India and Southeast Asian Art PDF

Content Areas: South, East, and Southeast Asia, 300 B.C.E.-1980c.E. West and Central Asia, 500 B.C.E.-1980c.E. Indian and Southeast Asian Art 23 TIME PERIOD: FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE PRESENT EN...

Content Areas: South, East, and Southeast Asia, 300 B.C.E.-1980c.E. West and Central Asia, 500 B.C.E.-1980c.E. Indian and Southeast Asian Art 23 TIME PERIOD: FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE PRESENT ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: Art making is in uenced by available materials and processes. Learning Objective: Discuss how material, processes, and techniques in uence the making of a work of art. (For example: Bichitr, Jahangir Preferring a Su Sheik to Kings) Essential Knowledge: The art of India is someof the oldest in the world with the longest continuous tradition. Indian artists employ a wide rangeof materials including ceramics and metal. Distinctive to India is the development of Buddhist stupas. Indian art extensively employs stone and wood carving. Indian art specializes in wall and manuscript painting. Tapestry is an Indian specialty. ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: The culture, beliefs, and physical settings of a region play an important role in the creation, subject matter, and siting of works of art. s Learning Objective: Discuss how the culture, beliefs, or physical setting can in uence the making of a work of art. (For example: Lakshmana Temple) Essential Knowledge: The Indus Valley civilizations were among the mostadvanced for their time. Cultural centers in India became the home of great civilizations and dynasties. Some of the world's greatestphilosophies and religionsdeveloped in India. Early Indian religions often separatedthe cosmic from the earthly realm. All the religions in this area (i.e., Hinduism and Buddhist) adopted this world view. The Indian religions generated unique artistic expressions, such as the Buddhist stupa and the Hindu temple. Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism are image-friendly religions. ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: Art and art making can be in uenced by a variety of con- cerns including audience, function, and patron. Learning Objective: Discuss how art can be in uenced by audience, function, and/or patron. (For example: Jowo Rinpoche) Essential Knowledge: Indian arthasa rich tradition of depicting mythical and historical subjects.o Architecture is generally religious. INDIAN AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN ART 431 Created with Scanner Pro fl fl fl fl fl fi  ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: Cultural interaction through war, trade, and travel canin u. ence art and art making. Learning Objective: Discuss how works of art are in uenced by cultural interaction. (For example: Bichitr, Jahangir Preferring a Su Sheik to Kings) Essential Knowledge: Asian art is in uenced by global trends, and in turn in uences global trends. Trade routes connectedAsia with the world. Other religions such as Christianity and Islam have had a dramatic impact on the arts inIndia. ENDURING UNDERSTANDING: Art history is best understood through an evolving tradition of theories and interpretations. Learning Objective: Discuss how works of art have had an evolving interpretation basedon visual analysis and interdisciplinary evidence. (For example: Angkor Wat) Essential Knowledge: Art history as a science is subject to differing interpretations and theories thatchange 3e2 overtime. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The fertile Indus and Ganges valleys were too great a temptation for outsiders, and thus thehis- tory of India has become a history of invasions and assimilations. But those who invadedcame to stay, and so Indian life today is a layering of disparate populations to create a cosmopolitan culture. There are eighteen of cial languages in India- Hindi, the one foreigners think ofasthe national language, is spoken natively by only 20 percent of the population. Along with Hindus and Muslims, there are many concentrations of Jains, Buddhists, Christians, and Sikhs, as wellas myriad tribal religions. Geographically, India has enormous range as wel, from the world'stallest mountains to vast deserts and tropical forests. This is one of the most diverse countries onearth. Patronage and Artistic Life The arts play a critical role in Indian life. Most rulers have been extremely generous patrons,com- missioning great buildings, sclptures, and murals to enhance civic and religious life, as well astheir own glory. The interconnectiveness of the arts in India is crucial to understanding Indian artisticlife. Monuments are conceived asa combination of the arts; the artists who work on them carry outtheir work at the behest of an artist who acts as a team leader with a single artistic vision. Thus, Indian monuments have a surprising uniformity of style. The design of religious art and architecturemay have also been determined by a priest or other religious advisor, who ensured that proportions and