2. Process – process component includes the a customer or employee shares a activities that turn inputs into outputs. great review about the business. 3. Output – the results of these processes o These loops help to reinforce positive manifest as completed products, provided action and encourage repeat services, financial outcomes, customer business. insights, and the overall standing in the Negative Feedback Loop market o A negative feedback loop is the cycle of turning customers or employee complaints into improvement. o These loops help to find problem areas and spot issues before they escalate further How to Create an Effective Feedback Loop Set goals and objectives. Choose the right channels. Focus on accessibility and ease of use. Act on feedback. Frequently review feedback loops. Challenges on Implementing Feedback Loop Resistant to change Poor communication Data Overload Value Chain - a series (chain) of activities that Customer Relationship Management – includes inbound logistics, warehouse and storage, combination of practices, strategies and production and manufacturing, finished product technologies that companies use to manage and storage, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and analyze customer interactions and data throughout customer service the customer lifecycle. Key Features of a CRM system Contact Management Sales Management Customer Support Market Automation Analysis Social Networking Access by smartphones Import contact data Organizational Culture consists of the major understandings and assumptions for a business, corporation, or other organization. The understandings, which can include common values, norms, behaviors, and approaches to decision making, are often not stated or documented as goals or formal policies. Key Components o Values o Norms o Behaviors Organizational Change Deals with how for-profit and nonprofit Supply Chain Management organizations plan for, implement, and strategic coordination of business functions handle change. within a business organization and Change can be caused by internal factors, throughout its supply chain for the purpose of such as those initiated by employees at all integrating supply and demand management. levels, or by external factors, such as A supply chain is the sequence of o activities wrought by competitors, organizations—their facilities, functions, and o stockholders activities— that are involved in producing and delivering a product or service. o federal and state laws, The sequence begins with basic suppliers of o community regulations, raw material and extends all the way to the o natural occurrences (such as final customer. hurricanes), and The goal of supply chain management is to o general economic conditions. match supply to demand as effectively and Types efficiently as possible. o Sustaining Change o Disruptive Change Key Issue related to SCM Determining the appropriate level of Organizational Culture and Change outsourcing. Organizational culture and change are deeply Managing procurement. interconnected. Managing suppliers. Culture can either support or resist change, Managing customer relationships. depending on how aligned the existing culture Being able to quickly identify problems and is with the changes being introduced. respond to them. When changes clash with the organization's culture, resistance often occurs, making Enterprise Resource Planning – Software that helps change efforts difficult. integrate the components of a company, including most of the supply chain processes, by sharing and User Satisfaction organizing information and data among supply chain To be effective, enhancements must satisfy members. users and be embraced by all members of the organization.  Users' satisfaction with a computer system and the information it provides is typically determined by the system's quality and the value of the information. Technology Acceptance Model – A model that describes the factors leading to higher levels of acceptance and usage of technology. Perceived Usefulness (PU) Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) Quality of the Information System Organizational Support Technology Diffusion – a measure of how widely technology is spread throughout the organization Technology Infusion – is the extent to which technology is deeply integrated into an area or department Performance-Based Information Systems A management approach that focuses on measuring and evaluating the performance of information systems to ensure they are aligned with the organization's goals and objectives. 3 stages in the business use of IS 1. Cost Reduction and Productivity – to reduce costs and improve productivity 2. Competitive Advantage – to gain a competitive edge in the market 3. Performance-based management – to considering strategic advantages and costs, focusing on productivity, ROI, and net present value. Common Measures of IS Value Productivity Return on Investment (ROI) Earnings Growth Market Share and Speed to Market Customer Awareness and Satisfaction Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)