Memorization and Background Info PDF

Memorization and background Info Chapter 5 Physical Property: A characteristic that you observe or measure about a substance without changing what it is made of. Ex. color, shape, size, texture, density Chemical Property: Describes how a substance can change into a different substance. It shows how...

Memorization and background Info Chapter 5 Physical Property: A characteristic that you observe or measure about a substance without changing what it is made of. Ex. color, shape, size, texture, density Chemical Property: Describes how a substance can change into a different substance. It shows how something reacts with other things. Ex. Combustibility, Reactivity. Physical Change: When a substance remains the same, even though it may have changed state or form. Ex. Melting, Boiling, Freezing, Condensation, Sublimation, etc. Easy to reverse. Chemical Change: The original substance is changed into one or more different substances that have different properties. Ex. Burning, Cooking, rusting. Difficult / Impossible to reverse. Bohr Rutherford diagrams -​ Group 1 is Alkali Metals - Soft, Highly reactive metals -​ Group 2 is Alkaline Earth Metals - Light and reactive -​ Group 17 / 7 is Halogens - One of most reactive groups -​ Group 18 / 8 is Noble Gases - Stable, rarely reacting with any other chemical. -​ Protons and Neutrons go inside the nucleus. Electrons orbit around the nucleus -​ The Bohr-Rutherford diagram only represents the first 20 elements. Polyatomic ions are groups of 2 or more atoms, ionic/covalent bond. Electrons can be shared/transferred. This group can bond with other ions by gaining or losing electrons. Ionic: forms when a metal and a nonmetal come together. Covalent: when two nonmetals share electrons to fill their outer shells. Ex. in water (H₂O), two hydrogen atoms share electrons with one oxygen atom to form a covalent bond. Chapter 6 Law of conservation of mass: The law of conservation states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. The total amount of mass stays the same. What you start with is what you end with, just in a different form. Synthesis = Reactions occur when 2 or more reactants come together and produce a compound product. Element + Element —> Compound Single Displacement = Reactions occur when one element replaces another element in a compound. Elements + Compounds —> Compounds + Element Double displacement = Reactions occur when elements in different compounds displace each other or switch places. Both reactants must be compounds. Compound(1) + Compound(2) —> Compound(2) + Compound(1) Decomposition = Reactions occur when one compound splits apart into two or more elements or compounds. Compound —> Element + Element Compound —> Element + Compound Complete Combustion = products released are water and carbon dioxide. On the reactants side, it has to have a hydrocarbon + oxygen Ex. CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O Chapter 7 What is the pH scale? Where are the acids and bases located? -​ pH= “power of hydrogen” -​ The pH scale is used to measure how acidic or basic a solution is -​ Ranges from 0 to 14 -​ The Greater the concentration of H+ ions, the more acidic the solution. -​ The greater the concentration of OH- ions, the more basic or alkaline the solution. -​ Neutral is at 7 (Ex. pure water). Neutralization = when an acid and a base mix and cancel each other out. They form water and salt as products. Ex. Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → Water + Salt The acid (HCl) and base (NaOH) mix to make water (H2O) and salt (NaCl). Oxyacid = an acid that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and another element (usually a nonmetal). It releases hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water. -​ Example: H₂SO₄ (sulfuric acid) Properties of Acids​ ​ -​ Reacts with metals and carbonates -​ Turns BLUE litmus paper RED  -​ Neutralize bases -​ Taste Sour -​ Acids are on the lower end, from 0 to 6. The lower the number, the stronger the acid. Properties of Bases -​ Turns RED litmus paper BLUE -​ Feels slippery (ex. Soap) -​ Tastes bitter (ex. Sodium hydrogen carbonate ) -​ Bases (alkalines) are on the higher end, from 8 to 14. The higher the number, the stronger the base. -​ Bases should have OH or CO3 at the end to be a base -​ Acids should have H at the start to be an acid Swimming Pool pH: ​ Ideal pH: 7.2 - 7.8 ​ Too acidic: Damages pool walls and metal parts. ​ Too basic: Cloudy water, discoloration. ​ Both too acidic or basic: Irritates eyes. ​ Fix it: -​ Low pH: Add a base (Ca(OH)₂). -​ High pH: Add an acid (HCl). Neutralizing Chemical Spills: ​ Spilled acid? Add a base to neutralize it. ​ Example: Sulfuric acid spill in Blanche River was neutralized using Ca(OH)₂ -​ Reaction: Ca(OH)₂ + H₂SO₄ → H₂O + CaSO₄ Chapter 11 What is light? -​ Light is a form of ENERGY -​ Light is transferred through Radiation -​ Light travels at very high speeds & in straight lines Radiation: A method of energy transfer that does not require a medium. -​ Showed that light displays