iconography of monuments agreed with descriptions supplied in canonical texts anddiagramns. Much as in the European tradition, artists were trained as apprentices in workshops.The process was comprehensive; the artist learned everything from how to make a brush to how to create intricate miniatures or vast murals. Indians are highly organized in their approach to artistic training. BUDDHISTPHILOSsOPHYAND ART foroodinaotslte Still practiced today as the dominant religion of Southeast Asia, Buddhism is a spiritual force that teaches individuals how to cope in a world full of misery. The central gure, Buddha (563-483 B.C.E.), who is not a god, rejected the worldly concerns of life at a royal court, and sought ful lment traveling the countryside and living as an ascetic. 432 APARTHISTORYUE esat Created with Scanner Pro fi fl fl fl fl fi fl fi  In Buddhism, life is believed to be full of suffering that is compounded Characteristics of the Buddha Image by an endless cycle of birth and rebirth. The aim of every Buddhist is to -Bodhisattva end this cycle and achieve oneness with the supreme spirit, which involves a nal release or extinguishing of the soul. This can only happen by accu- -Ushnisha Elongated Ears- -Uma mulating spiritual merit through devotion to good works, charity, love of all beings, and religious fervor. Mudra- Buddhist art has a rich cultural iconography. Some of the most common Wheel on -Lotus Position bottom of feet symbols include: Predella The Lion: a symbol ofBuddha's royalty The Wheel:Buddha'slaw Lotus: a symbol of Buddha's pure nature. The lotus grows in swamps, Figure 23.1: Principal characteristics of the but mud slides off its surface. Buddha Columns surrounded by a wheel: Buddha's teaching Empty Throne: Buddha, or a reminder of a Buddha's presence. Thereis a surprising uniformity in the way in which Buddhas are depicted, given that they were produced over thousands of years and across thousands of miles. Typically Buddhas have a com- pact pose with little negative space (Figure 23.1). They are often seated, although standing and Iying down are occasional variations. When seated, a Buddha is usually posed in a lotus position with the balls of his feet turned straight up, and a wheel marking on the souls of the feet is promi- nently displayed.ttesd intraHiStgohd The treatment of drapery varies from region to region. In Central India, Buddhist drapery is extremely tight- tting, and resting on one shoulder with folds slanting diagonally down the chest. In Gandhara, a region that spreads across northwest India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, Buddhist gures wear heavy robes that cover both shoulders, similar to a Roman toga, showing a Hellenistic in uence. Buddhas are generally frontal, symmetrical, and have a nimbus, or halo, around their heads. Helpers, called bodhisattvas, are usually near the Buddha, sometimes attached to the nimbus. Buddhas' moods are many, but most have a detached, removed quality that suggests medi- tation. Buddhas' actions and feelings are revealed by hand gestures called mudras. The head has a top knot, or ushnisha, and the hair has a series of tight- tting curls. Extremelylong ears dangle almost to his shoulders. A curl of hair called an urna appears betweenhis brows. His rejection of courtly life explains his disdain for personal jewelry. Beneath statues of Buddha there usually is a base or a predella, which can include donor gures and may have an illustration of one of his teachings or a story from his life. Buddhist art also depicts distinctive gures called yakshas (males) and yakshis (females),which are nature spirits that appear frequently in Indian popular religion. Their appearance in Buddhist art indicates their incorporation into the Buddhist pantheon. Thefemales often stand in an elaborate dance-like poses, almost nude, with their breasts prominenty displayed. The depiction of yakshas accentuates male characteristics such as powerful shoulders and arms. Buddha from Bamiyan, Gandharan, 400-800, destroyed2001, cut rock with plaster and polychrome paint, Afghanistan (Figures 23.2a and 23.2b) Figure 23.2a: Buddha from Form and Content beo8 äolBamiyan, Gandharan,400- 800, destroyed 2001, cut rock First colossalBuddhas. with plaster and polychrome Two huge standing Buddhas, one 175 feet tall, the other 115 feet tall. paint, Afghanistan INDIAN AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN ART 433 Created with Scanner Pro fi fi fi fi fl fi fi  Smaller Buddha: Sakyamuni, the historical Buddha. LargerBuddha: Vairocana, the universal Buddha. Niche shaped like a halo-or mandorla--around the body. Buddhas originallycovered with pigment and gold. Cave galleries weave through the cliff face; some contain wallpaintings and painted images of the seated Buddha. Function Pilgrimage site linked to the Silk Road. Pilgrims can walk through the cave galleries into passagewaysthatlead to the level of the Buddha's shoulders. Legs are carved in the round; originally pilgrims were able tocircumambulate Figure 23.2b: Buddha from Bamiyan, Caves were part of a vast complex of Buddhist