Qualitative Data Collection Methods and Devices PDF

Quantitative Data UNIT 2 QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION Collection Methods and Devices METHODS AND DEVICES Structure 2.1 Introduction...

Quantitative Data UNIT 2 QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION Collection Methods and Devices METHODS AND DEVICES Structure 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Qualitative Data - Meaning and Concept 2.3 Methods and Techniques of Qualitative Data Collection 2.4 Features of Qualitative and Quantitative Research 2.5 Let Us Sum Up 2.6 Keywords 2.7 References and Selected Readings 2.8 Check Your Progress – Possible Answers 2.1 INTRODUCTION Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Data collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about the subject of our study (people, objects, phenomena), and about the environment. In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer our research questions in a conclusive way. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. After studying this unit, you should be able to: discuss the meaning and concept of qualitative data. describe the features of various methods and devices used for qualitative data collection. state the uses and limitations of various qualitative data collection methods. 2.2 QUALITATIVE DATA - MEANING AND CONCEPT Qualitative research is grounded in the assumption that individuals construct social reality in the form of meanings and interpretations, and that these constructions tend to be transitory and situational. Qualitative research typically involves qualitative data, i.e., data obtained through methods such as interviews, on-site observations, and focus groups that is in narrative rather than numerical form. Such data are analyzed by looking for themes and patterns. It involves reading, re-reading, and exploring the data. How the data are gathered will greatly affect the ease of analysis and utility of findings. Qualitative data are descriptive in nature and can be statistically analyzed only after processing and after having them classified into some appropriate categories. Qualitative data can, however, facilitate in-depth analysis of a social situation. There are certain situations where qualitative research alone can provide the researcher with all insights needed to make decisions and take actions; while in some other cases quantitative research might be needed as well. 23 Data Collection and Analysis 2.3 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION Qualitative methods are ways of collecting data which are concerned with describing meaning, rather than with drawing statistical inferences. They provide in-depth and rich descriptions. In this section, a detailed description and comparison of the most commonly used qualitative methods employed in social science research is given. These include observations, in-depth interviews, and focus groups. 2.3.1 Observation Method In our daily life we observe many things and events around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific. Observational techniques are methods by which an individual or individuals gather first hand data on programs, processes, or behaviours being studied. They provide evaluators with an opportunity to collect data on a wide range of behaviours, to capture a great variety of interactions, and to openly explore the evaluation topic. By directly observing operations and activities, the evaluator can develop a holistic perspective, i.e., an understanding of the context within which the project operates. This may be especially important where it is not the event that is of interest, but rather how that event may fit into, or be impacted by, a sequence of events. Scientific observation is a methodical way of recognizing and noting a fact or occurrence, often involving some sort of measurement. Scientific observations should be specific, and recorded immediately. Understanding the culture of the people and the ability to interact with them are essential for good observation. Researches may be based solely on observation, but in most cases observation precedes other methods of data collection. When to use observations: Observations can be useful during both the formative and summative phases of evaluation. For example, during the formative phase, observations can be useful in determining whether or not the project is being delivered and operated as planned. In the hypothetical project, observations could be used to describe the faculty development sessions, examining the extent to which participants understand the concepts, ask the right questions, and are engaged in appropriate interactions. Such formative observations could also provide valuable insights into the teaching styles of the presenters and how they are covering the material. Advantages i) Subjective bias may be eliminated, if observation is done accurately> ii) Information relates to current state of affairs ; and it is iii) Independent of respondents’ willingness or capability to respond. Limitations i) A time consuming and expensive method ii) A limited amount of information may be available; and iii) Extraneous factors may interfere with the task of observation. 24 Types of observation: Qualitative Data Collection Methods and Devices Structured and unstructured observation: in case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the manner of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation, and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as structured observation. But, when the observation is conducted without these features thought out in advance, the same is termed an unstructured observation. Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies, whereas, in an exploratory study, the observational procedure should be relatively unstructured. Participant and non-participant observation: this depends on the degree of involvement of the researcher with the situation being observed. In participant observation, the researcher who may be an outsider, while observing the group, also plays the role of a group member. It is necessary to have the observation in an unbiased way, without getting emotionally involved in the affairs of the group or the community. The main advantage of participant observation is that, it helps the observer to get an intimate knowledge of the group or the community being observed, under natural condition. For example, if one wants to study the fishermen community, reliable information may be obtained through the method of participant observation. Participant observation, however, requires longer time, greater resources, and there may be loss of objectivity, if not properly done. In non-participant observation, the researcher observes the group or the community, while maintaining physical and psychological isolation from them. This ensures collection of information in an objective way. Controlled and uncontrolled observation: when observation takes place according to a definite pre-arranged plan involving experimental procedure, the same is termed a controlled observation. The aim of a controlled observation is to check any bias due to faulty perception, incomplete information and effect of external stimuli on a specific situation. An uncontrolled observation on the other hand, is one where the researcher observes the behaviour and activities of a group under natural conditions (as they are) without any stimulation from the outside. This method provides a wide range of information and helps in developing an insight about the group or community. Care should, however, be taken against subjective interpretation of observed phenomenon. Recording Observational Data Observations are carried out using a carefully developed set of steps and instruments. The observer is more than just an onlooker, but, rather, comes to the scene with a set of target concepts, definitions, and criteria for describing events. While, in some studies, observers may simply record and describe, in the majority of evaluations, their descriptions are, or eventually will be, judged against a continuum of expectations. Observations usually are guided by a structured protocol. The protocol can take a variety of forms, ranging from the request for a narrative, describing events seen to a checklist or a rating scale of specific behaviours/activities that address the evaluation question of interest. The use of a protocol helps assure that all