wave-like properties. The Electromagnetic Spectrum: ​ The electromagnetic spectrum is the full range of electromagnetic waves that vary in wavelength and frequency. ​ The spectrum includes waves that are both invisible and visible to the human eye. Type of Electromagnetic Wave Uses Radio Waves -​ AM/FM Radio -​ Tv signals -​ Cell Phone Communication Microwaves -​ Telecommunications -​ Microwave ovens Infrared Light -​ Remote controls -​ Lasers -​ Heat detectors Visible Light -​ Human Vision -​ Theater/concert lighting -​ Rainbows Ultraviolet Light -​ Causes skin to tan/burn -​ Carcinogenic —> can cause skin cancer -​ Stimulates production of vitamin D X-Rays -​ Medical imaging Security -​ Security equipment -​ Cancer treatment Gamma Rays -​ Cancer treatment -​ Astronomy -​ Product of nuclear decay How light is produced: Luminous: produces its own light Non-luminous: does not produce its own light ​ Incandescent Light: Produced by heating a material until it glows. ​ Electrical Discharge: Light from electric current passing through a gas. ​ Phosphorescence: Light emitted after exposure to radiation, continues to glow. ​ Fluorescence: Light emitted during exposure to radiation. ​ Chemiluminescence: Light produced by a chemical reaction.  ​ Bioluminescence: Light produced by living organisms. ​ Triboluminescence: Light from friction or breaking of a material. ​ LEDs: Light Emitting Diodes that produce light electronically. The ray model of light: The Ray Model is used to describe how light behaves in terms of straight lines called rays. This model helps explain things like reflection, refraction, and the path of light. Laws of Reflection ​ Law 1: Incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie in the same plane. ​ Law 2: Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection. Terminology of Reflection Plane Mirror: the term used to refer to a flat mirror. Plane mirrors are used to illustrate how predictable the path of light is when it hits a mirror. Term Definition Incident Ray(I) Original incoming ray ( emitted from light source ) Reflected Ray (R) The ray that bounces off the mirror Normal The line that is perpendicular ( at a right angle) to the reflecting mirror surface. Angle of Incidence (I) Angle between the incident ray and normal. Angle of Reflection (r) Angle between the reflected ray and the normal Diffuse vs Specular Reflection: ★​ Specular Reflection: ➔​ Occurs when light reflects off a smooth surface (like a mirror). ➔​ The reflection is clear and sharp, as all rays reflect at the same angle. ➔​ Example: A mirror, calm water, or a shiny metal surface. ★​ Diffuse Reflection: ​ Occurs when light reflects off a rough surface. ​ The reflected rays scatter in many different directions, creating a blurry or diffuse reflection. ​ Example: A rough wall, paper, t-shirt, etc Images in Curved Mirrors ​ Concave Mirror: Curved inward, can form real or virtual images depending on the object position. ​ Convex Mirror: Curved outward, always forms virtual images that appear smaller. ​ Virtual Image: An image formed where rays appear to meet but do not actually converge. Diagrams and Image Characteristics (SALT) Size: Larger, smaller, or same as the object. Attitude: Upright or inverted. Location: Position relative to the mirror. Type: Real or virtual image. Vertex -​ Point where the principal axis meets the mirror. -​ It is labeled V. Focus -​ The point at which light rays parallel to the principal axis converge ( meet at a common point ) when they are reflected off a concave mirror. -​ It is labeled F. Chapter 12 Refraction: when the incident ray goes from one medium to another type and changes the angle (ex. Goes from air to glass) ➔​ When the wave front reaches the surface area between two mediums, (eg. air and water) it is called the boundaries. ➔​ When the light crosses the boundary, its speed changes. ➔​ Refracted ray: the ray is bent when entering a second medium ➔​ Angle of refraction: the refracted ray to the normal ​ “F.a.S.T.” = Fast to Slow; moves Towards normal ​ “S.o.F.A.” = Slow to Fast; moves Away from normal Dispersion: the process of separating colours by refraction. Speed of light in a vacuum = 3.00 x 108 m/s Speed of light in any other medium = less than 3.00 x 108 m/s Index of Refraction: The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a given medium -​ Scientists use yellow light as a standard for reporting the index of refraction of light. -​ A rainbow is created when light passes through a prism or water droplets in the atmosphere, where it is refracted (bent), then reflected, and refracted again as it exits the droplet. -​ Why Do Different Colors Bend at Different Angles? -​ Light is made up of different colors, each with a different wavelength. -​ Red light has a longer wavelength and bends less than blue light, which has a shorter wavelength. -​ This difference in bending causes the colors to spread out and form a rainbow. Biology Movement - All living things move, even plants Respiration - Gas exchange Sense - Detecting changes in the surroundings