monasteries,chapels,and oblique view sanctuaries. Context Located near one of the largest branches of the Silk Road. Bamiyan, situated at the western end of the Silk Road, was a trading and religiouscenter. These Buddhas served as models for later large-scale rock-cut images in China. Destroyed by the Taliban in an act of iconoclasm in March 2001. ContentArea West and Central Asia, Image 182 Web Source http:llwhc. unesco.orglen/list/208 Cross-Cultural Comparisons forEssay Question 1: Monumental Sculpture Lamassu (Figure 2.5) Great Sphinx (Figure 3.6a) - Longmen Caves (Figure24.9a) Jowo Rinpoche enshrined in the Jokhang Temple, YarlungDynast; believed to havebeen brought to Tibet in 641, gilt metalswith semiprecious stones, pearis, and paint; various offerings,Lhasa, Tibet (Figure 23.3) History Statue thought to have been blessed by the Buddhahimself, believed to have been crafted in India during his lifetime;said to have his likeness. Figure 23.3: Jowo Rinpoche enshrined in the Jokhang Believed to have been brought to Tibet in 641. Temple, Yarlung Dynasty, believed to have been brought to Tibet in 641, gilt metals with semiprecious Temple founded in 647 by the rst ruler of a unifîiedTibet. stones, pearls, and paint; various offerings, Lhasa, Tibet Disappeared in 1960s during China's Cultural Revolution. In 1983, the lower part was found in a rubbish heap and the upper part in Beijing; restored in 2003. Enshrined in theJokhangTemple, Tibet's earliest and foremost Buddhist temple. Function Served as a proxy for the Buddha after his departure from this world. Often decorated, clothed, andpresented with offerings. Context Depiction of Buddha Sakyamuni as a young man around the age of twelve. Most sacredand important Buddhist imagein Tibet. Jowo means "lord," Khangmeans "house." 434 AP ART HISTORY Created with Scanner Pro fi  ContentArea West and Central Asia, Image 184 WebSource for BuddhistArt http:l/www.metmuseum.org/toah/hdlbudd/hd budd.htm Cross-Cultural Comparisons forEssay Question l: SacredImages Moai (Figure 28.11) Apollo from Veii (Figure 5.5) - Reliquary of Sainte-Foy (Figure l1.6c) BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE The principal place of early Buddhist worship is the stupa, a mound-shaped shrine that has no interior. A stupa is a reliquary; worshippers gain spiritual merit through being in close prox- imity to its contents. A staircase leads the worshipper from the base to the drum. Buddhists pray while walking in a clockwise or easterly direction, that is, the direction of the sun's course. Because of its distinctive shape, that of a giant hemisphere, and because one walks and prays with the sun, the stupa has cosmic symbolism. It is also conceived as being a symbol of Mt. Meru, the mountain that lies at the center of the world in Buddhist cosmnology and serves as an axis connecting the earth and the heavens. Stupas, like one at Sanchi (Figure 23.4a), have a central mast of three umbrellas at the top of the monument, each umbrella symbolizing the three jewels of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Law, and the Community of Monks. The square enclosure around the umbrellas symbolizes a sacred tree surrounded by a fence. Four toranas, at the cardinal points of the compass, act as elaborate gateways to the structure. Great Stupa, Buddhist, Mauyra, late Sunga Dynasty, 300B.C.E.-100c.E., stone masonry, sandstone on dome, Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India (Figures 23.4a, 23.4b, 23.4c, 23.4d, 23.4e) Function Pigrimage site.la Bóiolba A Buddhist shrine, mound shaped and faced with dressed stone con- taining the relics of the Buddha. Figure 23.4a: Great Stupa, Buddhist, Mauyra, Late Sunga Dynasty, 300 B.c.E.-100 c.,, stone The worshipper circumambulates the stupaclockwisealong thebase of masonry, sandstone on dome, Sanchi, Madhya the drum; circular motion suggests the endless cycle of birth and rebirth. Pradesh, India hlin alqiasteadoe Figure 23.4d: Great Stupa Figure 23,4b: Interior ambulatory Figure 23,4c: North Gate, or Torana plan INDIAN AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN ART 435 Created with Scanner Pro  Form BEEEEEE Three umbrellas at the top represent Buddha, Buddha's law,and monastic orders. A railing at the crest of the mound surrounds theumbrellas, symbolicaly representing a sacred tree. Double stairway at the south end leads from base to drum, :EE3EEEEHEHBBBBEE Figure 23,4e: Great Stupa elevation where there is a walkway for circumambulation. Originally painted white. Hemispherical dome is a replication of the dome of heaven. Seated Buddha from second level from the Later Gupta period. Toranas Four toranas, orgateways,at cardinal points of the compass, grace the entrances. The orientation of the toranas(east,south, west, and north) and the direction ofritualis- tic circumambulation correspond with the direction of the sun's course: from sunriseto zenith, sunset, and nadir. Torana: richly carved scenes on the architraves: Buddha does not appear himself but is symbolized by an empty throne or a tree under which he meditated. Some of these reliefs may also