observers are gathering the pertinent information and, with appropriate training, applying the same criteria in the evaluation. For example, an observational 25 Data Collection and Analysis approach is selected to gather data on the faculty training sessions, the instrument developed would explicitly guide the observer to examine the kinds of activities in which participants were interacting, the role(s) of the trainers and the participants, the types of materials provided and used, the opportunity for hands- on interaction, etc. Field notes are frequently used to provide more in-depth background or to help the observer remember salient events if some forms are not completed at the time of observation. Field notes contain the description of what has been observed. The descriptions must be factual, accurate, and thorough without being judgmental and cluttered by trivia. The date and time of the observation should be recorded, and everything that the observer believes to be worth noting should be included. No information should be trusted to future recall. Technological tools, such as a battery-operated tape recorder or a Dictaphone, laptop computer, camera, and video camera, can make the collection of field notes more efficient and the notes themselves more comprehensive. Informed consent must be obtained from participants before any observational data are gathered. 2.3.2 Interview/Questionnaire Method In these methods, the data are collected by presenting stimuli to the respondents in the form of questions for eliciting appropriate responses from them. The questions may be presented to the respondents in a face-to-face situation as oral-verbal stimuli, and the researcher or personnel trained for the purpose (interviewers, enumerators) note down their oral-verbal responses. This method is known as the interview method, and the set of questions is known as the interview schedule. In another method, the questions are delivered (generally mailed) to the respondents, who note down their responses on it and send it back to the researcher. This method is known as the questionnaire method, and the set of questions is known as a questionnaire. In both, answers to some systematically organised questions, relevant to the objectives of the study are sought. The questions should be accurate and clearly understood by the respondents, so that the responses are accurate. Both the methods have some advantages and limitations. The success of the questionnaire method depends more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in case of interview method much depends upon the honesty and competency of the enumerators. Types of interview Interviews may be of different types according to the needs of the situation. Structured interview: For this purpose an interview schedule is used which is well structured with specific questions to be asked. The questions are precisely worded and systematically organised, and are prepared in advance after requisite pre-testing. The interviewer is not expected to make any change while interviewing the respondents. The data received are comparable and are more amenable to statistical analyses. The structured interview is also known as standardized, controlled or guided interview. Unstructured interview: Here the interviewer proceeds with some well thought 26 out themes or guidelines to be inquired into, and brings out the required information from the respondents through the process of conversation. The Qualitative Data Collection Methods and Devices situation is free and informal and no interview schedule is used. This provides more flexibility and freedom, but at the same time demands deep knowledge and greater skill on the part of the interviewer. The process may yield good amount of information, but the data lack comparability and are less amenable to statistical analysis. Unstructured interview is suitable for exploratory or formulative research studies. Focused interview: In focused interviews, some specific issue, occurrence, experience, or event is taken into consideration instead of general aspects of a situation. The interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in which the questions would be asked, and, has also the freedom to explore reasons and motives. The main task of the interviewer, however, is to confine the discussion to the specific issue under investigation. Such interviews are convenient for development of hypotheses, action research etc. and constitute a major type of unstructured interviews. In-depth interview: An in-depth interview is a dialogue between a skilled interviewer and an interviewee. Its goal is to elicit rich, detailed material that can be used in analysis. These interviews are designed to discover motives and desires, and, are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to explore needs, desires, and feelings of respondents. Such interviews are best conducted face to face, although in some situations telephone interviewing can be successful. In-depth interviews are characterized by extensive probing and open-ended questions. Typically, the researcher prepares an interview guide that includes a list of questions or issues that are to be explored and suggested probes for following up on key topics. The guide helps the interviewer pace the interview and makes interviewing more systematic and comprehensive. The dynamics of interviewing are similar to a guided conversation. The interviewer becomes an attentive listener who shapes the process into a familiar and comfortable form of social engagement - a conversation - and the quality of the information obtained is largely dependent on the interviewer’s skills and personality. In contrast to a good conversation, however, an in-depth interview is not intended to be a two-way form of communication and sharing. The key to being a good interviewer is being a good listener and questioner. Tempting as it may be, it is not the role of the interviewer to put forth his or her opinions, perceptions, or feelings. Interviewers should be trained individuals who are sensitive, empathetic, and able to establish a non- threatening environment in which participants feel comfortable. They should be selected during a process that weighs personal characteristics that will make them acceptable to the individuals being interviewed; clearly, age, sex, profession, race/ethnicity, and appearance may be key characteristics. Thorough training, including familiarization with the research problem and its goals, is important. Specific circumstances in which in-depth interviews are particularly appropriate include complex subject matter detailed information sought busy, high-status respondents highly sensitive subject matter. 27 Data Collection and Analysis 2.3.3 Case Study Method The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group, or, even the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations. The case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus, a case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that account for the behaviour patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality. Pauline V. Young describes case study as “a comprehensive study of a social unit be that unit a person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community.”’ In brief, we can say that the case study method is a form of qualitative analysis where careful and complete observation of an individual, situation, or an institution is done; efforts are made to study each and every aspect of the concerned unit in minute detail, and then, from case data generalizations and inferences are drawn. Characteristics: the important characteristics of the case study method are listed below. i) In this method, the researcher can take a single social unit or more such units for his study purpose. ii) Here the selected unit is studied intensively, i.e., it is studied in minute detail. Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for drawing correct inferences. iii) In the context of this method we make a complete study of the social unit covering all facets. Through this method we try to understand the complex of factors that are operative within a social unit as an integrated totality. iv) Using this method, the approach happens to be qualitative and not quantitative. Mere quantitative information is not collected. Every possible effort is made to collect information concerning all aspects of life. As such, the case study method deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight into life. For instance, in the case study method, we not only study how many crimes a man has committed, but we peep into the factors that forced him to commit crimes when we are making a case study of a man who is a criminal. The objective of the study may be to suggest ways to reform the criminal. v) In respect of the case study method, an effort is made to know the mutual inter-relationship I of causal factors. vi) We study behaviour pattern of the concerned unit directly, and not by an indirect and abstract approach. vii) The case study method results in fruitful hypotheses, along with the data which may be helpful in testing them, and, thus, this method enables generalized knowledge to get richer and richer. In its absence, generalized social science may get handicapped. 28 Assumptions: the case study method is based on several assumptions. The Qualitative Data Collection Methods and Devices important assumptions may be listed as follows. i) The assumption of uniformity in basic human nature, in spite of the fact that human behaviour may vary according to situations. ii) The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned. iii) The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned. Major phases involved i) Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be investigated or the unit of attention. ii) Collection of data, examination, and history of the given phenomenon. iii) Diagnosis and identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial developmental treatment. iv) Application of remedial measures, i.e., treatment and therapy (this phase is often characterized as case work). v) Follow-up programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment applied. Check Your Progress 1 Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words. b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit. 1) What is the difference between the interview method and the questionnaire method?................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2) List out the important assumptions of the case study method.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.3.4 Focus Groups Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant observation. The focus group session is an interview, not a discussion group, a problem solving session, or a decision making group. At the same time, focus groups capitalize on group dynamics. The hallmark of focus groups is the explicit use of group interaction to generate data and insights that would be unlikely to emerge without 29 Data Collection and Analysis the interaction found in a group. The technique inherently allows observation of group dynamics, discussion, and firsthand insights into the respondents’ behaviours, attitudes, language, etc. Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share some characteristics relevant to the evaluation. Originally used as a market research tool to investigate the appeal of various products, the focus group technique has been adopted by other fields, such as education, as a tool for data gathering on a given topic. Focus groups, conducted by experts, generally take place in a focus group facility that includes recording apparatus (audio and/or visual) and an attached room with a one-way mirror for observation. There is an official recorder who may or may not be in the room. Participants are paid for attendance and provided with refreshments. As the focus group technique has been adopted by fields outside of marketing, some of these features, such as payment or refreshment, have been eliminated. When to use focus groups: When conducting evaluations, focus groups are useful in answering the same type of questions as in-depth interviews. Specific applications of the focus group method in evaluations include identifying and defining problems in project implementation identifying project strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations assisting with interpretation of quantitative findings obtaining perceptions of project outcomes and impacts generating new ideas. Although focus groups and in-depth interviews share many characteristics, they should not be used interchangeably. Developing a Focus Group An important aspect of conducting focus groups is the topic guide. The topic guide, a list of topics or question areas, serves as a summary statement of the issues and objectives to be covered by the focus group. The topic guide also serves as a road map and as a memory aid for the focus group leader, called a moderator. The topic guide also provides the initial outline for the report of findings. Focus group participants are typically asked to reflect on the questions asked by the moderator. Participants are permitted to hear each other’s responses and to make additional comments beyond their own original responses as they hear what other people have to say. It is not necessary for the group to reach any kind of consensus, nor is it necessary for people to disagree. The moderator must keep the discussion flowing and make sure that one or two persons do not dominate the discussion. As a rule, the focus group session should not last longer than 1 ½ hours to 2 hours. When very specific information is required, the session may be as short as 40 minutes. The objective is to get high quality data in a social context where people can consider their own views in the context of the views of others, and, where new ideas and perspectives can be introduced. 2.3.5 Content Analysis Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents of documents, such as books, magazines, newspapers, and the contents of all other verbal materials, either 30 spoken or printed. Content analysis prior to 1940’s was mostly quantitative Qualitative Data Collection Methods and Devices documentary materials concerning certain characteristics that can be identified and counted. But since the 1950’s, content analysis is mostly qualitative analysis, concerning the general importance of the existing documents. The analysis of content is a central activity whenever one is concerned with the nature of the verbal materials. A review of research in any area, for instance, involves of the contents of research articles that have been published. The analysis may be at a simple level, or, it may be a subtle one. It is at a simple level when we pursue it on the basis of certain characteristics of the document, or, verbal materials that can be identified and counted (such as on the basis of major scientific concepts in a book). It is at a subtle level when researcher uncovers the attitude, say of the press towards education by feature writers. 2.3.6 Other Qualitative Data Collection Methods The last section outlines less common but, nonetheless, potentially useful qualitative methods for project evaluation. These methods include document studies, key informants and alternative (authentic) assessment. i) Document studies: Existing records often provide insights into a setting and/or group of people that cannot be observed or noted in another way. This information can be found in document form. A document can be defined as “any written or recorded material” not prepared for the purposes of the evaluation, or, at the request of the inquirer. Documents can be divided into two major categories: public records, and personal documents. ii) Public records: are materials created and kept for the purpose of “attesting to an event or providing an accounting”. Public records can be collected from outside (external) or within (internal) the setting in which the evaluation is taking place. Examples of external records are census and vital statistics reports, county office records, newspaper archives, and local business records that can assist an evaluator in gathering information about the larger community and relevant trends. Such materials can be helpful in better understanding the project participants and making comparisons between groups/communities. For the evaluation of educational innovations, internal records include documents such as student transcripts and records, historical accounts, institutional mission statements, annual reports, budgets, grade and standardized test reports, minutes of meetings, internal memoranda, policy manuals, institutional histories, college/university catalogues, faculty and student handbooks, official correspondence, demographic material, mass media reports and presentations, and