Growth - All living things grow Reproduction - Making more living things Excretion - Getting rid of waste Nutrition - Taking in and using food for energy Cell Theory -​ All living things are made up of one or more cells -​ All cells come from pre-existing cells -​ The cells are the basic unit that can carry out all of life’s processes Cell part Function Animal/plant cell? Cell Membrane -​ Semi permeable membrane Animal and plant -​ It has pores/small holes cell! -​ Double layer of fats with embedded proteins -​ Function: Lets some material in and out of the cell, holds cell together Cytoplasm -​ Watery substance filling absent space in Animal and plant cell cell -​ Important because nutrients dissolve in this fluid and then are transported throughout the cell -​ Found between cell membrane and nuclear membrane Nucleus -​ Cell’s brain, (command centre) Animal and plant cell -​ Tells cell what to do -​ Has cell’s DNA, so it determines how the cell will act and how it’ll look like -​ Dark and you can usually see it the easiest from a microscope Nuclear -​ The only membrane w/ pores for material Animal and plant cell Membrane exchange -​ Protects the nucleus -​ Controls what enters and leaves the nucleus (e.g., RNA, proteins) -​ Has small pores (dots) in diagrams or microscope images Nucleolus -​ Produces ribosomes Animal and plant cell -​ Primary function is to produce and assemble the cell's ribosomes Vacuoles -​ Fluid-filled sacs in cells Animal and plant -​ Plants have one large vacuole to store food cells and water from photosynthesis. -​ Animal cells = smaller vacuoles because they eat and drink instead of photosynthesis, (stores water, waste, and food) Vesicles: (pack -​ Tiny bubbles near organelles or the cell Animal and plant cell protein for the membrane gym) -​ Packages materials to be moved through the cell/pushed out of the cell -​ Transport materials like proteins and waste Mitochondria Animal and plant cell -​ Job: Powerhouse of the cell, makes energy -​ Process: Converts sugar and oxygen into energy -​ Shape: Rod-shaped with folded inner membrane -​ More Active Cells: Have more mitochondria (e.g., heart cells) -​ Less Active Cells: Have fewer mitochondria (e.g., fat cells) Lysosome -​ Job: Cell’s janitor, cleans up waste Animal and plant cell -​ Uses enzymes to break down waste and dead parts -​ Pushes out unusable waste -​ Small, sac-like structure -​ Special Use: Helps digest food and fight infections (e.g., in white blood cells). Golgi Apparatus -​ One of the last structures in a cell scientists Animal and plant cell discovered -​ Puts fat/unwanted materials in vesicles -​ Packages proteins & ships them throughout the cell (FedEx truck) Endoplasmic -​ Job: Cell’s highway, path for materials to Animal and plant cell Reticulum: go through (highway) -​ Type: Double membrane with fluid-filled channels -​ Function: Transports proteins and other materials -​ Extra: Divides cell into sections for reactions Rough -​ Has ribosomes Animal and plant cell Endoplasmic -​ There’s a high concentration of Rough ER Reticulum close to the nucleus  -​ Function: produces proteins for the rest of the cell to function Ribosomes: -​ Function: Make proteins for cell Animal and plant cell (protein to functions and repair repair your -​ Size: Tiny, grain-like structures bones after a -​ Location: Can be free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER workout) -​ No membrane Smooth -​ No ribosomes Animal and plant cell Endoplasmic -​ Smooth, tube-like channels Reticulum -​ Uses enzymes to create fats and oils needed for cell membranes -​ Function: Transports materials and processes toxins in the cell Cytoskeleton: -​ Functions: Supports cell, helps with Animal and plant cell (therapy, movement, and organizes cell parts support) -​ Provides shape and structure to the cell -​ Helps cells divide and move materials within the cell. Cell wall -​ Rigid frame around the cell ONLY A PLANT -​ Provides strength, protection, and support CELL!!! -​ Only found in plant cells!! -​ Function: Gives the cell its shape and prevents it from bursting under pressure Chloroplasts: -​ Produces energy through photosynthesis, ONLY A PLANT (photosynthesis) making food for the plant CELL!! -​ Only found in plant cells (and some algae) -​ Function: Convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into glucose (food) and oxygen Differences between Animal and Plant cells: Animal cells: Plant cells: -​ Smaller vacuoles - Vacuoles are larger and more -​ Less vacuoles - Cell wall -​ No cell wall - Has chloroplasts -​ No chloroplasts  -​ Mitosis Mitosis: A process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells ​ Cases in where mitosis speeds up: ➔​ pregnancy ➔​ cancer ➔​ When part of an organism is growing ➔​ When cells are damaged due to burns, cute, etc Amount of chromosomes during metaphase: 46 Pairs of chromosomes in each daughter cell at the end of cytokinesis: 23 1.