represent the sacred sites where Shakyamuni Buddha visited or taught others about the jataka stories or past lives of the Buddha. Horror vacui of composition. High-relief sculpture. Pre-Buddhist Yakshi gures symbolize fertility. Context Donors' names are carved into the monument: 600 inscriptions reveal the project was funded by women as well as men, common people as well as monks. ContentArea South, East, and Southeast Asia, Image 192 Web Source http:lsanchi.org/sanchi-great-stupa.html Cross-Cultural Comparisons forEssayQuestion 1: Integration of Sculpture and Architecture Angkor Wat (Figures 23.8a, 23.8b, 23.8c, 23.8d) Parthenon (Figures 4.5, 4.6) - Mortuary temple ofHatshepsut(Figure3.9a) Borobudur Temple, Sailendra Dynasty, c. 750-842, volcanic stone masonry, Central Java, Indonesia (Figures 23.5a, 23.5b, and23.5c) Form Pyramid in form; aligned with the four cardinal points of thecompass. Square-shapedplan with four entry points. Rubble faced with carved volcanic stone. Built on alow hill risingabovea wide plain. Content This massiveBuddhist monument contains 504 life-sizeBuddhas, Figure 23.5a: Borobudur Temple, Sailendra Dynasty, c. 750-842, volcanic stone masonry, 1,460 narrative relief sculptures on 1,300 panels 8,200 feet long. Central Java, Indonesia 72 openwork stupas containing a Buddha, each with apreaching mudra. Six identical squareterraces are placed one atop the other, like steps; three smallercircular terraces are placed on top; the lowest level functions as the base of the structure, witha 436 AP ART HISTORY Created with Scanner Pro fi  square oor plan; the second level recedes 23 feet from the edge of the base so that the space is wide enough for processions. Each terrace is a level of enlightenment. ,On the top is an enclosed stupa. , Divided into three sections, representing three levels of Buddhist cosmology: Base:represents the lowest level of experience; those who are aligned with their desires on Earth; the world of desire and nega- tive impulses; sculptures here show the deeds of self-sacri ce practiced by the Buddha in his previous births and the story of his Figure 23.5b: Borobudur Temple: Queen Maya last incarnation as Prince Siddhartha. riding a horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to Body: ve terraces in which people abandon their earthly desires; give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama this is the world of forms-people have to control these negative impulses; sculptures here show the pilgrimage of the young man, Sudhana, who sets out in search of the Ultimate Truth. Superstructure: an area that represents a formless world, in which a person experiences reality in its purest stage, where the physical world and worldly desire are expunged. Function Aplace of pilgrimage. Built as a stupa. Context Meant to be circumambulated on each terrace; six concentric square terraces topped by three circular tiers with a great stupa at the summit. Iconographically complex and intricate; manylevelsof meaning. ContentArea South, East, and Southeast Asia, Image 198 Cross-Cultural Comparisons for EssayQuestion l: Pilgrimage Sites Church of Sainte-Foy, Conques (Figures 11.4a, 11.4b) Figure 23.5c: Borobudur Temple, Buddha - the Kaaba (Figures 9.1la, 9.11b) - Great Stupa (Figures 23.4a, 23.4b) QueenMaya riding a horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama Densely packed scene; horror vacui. The queenismajesticand atrestbeforegiving birth.yoe ils Ready to give birth to her son, Prince Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. She is brought to the city in agreatceremonialprocession. bos Web Source http:llborobudurpark.com/ Cross-Cultural Comparisons for Essay Question 1: Relief Sculpture Plaque of the Ergastines (Figure 4.5) Wall plaque from Obas palace (Figure 27.3) Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus (Figure 6.17) HINDU PHILOSOPHY AND ART To outsiders, Hinduism is a bewildering religion with myriad sects, each devoted to the wor- ship of one of its many gods. The complexity and multiplicity of the practices and beliefs associated with Hinduism are evident in the name of the religion, which is an umbrella term meaning, “the religions of Hindustan (India)." Folk beliefs exist side by side with sophisticated INDIAN AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN ART 437 Created with Scanner Pro fl fi fi  philosophical schools. However, all forms of Hinduism concentrate on the in nitevarietya the divine, whether it is expressed in the gods, in nature, or in other human beings.ThosewÌo proclaim to be orthodox Hindus accept the Vedic texts as divine in origin, and manymain. tain aspects of the Vedic social hierarchy, which assigns a caste of ritual specialists,knowna Brahmins, to of ciate between the gods and humankind. As in the case of Buddhism, every Hindu is to lead a good life through prayer, good deeds and religious devotion, because only in that way can he or she break the cycle ofreincarnation. Shiva (Figure 23.6) is one of the principal Hindu deities, who periodically dances the wotldto destruction and rebirth. Other important deities