descriptions of program development and evaluation. They are particularly useful in describing institutional characteristics, such as the backgrounds and academic performance of students, and in identifying institutional strengths and weaknesses. They can help the evaluator understand the institution’s resources, values, processes, priorities, and concerns. Furthermore, they provide a record or history that is not subject to recall bias. iii) Personal documents: are first-person accounts of events and experiences. These “documents of life” include diaries, portfolios, photographs, artwork, 31 Data Collection and Analysis schedules, scrapbooks, poetry, letters to the paper, etc. Personal documents can help the evaluator understand how the participant sees the world and what she or he wants to communicate to an audience. And, unlike other sources of qualitative data, collecting data from documents is relatively invisible to, and requires minimal cooperation from, persons within the setting being studied. The usefulness of existing sources varies depending on whether they are accessible and accurate. In the hypothetical project, documents can provide the evaluator with useful information about the culture of the institution and participants involved in the project, which in turn can assist in the development of evaluation questions. Information from documents also can be used to generate interview questions or to identify events to be observed. Furthermore, existing records can be useful for making comparisons (e.g., comparing project participants to project applicants, project proposal to implementation records, or documentation of institutional policies and program descriptions prior to, and, following the implementation of project interventions and activities). iv) Key informant: A key informant is a person (or, group of persons) who has unique skills or professional background related to the issue/intervention being evaluated, is knowledgeable about the project participants, or has access to other information of interest to the evaluator. A key informant can also be someone who has a way of communicating that represents, or, captures the essence of what the participants say and do. Key informants can help the evaluation team better understand the issue being evaluated, as well as the project participants, their backgrounds, behaviours, and attitudes, and, any language or ethnic considerations. They can offer expertise beyond the evaluation team. They are also very useful for assisting with the evaluation of curricula and other educational materials. Key informants can be surveyed or interviewed individually or through focus groups. In the hypothetical project, key informants (i.e., expert faculty on main campus, deans, and department chairs) can assist with: (1) developing evaluation questions, and; (2) answering formative and summative evaluation questions. v) Performance assessment: the performance assessment movement is impacting education from pre-schools to professional schools. At the heart of this upheaval is the belief that for all of their virtues - particularly efficiency and economy - traditional objective, norm-referenced tests may fail to tell us what we most want to know about student achievement. In addition, these same tests exert a powerful and, in the eyes of many educators, detrimental influence on curriculum and instruction. The search for alternatives to traditional tests has generated a number of new approaches to assessment under such names as alternative assessment, performance assessment, holistic assessment, and authentic assessment. While each label suggests slightly different emphases, they all imply a movement toward assessment that supports exemplary teaching. Performance assessment appears to be the most popular term because it emphasizes the development of assessment tools that involve students in tasks that are worthwhile, significant, and meaningful. Such tasks involve higher order thinking skills and the coordination of a broad range of knowledge. 32 Performance assessment may involve qualitative activities such as oral interviews, Qualitative Data Collection Methods and Devices group problem-solving tasks, portfolios, or personal documents/creations (poetry, artwork, stories). The quality of this product is assessed (at least, before and after training) in light of the goal of the professional development program. The actual performance of students on the assessment measures provides additional information on impact. 2.4 FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH In unit 1, we discussed various aspects of quantitative data collection methods. Let us now see the main differences between qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative research Quantitative research Mainly for exploratory purposes and Used to obtain descriptive data to generate hypotheses Usual purpose is to generate a range Usual purpose is to consolidate the data and and variety of data obtain a clear picture of the situation The methods of inquiry are informal All methods are , carefully planned tightly and flexible controlled The researcher usually starts with only The research is confined to a list of research a broad indication of the information objectives which set out what information objectives of the project, but with clear is required understanding of the overall purpose of the research The researcher usually works from a The interviewer uses a questionnaire, which list of the topics to be covered, but the must be followed exactly as instructed in course of each ‘interview’ will be every interview influenced by the respondent Based on small numbers of Based on larger numbers of respondents; respondents who take part individually data are collected from each person or in small groups individually It cannot be known how true the May be possible to estimate how reliable findings are of the population from the findings are. It depends on which which the respondents are drawn sampling method is used Data collection is usually handled by Usually done by trained interviewers or research professionals through self-completion questionnaires A qualitative project cannot be Can usually be replicated, because every repeated exactly, because every data interview in the project follows the same collection event in a project is different procedure The findings can rarely be expressed Findings are expressed in number and can in statistical form be analysed using statistical techniques Analysis and conclusion rely heavily Because statistical procedures are used the on the researcher’s perceptions and analysis is less likely to be disputed interpretation skills Source: John Boyce, Marketing Research, MacGraw Hill, Australia Pvt Ltd, 2005. 33 Data Collection and Analysis Check Your Progress2 Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words. b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit 1) What do you mean by focus group?...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.5 LET US SUM UP In this unit, we discussed the meaning and concept of qualitative data collection and found that the selection of appropriate method for data collection and research design depends on nature, scope and objective of enquiry. Each method of data collection, however, does not suit all categories of research design. The selection and preparation of tools for collecting data depends upon the types of data to be collected. The researcher must decide in advance of collection and analysis of data as to which design would prove to be more appropriate for his research project. He/ she must give due weight to various points, such as the type of universe and its nature, the objective of the study, the resource list or the sampling frame, the desired standard of accuracy, and the like, when taking a decision in respect of the design for the research project. Qualitative data are descriptive in nature and can be statistically analyzed only after processing, and, after having them classified into some appropriate categories. Qualitative data can facilitate in-depth analysis of a social situation. 2.6 KEYWORDS Key Informant : A key informant is a person (or group of persons) who has unique skills or professional background related to the issue/intervention being evaluated, is knowledgeable about the project participants, or has access to other information of interest to the evaluator. 