​ Interphase ​ Function: -​ The cell grows -​ Produces organelles -​ Duplicates its DNA to prepare for cell division -​ 90% of cell’s time is in interphase ​ Importance: Interphase is important because it ensures the cell has enough resources and genetic material to divide properly. 2. Prophase ​ Function: chromosomes become visible and the nuclear membrane breaks down. ​ Importance: Prophase is important because it prepares the chromosomes for correct separation and organizes the cell for division. ​ How does it happen: The chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes and the nuclear membrane breaks down. The cell produces two identical copies of sister chromatids connected by centromeres. 3. Metaphase ​ Function: Chromosomes attach to spindle fibers and align along the cell's equator (middle). ​ Importance: Metaphase is important because it ensures that chromosomes are placed correctly for equal distribution to each new cell. 4. Anaphase ​ Function: Spindle fibers shorten, pulling sister chromatids apart toward opposite poles of the cell. ​ Importance: Anaphase is important because it makes sure each new cell gets an identical set of chromosomes. 5. Telophase ​ Function: -​ Chromosomes reach opposite ends of the cell -​ Spindle fibers break down -​ Two nuclear membranes form around the separated chromosomes ​ Importance: Prepares the cell for cytokinesis, ensuring that each new cell has a complete nucleus.  Science biology notes Medical imaging What is the difference between an x ray, cat scan, and MRI An x-ray uses radiation to see the bones, CT scans combine x-rays and computers to create detailed images of the body, and MRI uses magnetic fields and radio waves to generate detailed images of soft tissues. How does an ultrasound work? When is it useful to use these? Ultrasounds use high frequency sound waves that bounce off tissues to create real time images. It's useful for checking on babies during pregnancy, looking at organs like the liver or kidneys, or examining muscles for injuries. What is a fluoroscopy? Fluoroscopy is a moving X-ray. It shows real-time images of your body, like how joints or the digestive system move, using X-rays on a screen. What is endoscopy? Endoscopy is when a small flexible tube with a camera attached is inserted into internal areas. It’s often used to check things like the stomach, lungs, or colon. Angiogram A type of fluoroscopy focused on blood vessels. Uses a contrast dye to make veins visible on the live X-ray. When is each type of medical imaging used? X-ray: 1.​ Checking for broken bones. 2.​ Finding lung problems, like pneumonia. CT scan: 1.​ Finding tumors. 2.​ Checking for internal injuries. MRI:  1.​ Looking at the brain or spine. 2.​ Checking the heart or muscles. Ultrasound: 1.​ Seeing a baby during pregnancy. 2.​ Checking for kidney or gallstones. Fluoroscopy: 1.​ Watching food move in the digestive system. 2.​ Seeing how joints move. Organ Donation and Regenerative Medicine Organ Donation: Transferring healthy organs from donors to patients (ex. kidney, liver) Regenerative Medicine: Growing organs from a patient’s own cells to prevent rejection. Techniques to Grow Organs: 1.​ Synthetic Scaffolds: Artificial frameworks for cells to grow on (e.g., windpipe) 2.​ Non Living Skeletons: Using protein structures from donor organs and adding patient cells. Benefits: ​ Saves lives by solving organ shortages. ​ Reduces organ rejection. Challenges: ​ Expensive and not fully perfected. Body Systems 1. Digestive System ​ Main Function: Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients. ​ What It Looks Like: A tube starting at the mouth, leading through the stomach and intestines. 2. Muscular System ​ Main Function: Helps the body move and generates heat. ​ What It Looks Like: Red, fibrous tissue attached to bones or lining organs. 3. Excretory System ​ Main Function: Removes waste and balances water. ​ What It Looks Like: Bean-shaped kidneys connected to tubes leading to the bladder. 4. Circulatory System ​ Main Function: Moves blood, oxygen, and nutrients around the body. ​ What It Looks Like: A heart pumping blood through branching blood vessels. 5. Reproductive System ​ Main Function: Produces offspring and hormones. ​ What It Looks Like: Ovaries and uterus for females; testes and ducts for males. 6. Respiratory System ​ Main Function: Brings in oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. ​ What It Looks Like: Lungs with branching airways (bronchi). 7. Skeletal System ​ Main Function: Supports, protects, and helps the body move. ​ What It Looks Like: A framework of bones. 8. Lymphatic System ​ Main Function: Fights infections and returns fluid to the blood. ​ What It Looks Like: Small lymph nodes connected by thin vessels. 9. Endocrine System ​ Main Function: Produces hormones to regulate the body. ​ What It Looks Like: Glands (e.g., thyroid is butterfly-shaped in the neck). 10. Integumentary System ​ Main Function: Protects the body and senses the environment. ​ What It Looks Like: Skin, hair, and nails. 11. Nervous System ​ Main Function: Sends signals to control the body. ​ What It Looks Like: A network of nerves connected to the brain and spinal cord.