include Brahma, the creator god;Vishnu,thepre. server god; and the great goddesses who are manifest as peaceful consorts, like LaksmiandParvai HINDU SCULPTURE Temple sculpture is a complete integration with the architecture to which it isattached- sometimes the buildings are thought of as a giant work of sculpture. Pairs of divinecouples known as mithuna, appear upon the exterior and doorways of some temples. Sexualallı- sions dominate and are expressed with candor, but not obscenity. Hindu sculpturesaccen- tuate sinuous curves and the lines of the body. Dance poses are common. Templesurfaces are also ornamented with organic and geometric designs, including lateral bands thatdepict subjects such as lotus owers, temple bells, and strings of pearls. Images placed in the "womb' of the temple are idols in that they are invoked withthe essence of divinity that the gure represents. To touch the image is to touch the godhimself or herself; few can do this. Instead the image is treated with the utmost respect anddeference and is occasionally exposed to public viewing. Worshippers experience the divinethrough actively seeing the invoked image, an experience known as darshan and performing puja.a ritual offering to the deity, which is mediated by temple priests. Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja), Hindu, India (Tamil Nadu), Chola Dynasty, c. 1lth century c.E., cast bronze, Metropolitan Museum ofArt,New York (Figure 23.6) Form Shiva hasfourhands. One hand sounds the drum that he dances to; another carries a ameof destruction; the other two offer the abhaya mudra, a gesture that allaysfear. Epicene quality showing an idealized, nearly nude, male gure. Flying locks of hair terminate in rearing cobra heads. Often depicted in a aming nimbus, vigorously dancing with one footona dwarf, the Demon of Ignorance. Fire around Shivarepresents the borders of the Hindu cosmos;coveredwith owers when carried in processions. Figure 23.6: Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja), Hindu, India (Tamil Nadu), Chola Function Dynasty, c. 11th century c.E., cast bronze, The sculpturebecomes the receptacle for the divine spirit when peoplepray Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York before it; therefore, the sculpture is royally treated with gifts, food, andincense. The sculpturecan bebathedandclothed. A hole is at the bottom of the sculpture for the placement of a pole so that it can beused processions and covered by owers. Context Shiva periodically destroys the universe so that it can be reborn again. 438 APART HISTORYUO a AMI Created with Scanner Pro fl fl fl fi fl fi fl fi fi  He unfolds the universe out of the drum held in one of his right hands; hepreservesit by uplift- ing his other right hand in a gesture indicating "do not be afraid." Shiva has a third eye barely suggested between his other two eyes; he once burned the god Kama with this eye. The messageis that belief in Shiva canachievesalvation. The distribution of this gure due to the patronage of a queen, Mahadevi. Content Area South, East, and Southeast Asia, Image 202 Web Source http:llmetmuseum.orglartlcollectionlsearch/39328 Cross-Cultural Comparisons forEssay Question l: DivineJudgments - Last judgment of Hunefer (Figure3.12) Last Judgment, Sainte-Foy, Conques (Figure l1.6a) - Gaulli, Triumph of the NameofJesus(Figure17.6) HINDU ARCHITECTURE The Hindu temple is not a hall for congregational worship; instead it is the residence of a god. The temples are solidly built with small interior rooms, just enough space for a few priests and individual worshippers. At the center is a tiny interior cella that is called the "Womb of the World" where the sacred statue invoked with the main deity is placed. Although Indians knew the arch, they preferred corbelled-vaulting techniques to create a cave-like look on the inside. Thick walls protect the deity from outside forces. An antechamber, where ceremonies are prepared, precedes the cella, and a hypostyle hall is visible from the outside where congregants can participate. Hindu temples are constructed amid a temple complex that includes subsidiary buildings. In northern India, temples have a more vertical character, with large towers setting the decora- tive scheme, and other subsidiary towers imitating the shape but at various scales. Placed on high pedestals, temples have a sense of grandeur as they command the countryside. Major temples form "temple cities" in south India, where layers of concentric gated walls surround a network of temples, shrines, pillared halls, and colonnades. The Hindu temples found in Cambodia are based upon a pyramidal plan with a central shrine surrounded by subshrines and enclosed walls. Temple exteriors are covered with sculpture, almost in a feverish frenzy to crowd every blank spot on the surface. Lakshmana Temple, Hindu, Chandella Dynasty, 930-950,sandstone, Khajuraho, India (Figures23.7a,23.7b,23.7c,23.7d) lao Form The temple is placed on a high pedestal, or plinth, to be seen from a distance. It appears like rising peaks of a mountain range. Compactproportions. A172 Figure 23.7a: Lakshmana