34 Content analysis : Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents Qualitative Data Collection Methods and Devices of document, such as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all other verbal materials v either spoken or printed. Sociometry : Sociometry is a technique for describing the social relationships among individuals in a group. Case study : The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group, or even the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. Pre-testing : Pre-testing means testing the interview schedule/ questionnaire in advance to find out whether it is capable of eliciting appropriate responses from respondents. 2.7 REFERENCES AND SELECTED READINGS Festinger L.and Katn D. 1953. Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences. Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., New York. Goode W.J.and Hatt P.K. 1981. Methods in Social Research. McGraw- Hill Book Company, Singapore. Kothari C.R. 1996. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Wishwa prakashan, New Delhi. Mulay Sumati and Sabarathanam V.E. 1980. Research Methods in Extension Education. Manasayan, New Delhi. Young P.V. 1996. Scientific Social Surveys and Research. Prentice –Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 2.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS – POSSIBLE ANSWERS Check Your Progress 1 1) What is the difference between the interview method and the questionnaire method? In the interview method, the questions are presented to the respondents in a face-to-face situation as oral-verbal stimuli, and the researcher, or personnel trained for the purpose (interviewers, enumerators) note down oral-verbal responses. In the questionnaire method, the questions are delivered (generally mailed) to the respondents, who note down their responses on it and send them back to the researcher. 35 Data Collection and Analysis 2) List the important assumptions of the case study method. i) The assumption of uniformity in basic human nature, in spite of the fact that human behaviour may vary according to situations. ii) The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned. iii) The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned. Check Your Progress 2 1) Focus group combine elements of both interviewing and participant observation capitalizing on group dynamics. 36 Unit 3 Data Collection -Ms. Riya Bhatt Lets read ► According to the report of All India Survey on Higher Education report 2021-22, The total enrolment in higher education has increased to nearly 4.33 crore in 2021-22 from 4.14 crore in 2020-21. There has been an increase of around 91lakh in the enrolment from 3.42 crore(26.5%) in 2014-15. ► From 2017-18 to 2022-23, employment in India surged from 46.8% to 56% , accompanied by a notable rise in labor force participation from 49.8% to 57.9%. Source article from Times of India. Data and its Types ► According to the Oxford Learning Dictionary (2021), “Data are facts or information, which are especially examined and used to find out things and make decisions.” ► Raw Data/ scores: Untreated, unconverted values obtained directly from measuring process used in a study. ► Two types of Data: 1) Primary data: Those data which have been collected from the primary sources on the first hand basis by the researchers. 2) Secondary data: Data collected from the secondary sources like census data, hospital records, books, journals, newspapers, some other historical records etc. Secondary data are collected from the second hand way from the secondary sources.  Questionnaire and Schedule ► Questionnaire: A questionnaire is used where factual information from the respondents is desired. It consists of a form containing a series of questions where the respondents themselves fill in the answers. Eg: Psychological Well Being Scale ► Schedule: It consists of a form containing a series of questions, which are asked and filled in by the investigator in a face to face situation. Eg: rating schedules, observation schedules, interview schedules, document schedules etc. ► Opinionnaire: An opinionnaire is an information form which attempts to measure the attitude or belief of an individual. It is also called attitude scale. Eg: Feedback forms ► When factual information is desired, a questionnaire is used but when opinions rather than facts are desired an opinionnaire or attitude scale is used. ► Interview guide: An interview guide consists of a list of basic points or topics to be covered by the interviewer during the interview. ► Inventory: An inventory is a list of questions or characteristics that are used to measure a variable. Eg: Beck’s Depression Inventory Wording of Questions in a Questionnaire 1) Simplicity in language: ► Avoid jargons and too many technical terms ► Avoid complex, long questions 2) Ambiguity: ► Avoid ambiguous questions ► Avoid double-barrelled questions eg: Do you enjoy travelling in bus or car? 3) Vague words: ► Avoid vague words like often, generally, somewhat etc 4) Embarrassing questions: ► One method to ask embarrassing questions is not to ask such questions directly from the respondents but to ask them to express their views in others. 5) Double negatives: ► Creates confusion thus should be avoided. Eg: Do you not agree that parents should not use very harass punishments with the children? Wording of Questions in a Questionnaire 6) Leading questions: A leading question is one, which by virtue of its content leads to a specific answer. Eg: Isn’t it true that you were at home on Saturday evening? 7) Presuming questions: The question should not be such that necessarily implies that the respondent possess the knowledge regarding the theme of the question of that he has participated in those activities, which are being asked. 8) Hypothetical questions: “Would you like to..?”, “What do you do if?” such questions are avoided since they do not provide with any concrete thing. Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire ► It should focus on specific topic ► Significance, aim and objectives should be clearly stated ► Preferably it should be short ► Directions and wording should be simple and clear ► Each question should deal with a single idea ► Questions should be objective and should not provide hints or suggestions ► Embarrassing questions, presuming questions and hypothetical questions should be avoided. ► Proper order of the questions. From General to specific ideas, from favourable attitude to unfavourable attitude. Funnel sequence: It is recommended to start questions with some broad questions relating to the topics and then gradually narrowing it down to a specific questions relating to the topic. Functions of a questionnaire ► Description ► Measurement  Types of Questionnaires based upon types of response required 1) Fixed response questionnaire: It consists of statements of questions with a fixed number of options or choices. ► Also known as closed form questionnaire, pre-coded type of questionnaire ► Eg: Multiple choice questions, True/ False ► Basic assumptions while using fixed response questionnaire: a) Target sample has adequate knowledge regarding the subject matter b) Researcher has enough knowledge about the sample. Types of Questionnaires based upon types of response required 2) Open end questionnaire: It consists of questions which require short or lengthy answers by the respondents. ► What are the various effective ways of learning a material? Types of Questionnaires based on method of administration 1) Mail questionnaire: Questionnaire which is mailed to a subject with a request to answer the questions 2) Face to face administered questionnaire: Subjects are given questionnaire with instructions to complete them in the presence of the investigator. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fixed response questionnaire ► Easily scored and coded ► Requires no writing from the respondents ► Less time consuming Disadvantages: ► It is not possible to provide the respondent with all possibles choices ► Chances of response set or bias. Advantages and Disadvantages of Open-ended questionnaire ► More beneficial when the investigator has lesser information regarding the subject ► Provides more insightful replies. Disadvantages: ► Educational bias ► More time consuming ► Difficult to score objectively  Advantages and Disadvantages Mail questionnaire ► Less costly ► Accessible to diverse and distant population ► Avoids personal bias and influence of the interviewers ► Avoids the problem of direct contact with the respondent Disadvantages: ► Nonresponse from the respondent ► Ineffective when the questionnaire needs detail explanation ► Ineffective when the respondent fails to understand difficult, complex and technical ► No way to check validity of the answers ► No additional or supplement background data available. Advantages and Disadvantages of Face to Face administered questionnaire ► Less time consuming ► Increases the validity of the collected information ► Researcher is present to resolve queries ► Provides detail analysis for any problem question Disadvantages: ► Makes the respondent too conscious ► More costly and time consuming ► Affects the external validity of the questionnaire COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES ► This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. ► These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma. ► In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules. ► Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of difficult terms. COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES ► This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected. ► The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the implications of different questions put in the schedule. ► Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross examination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, hardworking and should have patience and perseverance. ► This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by governmental agencies or by some big organisations. Population census all over the world is conducted through this method. Difference between questionnaires and schedules ► The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions when necessary. ► To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents. Here no field staff required. To collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive since considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in importing training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules. ► Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and many return the questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-response often remains indeterminate. As against this, non-response is generally very low in case of schedules because these are filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all questions. But there remains the danger of interviewer bias and cheating. ► In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the identity of respondent is known. Difference between questionnaires and schedules ► The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return the questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information is collected well in time as they are filled in by enumerators. ► Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as questionnaires are sent to respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post. But in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents. ► Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but in case of schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate. ► Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the questionnaire method, but in respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider area. ► Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the questionnaire method, particularly when people are unable to understand questions properly. But in case of schedules, the information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents in correctly understanding the questions. ► As a result, the information collected through schedules is relatively more accurate than that obtained through questionnaires. Difference between questionnaires and schedules ► The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators. ► In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of questionnaire must be quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be filled in by enumerators and not by respondents. ► Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing is not possible while collecting data through questionnaires. Activity 1 ► Frame 10 questions on the following topic: “ Student Life Satisfaction Scale” Activity 2 ► You will have to choose a topic ► On that topic you have to search a standardized tool? ► You will have to make a google form from that tool ► Administer it on all your classmates ► Minimum requirement of 100 data ► That data will be used in JASP later Interview ► Interview is a face to face situation between the interviewer and the respondent, which intends to elicit some desired information from the latter. ► Interview and questionnaires both have same aim- minimum bias and maximum efficiency. ► Success of an interview depends on the following factors: 1) Interaction between the interviewer and the respondent 2) Accessibility 3) Cognition 4) Motivation  Types of interviews ► 1) Formal interviews ► A formal interview is one in which already prepared questions are asked in a set order by the interviewer and answers are recorded in a standardized form. ► Also known as structured or patterned interview. ► As the interview situation is highly structured, less trained interviewers can also conduct this interviews. Limitations of formal interviews: ► Expensive and time consuming ► Validity of formal interviews is less as compared to the methods of biodata analysis and standardized psychological tests.  Types of interviews ► 2) Informal interview: ► Is one where there is no pre-determined set of questions nor is there any preset order of the questions and it is left to the interviewer to ask some questions in a way he likes regarding the key points. ► Example: Viva exams ► Also known as unstructured interview ► An informal interview is more commonly used than the formal interview and is a flexible method of collecting data. ► Informal interviews helps in gaining deeper knowledge on a topic Limitations ► Greater scope for personal influence and bias ► Less reliable in comparison to the formal interview ► Scope for informal interview is limited since it requires more tactful and intelligent researcher. ► Data obtained through informal interview is difficult to quantify and analyse. Major functions of the interviews 1) Description 2) Exploration Factors affecting the uses of Interviews ► Characteristics of interviewers 1) Subjective characteristics 2) Objective characteristics ► Characteristics of interviewees 1) Capacity of the interviewee to verbalize 2) Willingness of the interviewees ► Nature of the problem under study Advantages of Interviews ► Provides greater flexibility in the process of questioning ► Facilitates the investigator in getting desired information readily and quickly ► Increases the validity of the conclusion arrived ► A desired level of control over the situation can be exercised ► Validity of the verbal information can be checked through non verbal cues Disadvantages of the interview ► Interviewers variability ► Inter-interviewer variability ► Validity and dependability of verbal responses ► Time ► Variations inherent to the interviewing context ► Recording information Important sources of errors in interviews ► Attitude of the interviewer ► Incomprehensibility of the questions asked ► Lack of warmth in the situation of the interview ► Lack of motivation in the respondents ► Duration of the interview Selection and training of Interviews ► Personal characteristics essential for the interviewers 1) Honesty 2) Accuracy 3) Adaptability 4) Interest 5) Temperament Observation Method Observation technique is a technique of data collection, which refers to watching and listening to the behaviour of other person over time without manipulating and controlling it and record its findings in a way that allows some degree of analytical interpretation and discussion. Useful when the aim is to: ► To see behaviour in natural situation ► To study situation-based features of conduct Steps in observation method includes: 1) Selecting 2) Recording 3) Encoding Observation Method Features: ► Occurs in natural settings in some cases it can also occur in laboratory setting. ► It captures those significant events or occurrences that affect the relations among persons being studied. ► Identifies important regularities and recurrences in social life Purpose of Observation: To capture and study human behaviour as it actually happens. To provide a graphic description of a real life. Exploration Types of Observations 1) Systematic Observation: Is done according to the explicit procedures as well as in accordance with the logic of scientific inference. 