Temple, Hindu, Chandella Dynasty, 930-950, sandstone, Khajuraho, India Figure 23.7b: Detail of façade of Lakshmana Temple INDIAN AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN ART 439 Created with Scanner Pro fi  East/west axis: it receives direct rays from the rising sun. The building is a series of shapes that build to become a largetower;compli. cated intertwining of similar forms called a shikara. In the centeris the"embryo" room containing the shrine. The embryo, called a garbha griha, is very small with only spaceenoughfor a limited number of people. It is meant for individualnot congregationa worship. Materials Ashlar masonry; made of ne sandstone. Sculpture Bands of horizontal moldings unite the temple. The sculpture on the surface harmoniously integrates with thearchitecture. The guresaresensuouswith revealing clothing. Figure 23.7c: Detail of Lakshmana Erotic posessymbolizeregeneration. Temple Sexuality is frankly expressed. Function It is a Hindu temple grouped with a series of othertemplesin Khajuraho. The templeisdedicatedto Vishnu. Patron Yashovarman, a leader in the Chandella Dynasty, built thetemple to legitimize his rule; completed by his son, Dharga, after hisdeath. Figure 23.7d: Plan of Lakshmana Temple Context Worshippers move in a clockwise direction starting at thestair- case to circumambulate the temple. ContentArea South, East, and Southeast Asia, Image 200 WebSouce for HinduArt http:l/www.metmuseum.org/toah/hdlhind/hd_hind.htm Cross-Cultural Comparisons forEssayQuestion 1: Ashlar Masonry Parthenon (Figure 4.16b) Persepolis (Figures 2.6a, 2.6b) - Petra (Figures 6.9a, 6.9b, 6.9c) Angkor, the temple of Angkor Wat, and the city ofAngkor Thom, Hindu, Angkor Dynasty, c. 800-1400, stone masonry, sandstone, Cambodia (Figures 23.8a,23.8b, 23.8c, 23.8d, 23.8e) Form Main pyramid is surrounded by four corner towers;a temple-mountain. Corbelled gallery roofs; in uenced by the Indianuseof corbelled vaulting. The entire complex is made of stone; mostsurfacesare carved and decorated. Horror vacuiof sculptural reliefs. Sculpture in rhythmic dance poses; repetition ofshapes Figure 23.8a: Angkor Wat, Hindu, Angkor Dynasty, c. 800- 1400, stone masonry, sandstone, Cambodia 440 AP ART HISTORY Created with Scanner Pro fi fi fl  Function Dedicated to Vishnu; most sculptures represent Vishnu's incarnations. May have been intended to serve as the king's mausoleum. Hindu temples functioned primarily as the home of the god. Patronage Angkor Wat was the capital of medieval Cambodia, built by King Suryavarman II. The complex was built bysuccessivekings, who installed vari- ous deities in the complex. The kings often identi ed themselves with the gods they installed. Figure 23.8b: South Gate of Angkor Thom Contert The complexhas a mixed Buddhist/Hindu character. Mountain-like towers symbolize the ve peaks of Mount Meru, a sacred mountain said to be the center of the spiritual and physical universe in both Buddhism and Hinduism. ContentArea South, East, and Southeast Asia, Image 199 Cross-Cultural Comparisons for EssayQuestion 1:Water and Art - Versailles Gardens (Figure 17.3e) - Kusama, Narcissus Garden (Figures 22.25a,22.25b) Alhambra (Figure 9.15b) Churning of the Ocean of Milk - The story is from the Hindu religion. The story involves the churning of the ocean of the stars to obtain Amrita, the nectar of immortal life. Figure 23.8c: Churning of the Ocean of Milk - Both the gods (devas) and the devils (asuras) churn the ocean to guaranteethemselves immortality.od To churn the ocean, they used the Serpent King, Vasuki. - This bas-relief at AngkorWat depicts devas andasuras churning theOceanof Milk.e si o Vishnu wraps a serpent around Mount Mandara; the mountain rotates around the sea and churns it. Jayavarman VII as Buddha, Khmer king, reignedc.1181-1218 Most famous and powerful Khmer monarch. Patron ofAngkor Thom. Heavily in uenced by his two wives, who were sisters; after his rst Figure 23.8d: Jayavarman VIl as Buddha wife'sdeathhemarriedhersister. e blge oom - Jayavarmanwas devoted to Buddhism, although these monu- ments show a mixture of Buddhist and Hindu iconography.o ContentArea South, East, and SoutheastAsia, Image 199oIT sia Web Source http:whc. unesco.orglen/list/668/ ablodibnl Cross-Cultural Comparisons for Essay Question 1: Gardens -Versailles Gardens (Figure 17.3e) odae pdaong unat f ool ntal Ryoan-ji (Figures 25.2a, 25.2b, 25.2c) gstat - Kusam, Narcissus Garden (Figures22.25a,22.25b) Figure 23.8e: Angkor Wat plan INDIAN AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN ART 441 Created with Scanner Pro fi fi fl fi  PAINTING Indians excel at painting miniatures, illustrations done with watercolor on paper, usedether to illuminate books or as individual leaves kept in an album. One of the most famousschooks of Indian painting is the Rajput School, which enjoyed illustrating Hindu myths andlegends, especially the life of Krishna. Care is also lavished on individual portraits, which weredone with immediacy and freshness. As in most Indian art, compositions tend to be both crowded and colorful. Perspectiveis tilted upward so that the surface of objects, like tables or rugs, can be seen in theirentirety. Floral patterns contribute to the richness of expression. Figures are painted with greatdeli. cacy and generally seem small compared to the landscape around them. They haveadol-ike character that adds to the fairy-tale-like nature of the stories being illustrated. Characteristics of Indian painting include a heightened and intense use of color,with black lines outlining gures. Humans have a wide range of emotion; gures oftengesticulate wildly. Nature is seen as friendly and restorative. Few names of Indian artists havecomedown to us; the works are generally anonymous, even among the greatest masters. Bichitr, Jahangir Preferring a Suft Shaikh to Kings, c.1620, watercolor, gold, and ink on pape , Freer Gallery of Art,Washington, D.C. (Figure 23.9) Content Jahangir is the source of all light; he is surrounded by a haloofthe sun and moon. Jahangir is near the end: seated on an hourglass throne;sandsof time running out. Jahangir wears a single pearl as a devotion to an eleventhcentury saint. Su Sheik is handed a book by Jahangir, or perhaps theholyman is handing Jahangir the bookthe book is placed on a cloths0 that the sheik does not touch Jahangir. The sheikwas the superintendent of the shrine atAjmer,where Jahangir lived from 1613-1616. Holy men are placed above and rank higher than allothers;the painting is thought to represent the importance of spirituallife over worldly power. The Ottoman sultan (not a real portrait) is placed higherthan Figure 23.9: Bichitr, Jahangir Preferring a Su Shaikh to Kings, c. 1620, watercolor, gold, and ink James I, but shows deference to Jahangir. on paper, Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. James I of England is in the lower left-hand corner; lessimportant than Jahangir, as his position implies; the portrait based on adip- lomatic gift probably by artist John de Critz, given byambassador SirThomas Roe.l The artist, a Hindu, holds a miniature with two horses and an elephant--perhapsgifts from his patron. The artist is in lower left-hand corner; he symbolically signs his name on thefootstool beneath Jahangir. 442 AP ART HISTORY cadea Created with Scanner Pro fi fi fi fi  Quotations Quotation, in frame: "Though outwardly shahs stand before him, he xes his gazes on dervishes." Angels wish Jahangir a long life by writing on the hourglass, "O Shah, may the span of your |life be a thousand years." Context Jahangir had many artists follow him wherever he went; he wanted everything recorded. He sought to bring together things from distantlands. Cross-cultural in uences from Europe: a Renaissance carpet is in the background; gures of small cherubs are copied from European paintings; there is a halo behind Jahangir. Great interest in the Mughal court for European allegorical portraits, techniques, and motifs. Content Area South, East, and Southeast Asia, Image 208 Web Source www.freersackler.si.edulobject/F1942. 15al Cross-Cultural Comparisons for Essay Question 1:Works that Show Western In uence - Cotsiogo, Painted elk hide (Figure26.13) - Cabrera, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (Figure l8.6) - Lindauer, Tamati Waka Nene (Figure28.7) VOCABULARY Ashlar masonry: carefully cut and grooved stones that support a building without the use of concrete or other kinds of masonry (igure 23.7a) Bas-relief:a very shallow relief sculpture (Figure23.5b) Bodhisattva: a deity who refrains from entering nirvana to help others Buddha: a fully enlightened being. There are many Buddhas, the most famous of whom is Sakyamuni, also known as Gautama or Siddhartha (Figure 23.5c) Cella: the main room of a temple, where the god is housed Darshan: in Hinduism, the ability of a worshipper to see a deity and the deity to see the worshipper Garbha griha: a "womb chamber," the inner room in a Hindu temple that houses the god's image Horror vacui: (Latin, meaning "fear of empty spaces") a type of artwork in which the entire surface is led with objects, people, designs, and ornaments in a crowded and sometimes congested way (Figure 23.5b) Hypostyle: a hall with a roof supported by a dense thicket of columns Iconoclasm: the destruction of religious images that are seen as heresy (Figure 23.2) Mandorla: (Italian, meaning "almond') an almond-shaped circle of light around the gure of Christ or Buddha (Figure 23.2a) Mithuna: in India, the mating of males and females in a ritualistic, symbolic, or physical sense (Figure 23.7b) Mudra: a symbolic hand gesture in Hindu and Buddhist art (Figure 23.1) Nirvana: an afterlife in which reincarnation ends and the soul becomes one with the supreme spirit Puja: a Hindu prayer ritual Sakyamuni: the historical Buddha, named after the town of Sakya, Buddhas birthplace (Figure 23.3) INDIAN AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN ART 443 Created with Scanner Pro fi fl fi fi fl fl  Shikara: a bee-hive shaped tower on a Hindu temple (Figure 23.7a) Shiva: the Hindu god of creation and destruction (Figure 23.6) Stupa: a dome-shaped Buddhist shrine (Figure 23.4a) Torana: a gateway near a stupa