2) Unsystematic Observation: Is a type of causal observation made by the investigator without specifying any explicit and objective inference. Eg: Observing people’s behaviour at railway station, malls etc.  Types of Observation 1) Participant Observation: - Disguised and Undisguised participant observation - Strengths: - Provides more meaningful and rich data - Since observation is done in natural setting more realistic conclusions can be drawn. - Limitations: - Lacks in precision - Time-consuming - Human involvement may affect the validity of the data Types of Observation 2) Nonparticipant Observation: More structured and preplanned Strengths: - More reliable and representative of the population - Able to focus more on a particular aspect of social behaviour Limitations: - The behaviour of the person may not remain natural when they know that they are being observed. - Fails to capture natural context of social settings. RATING SCALES ► Two general classes of behaviour observation: 1) Observation of actual behaviour 2) Observation of remembered behaviour ► Rating scale is a technique to assess both actual behaviour and remembered behaviour. ► The purpose of rating scale is to know what kind of impressions the objects or persons have made upon the raters. ► A rating scale usually has 2,3,5,7,9 or 11 items on a line with descriptive categories at both the ends followed sometimes with a descriptive category in the middle of the continuum. ► Two components: Stimulus variable and response options. ► Ratings may be either retrospective or concurrent. RATING SCALES ► Precautions to be taken while constructing the rating scales: 1) Each trait to be rated should be clearly defined and explained with specific instances 2) Various intervals or points on the scale should be clearly defined. Preferably intervals on the rating scales should be kept below 7. 3) As far as possible, rating scales should be concerned exclusively with observable traits. Types of Rating Scales 1) Numerical Rating Scale Numerical anchors Meaning 1 Extremely disagree 2 Strongly disagree 3 Moderately disagree 4 Mildly disagree 5 Indifferent 6 Mildly agree 7 Moderately agree 8 Strongly agree 9 Extremely agree  Types of Rating Scales 2) Graphic rating scales ► On the graphic scale, the scales are presented graphically in which descriptive cues corresponding to the different scale steps are given. ► Items or statements here have no blank box and the rater simply puts either a tick mark or a cross mark on any of the descriptive cues to indicate his views. ► Advantages: i) No numerical anchors ii) Simple, easily administered and quickly completed by the raters ► Disadvantages: i) It takes more time and labour in scoring Types of Rating Scales 3) Percentage rating ► Percentage rating is done whenever the investigator wants a quick rating with maximum uniformity from rater to rater. ► The technique requires the rater to place the ratees among different specified percentage groups or into different percentiles or quartiles. ► The major limitation of this method is that the rater may be quite generous and therefore, the rating may be influenced by the individual differences in generosity among the raters. Types of Rating Scales 4) Standard Scale ► A standard scale is one in which the rater is presented with some standards with pre-established scale values. ► Types of standard scales: man to man scale, Portrait matching i) Man to man scale ► The rater is asked to give the names of a person who is well known to him and who is very high on the trait being rated. ► Advantages: a) Avoids confusion arising out of abstract numerical anchors b) Ratings can be comparable both in absolute and relative terms. c) Since scale values of all the key-men are pre-established and fixed, raters can’t shift over day to day’s ratings. Types of Rating Scales 4) Standard Scale ii) Portrait matching; ► The portrait matching techniques deviates from the usual rating scale method in that it requires the rater to find persons to match the description which is in contrast to the usual practice for asking the rater to find descriptions to match the persons. ► Advantages: a) Eliminates the element of subjectivity Types of Rating Scales 5) Scale of Cumulated Points ► Here the person’s total score is the sum of individual ratings or points assigned to all items of the scale. ► Rating scales based upon summated points can be divided into two types: i) Checklist method: Where the rater is supplied with a large number of specific behavioural statements and he is asked to check these statements which describes the person in question. ► The person’s total score on the checklist is equal to the sum of the scores for the items checked for him. ► The purpose of the behaviour checklist is to know whether certain specified traits are present or absent in the individual being rated. ► Eg: Vineland Social Maturity Scale ► Variations of checklist method- True/ False, Multiple choice questions Types of Rating Scales 5) Scales of Cumulated points: ii) Guess- who technique also known as Casting Characters ► This technique to be used primarily with the children ► Procedure: a) Verbal descriptions in the form of sentences are given to the children b) The child raters are asked to name the other children who fit or match certain verbal descriptions , mentioning as many times as they think appropriate. c) Each favourable description is given a point and all such points are summed to get a total score. ► This technique is similar to portrait matching technique Types of Rating Scales 6) Forced-choice rating scales: ► In this method, the rater is given a set of attributes in terms of verbal statements for a single item and he decides which one or ones represent the individual being rated most appropriately and accurately. ► Advantages: i) Minimizes generosity error ii) The tendency to get influenced is controlled. iii) The raters biased is reduced. ► Disadvantages: i) Limited freedom in ratings ii) Sometimes the raters believe that non of the statements actually describes the person appropriately even though they have to give judgements. Problems in Obtaining Effective Rating ► Factors affecting rater’s willingness ► Factors affecting rater’s ability 1) Opportunity to observe the individuals being rated 2) Subjectivity in the traits being rated 3) Vagueness in the meaning of the trait rated 4) Nonuniform standard of reference 5) Raters personal characteristics Methods of Improving Effectiveness of Rating Scales ► Refinement in stimulus variables of the rating scales ► Refinement in response variables of the rating scales ► Improvement in rating procedures  Case Study Method ► The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group, or, even the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. ► The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations. ► The case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. ► Thus, a case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. ► In this method, the researcher can take a single social unit or more such units for his study purpose. ► Here the selected unit is studied intensively, i.e., it is studied in minute detail. ► Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for drawing correct inferences.  