that has two upright posts and three horizontal lintels.They are usually elaborately carved (Figure 23.4c) Urna: a circle of hair on the brows of a deity, sometimes represented as focal point(Figure 23.1) Ushnisha: a protrusion at the top of the head, or the top knot of a Buddha (Figure23.1) Vairocana: the universal Buddha, a source of enlightenment; also known as theSupreme Buddha who represents "enmptiness," that is, freedom from earthly matters to helpachieye salvation (Figure 23.2a) Vishnu: the Hindu god worshipped as the protector and preserver of the world (Figure 23.80 Wat: a Buddhist monastery or temple in Cambodia (Figure 23.8a) Yakshi (masculine: yaksha): female and male gures of fertility in Buddhist andHinduart SUMMARY The diversity of the Indian subcontinent is re ected in the wide range of artisticexpression one nds there. Indians typically unify the arts, so that one large monument isrealizedasa single creative expression involing painting, sculpture, and architecture. Buddhist images dominate early Indian art. Buddha himself is often depicted in amedi- tative state, with his various mudras revealing his inner thoughts. Hindu sculpturesfeature a myriad of gods, with Shiva as the most dominant. Both Buddhist and Hindutemples are mound-shaped, the Buddhist works being a large, solid hemisphere, and the Hindua sculpted mountain with a small interior. Both Hindu and Buddhist art are marked by horror vacui, forms piled one atop theother in crowded compositions. biat 444 AP ART HISTORY AKASH Created with Scanner Pro fi fi fl  PRACTICE EXERCISES Multiple-Choice Questions 1-3 refer to these images. 1. The Lakshmana Temple is a Hindu temple that hasa narrow interior because (A) it symbolizes the embryo of the world, as if in its very womb (B) vaulting techniques were unknown (C) the narrow passageway symbolizes the journey to salvation (D) the interior darkness symbolizes the evil in the world 2. Erotic sculptures on the outside of the temple connote (A) inspiration (B) regeneration (C) subjugation (D) intolerance 3. The highly carved exterior is similar to the complex at (A) Borobudur, Java (B) Persepolis, Iran (C) Todai-ji, Japan (D) Ryoan-ji, Japan bsbstetit e INDIAN AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN ART 445 Created with Scanner Pro  4. Shiva as Lord of Dance depicts an episode of divine judgment in which Shiva (A) warns the living that judgment day is coming (B) judges those who have died and will be sent to heaven or hell (C) destroys the universe so that it can be reborn again (D) comforts the weak and disciplines the strong 5. The Bamiyan Buddhas were destroyed in 2001 in an act of (A) iconography (B) impluvium (C) isocephalism (D) iconoclasm Short Essay Practice Question 3: Visual Analysis Suggested Time: 15 minutes This work is Shah Shuja Enthroned with Maharaja Gaj Singh of Marvar by Bichitr. Describe at least two visual characteristics of this work. Using speci c visual evidence, explain at least two techniques that Bichitr used thatarepat of Indian portrait tradition. Discuss how this work references works of art in the Western tradition. 446 AP ART HISTORY Created with Scanner Pro fi  ANSWER KEY 1. A 2. B 3. A 4. C 5. D ANSWERS EXPLAINED Multiple-Choice 1. (A) The interiors of Hindu temples are characterized by small rooms that contain the god; they are called the "embryo" of the world and are meant to suggest the very center of existence, among many other things. 2. (B) The erotic sculptures are done with frankness to symbolize regeneration. They are not done to be lurid or sinful. 3. (A) Borobudur has many sculptures, both in relief and free standing, wrapped around its exterior. 4. (C) Shiva periodically dances the world to destruction and rebuilds it so that it can start afresh. 5. (D) Iconoclasmn is de ned as the destruction of images. The Bamiyan Buddhas were blown up because they were considered false idols. Short Essay Rubric Task Point Value Key Points in a Good Response Describeat least two 2 Answers could include: visual characteristics Work is framed in an elaborate border. of this work. There is a tilted perspective: we look directly at the main gures, but they sit on a raised platform that we look down upon. The colors are rich and vibrant. Extensive use of gold to indicate material richness and status of the gures. Words written in Indian script. Using speci c visual 2 Answers could include: evidence, explain at Work done in watercolor. least two techniques Figuresseatedin an Asian-style pose. that Bichitr used that Main gures are sumptuously dressed are part of Indian indicating their wealth and position. portrait tradition. Great attention paid to richly illustrated fabrics. Great attention paid to minute details, but not at the expense of the overall scene. Discuss how this work 1 Answers could include: references works of Putti carry a canopy over the heads of the art in the Western seated gures. tradition. Putti have Western-style wings and wear Western-style crowns. INDIAN AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN ART 447 Created with Scanner Pro fi fi fi fi fi fi