Case Study Method ► In the context of this method we make a complete study of the social unit covering all facets. Through this method we try to understand the complex of factors that are operative within a social unit as an integrated totality. ► Using this method, the approach happens to be qualitative and not quantitative. Mere quantitative information is not collected. ► Every possible effort is made to collect information concerning all aspects of life. ► As such, the case study method deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight into life. For instance, in the case study method, we not only study how many crimes a man has committed, but we peep into the factors that forced him to commit crimes when we are making a case study of a man who is a criminal. The objective of the study may be to suggest ways to reform the criminal. ► The case study method results in fruitful hypotheses, along with the data which may be helpful in testing them, and, thus, this method enables generalized knowledge to get richer and richer. In its absence, generalized social science may get handicapped. Focus Group Discussions ► Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant observation. ► The hallmark of focus groups is the explicit use of group interaction to generate data and insights that would be unlikely to emerge without the interaction found in a group. ► The technique inherently allows observation of group dynamics, discussion, and firsthand insights into the respondents’ behaviours, attitudes, language, etc. ► Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share some characteristics relevant to the evaluation. ► Focus groups, conducted by experts, generally take place in a focus group facility that includes recording apparatus (audio and/or visual) and an attached room with a one-way mirror for observation. There is an official recorder who may or may not be in the room. Participants are paid for attendance and provided with refreshments. When to use focus groups ► When conducting evaluations, focus groups are useful in answering the same type of questions as in-depth interviews. Specific applications of the focus group method in evaluations include identifying and defining problems in project implementation identifying project strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations assisting with interpretation of quantitative findings obtaining perceptions of project outcomes and impacts generating new ideas. Developing a Focus Group ► An important aspect of conducting focus groups is the topic guide. The topic guide, a list of topics or question areas, serves as a summary statement of the issues and objectives to be covered by the focus group. ► The topic guide also serves as a road map and as a memory aid for the focus group leader, called a moderator. ► The topic guide also provides the initial outline for the report of findings. ► Focus group participants are typically asked to reflect on the questions asked by the moderator. ► Participants are permitted to hear each other’s responses and to make additional comments beyond their own original responses as they hear what other people have to say. It is not necessary for the group to reach any kind of consensus, nor is it necessary for people to disagree. The moderator must keep the discussion flowing and make sure that one or two persons do not dominate the discussion. ► As a rule, the focus group session should not last longer than 1 ½ hours to 2 hours. When very specific information is required, the session may be as short as 40 minutes. The objective is to get high quality data in a social context where people can consider their own views in the context of the views of others, and, where new ideas and perspectives can be introduced. Content Analysis ► Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents of documents, such as books, magazines, newspapers, and the contents of all other verbal materials, either. spoken or printed. ► Content analysis prior to 1940’s was mostly quantitative documentary materials concerning certain characteristics that can be identified and counted. But since the 1950’s, content analysis is mostly qualitative analysis, concerning the general importance of the existing documents. ► The analysis of content is a central activity whenever one is concerned with the nature of the verbal materials. A review of research in any area, for instance, involves of the contents of research articles that have been published. ► The analysis may be at a simple level, or, it may be a subtle one. It is at a simple level when we pursue it on the basis of certain characteristics of the document, or, verbal materials that can be identified and counted (such as on the basis of major scientific concepts in a book). It is at a subtle level when researcher uncovers the attitude, say of the press towards education by feature writers Other Qualitative Data Collection Methods 1) Document studies 2) Public records 3) Personal documents 4) Key informants 5) Performance assessment  Research Methodology Unit 4: Sampling Techniques Juvita Vaidya Contents Introduction Fundamentals of sampling Probability Sampling Non-probability sampling Quota Sampling Simple Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling others Introduction The well specified or identifiable group of individuals, is known as population. The selected number of objects or persons, representing the population, is known as a sample. Population Sample Introduction Sampling is defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgement or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. In other words, it is the process of obtaining information about an entire population by examining only a part of it. The items/persons/objects selected is called a sample. The selection process or technique to select a sample is called sampling design. It is determined before the data is collected. Sample should be truly representative of the population characteristics without any bias, so that it may result in valid and reliable conclusions. Fundamentals of Sampling 1. Objective a. Define objectives of the research 2. Population a. To meet the objectives, what should be the population? b. Population should be clearly defined. 3. Sampling units and frame a. The elementary units form the basis of the sampling process and such units are called sampling units. b. A list containing all such sampling units is called sampling frame. c. In some cases it becomes difficult to directly draw a sample from the population Fundamentals of Sampling 4. Size of the sample a. Refers to the number of items to be selected from the population to constitute a sample. b. Size of the sample, should neither be excessively large, nor too small. c. An optimum sample is the one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility. 5. Statistic and Parameter a. A statistic is a numerical value based upon sample. b. Parameter is a numerical value based on population. c. Example: When we calculate mean from a sample, it is called statistic because it describes the characteristics of a sample. When the same mean is calculated from population, it is called parameter because it describes the characteristics of a population. d. Any sampling analysis aims to obtain the estimate of a parameter from a statistic. Fundamentals of Sampling 6. Confidence interval and significance level a. CI is the expected percentage of times stipulating that the actual value will fall within the stated precision limits. Thus confidence level indicates the likelihood that the answer will fall within the precision range. b. Significance level, on the other hand, is the exact value of the estimate. c. The area of the normal curve within the precision limits for the specified confidence level constitutes acceptance region, and the area of the curve outside these limits in either direction constitutes the rejection regions. Fundamentals of Sampling 7. Sampling design It's a plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame. It refers to the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling units from which inferences about the population is drawn. A good sampling design must possess the following characteristics: a. Sample design must provide a sample which would be true representative of the population. b. The sample design should be such that it may result in small sampling error. c. The sample design must allow for controlling systematic bias in the sampling. d. The sampling design must be usable in light of the funds available for the research study. e. The sample design must be such that the results of the sample study can be applied in general, for the population with the reasonable confidence level. Need for sampling Sampling saves time and money. Generally conducted by trained professionals. Provides accuracy in measurement and testing. Enables the researcher to estimate the sampling errors and that way it helps in getting some information regarding some characteristics of the population. Sampling is needed because it remains the only way when a population contains infinitely many members. Sampling helps in making correct and scientific judgement about the population for which generalization is to be made after completion of the study. Factors influencing decision to sample Decision to sample is influenced by certain factors: 1. Size of the population 2. Cost involved 3. Convenience and accessibility