Philosophy - Lesson 1 - Doing Philosophy PDF

PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 1 DOING PHILOSOPHY Contemporary (1900 – Present)...

PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 1 DOING PHILOSOPHY Contemporary (1900 – Present) Explosive: it has no center CONTENTS Auguste Comte, Henri Bergson, Jean-Paul Sartre Definition of Philosophy TWO DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY Historical Development of Philosophy Divisions of Philosophy Practical Philosophy Holistic Thinking VS Partial Thinking Phenomenological Method It is composed of philosophical fields, which study not only to obtain Reflective Practice in Philosophy knowledge but to use that knowledge for practical purposes. It Existentialism presents related data from which the directive laws or norms are Existentialist Philosophers immediately derived (Ardales, 1987). WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? 1. Logic: questions related to reasoning The word philosophy is derived from philosophia, which is a combination How can we distinguish between a valid and invalid argument? What are the common logical fallacies that people make in of the Greek terms philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom). Thus, philosophy everyday reasoning? means “love of wisdom” (Amanze, et. al., 2010) How can formal logic improve problem-solving in mathematics? What role does inductive reasoning play in scientific discovery? Philosophy is the science of the first causes (Maritain, 2005). It seeks How can logic help in analyzing political speeches for to know and clarify the very source to which the chain of causes consistency and truthfulness? ultimately all go back for it. 2. Ethics: questions related to morality Philosophy can be stated as scientia rerum per causas primas sub lumine What is the moral responsibility of businesses to the rationis naturalis or the science of beings in their ultimate reasons, environment? causes, and principles acquired by the aid of human reason alone How should healthcare professionals balance patient autonomy (Bittle, 1984). and medical advice? Is it ever ethically justified to lie to protect someone's feelings? Misconceptions in Philosophy? What are the ethical implications of artificial intelligence in decision-making? PHILOSOPHY IS NOT… How can societies create laws that align with ethical principles of fairness and justice? 1. Philosophy does not make real progress like the sciences. 2. Philosophy is just stating your personal opinion. 3. Axiology: questions related to values 3. Philosophy is not one’s view of life or other matters. What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic values? 4. Philosophy is light reading, something you relax with in the evening, after all the serious work of the day is done. How do cultural differences shape what is considered valuable in different societies? Can money buy happiness, or are there more valuable aspects Where did Philosophy Originate? of life? How do personal values influence decision-making in leadership Pythagoras first coined the term philosophy, by a Greek mathematician. roles? He used this term to classify three classes of people who attended the What role do values play in forming ethical principles? ancient Olympic Games as lovers of gain; lovers of honor; and lovers of knowledge or wisdom (Caraan, 2016). 4. Aesthetics: questions related to beauty and taste What criteria should be used to judge whether a work of art is HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY beautiful? How do different cultures define and appreciate beauty? Ancient Philosophy (600 BC – CE) Can something be aesthetically pleasing but morally offensive? Cosmocentric What is the role of aesthetics in architecture and urban Beginning of everything planning? Thales, Pythagoras, Democritus How do personal preferences shape our perception of beauty in Socrates, Plato, Aristotle nature? Medieval Philosophy (600 – 1600) 5. Semantics: questions related to meaning How does context influence the meaning of words in Theocentric: the study of the existence, nature, and essence of communication? God What is the difference between connotation and denotation in Ethical: existence of evil and the immortality of the soul. language? St. Justin Martyr, Hippolytus, Tertullian How can semantic ambiguity lead to misunderstandings in legal contracts? Modern Philosophy (1600 – 1900) What role does semantics play in shaping political discourse? Anthropocentric: the study of man (in relation to himself, How do new meanings evolve for words in digital others, nature, and God) communication? Rene Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Baruch Spinoza, Immanuel Kant  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 1 Skeptical Philosophy Application: Holism is used in anthropology wherein an anthropologist can It is made up of philosophical filed whose main concern is the acquisition begin to see interrelationship or correlation of different of knowledge without any thought of applying it for practical use. It components of a culture. is a philosophy that enriches the mind by principles to be speculated upon Example is that one can see the correlation between the ecological or to be known (Ardales, 1998). situation and social organization of a community. Holistic medicine is a prominent example of holistic thinking. A 1. Epistemology: questions related to truth and knowledge medical professional who believes in holistic care considers the How do we know what we know, and can knowledge be certain? relationship between the mind, body, and spirit. What is the difference between belief, truth, and knowledge? Partial Point of View Can we trust our senses to provide accurate knowledge of the world? What role does skepticism play in scientific inquiry? Partial point of view focuses on specific aspects of a situation. How can we determine if a belief is justified or not? The partial view is an important component of analytical thinking 2. Theology: questions related to God as an individual focuses on certain areas or aspects of a problem Does the existence of evil challenge the belief in an all-good, all- in order to understand it. powerful God? Partial point of view has clearly stated and admitted that the way What are the philosophical arguments for the existence of God? the person sees reality or certain phenomenon is based on a Can religious experiences be considered valid evidence for the single factor or causal agency existence of God? How do different theological traditions explain the purpose of PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD human life? What is the relationship between faith and reason? Phenomenological method was pioneered by Edmund Husserl 3. Cosmology: questions related to universe whose aim was to arrive at a philosophy understood as a rigorous How did the universe begin, and what are the current science which should describe, rather than explain, an immediate philosophical interpretations of the Big Bang theory? experience. Is the universe infinite, or does it have boundaries? Phenomenologists encourage “to go back to the things What is the nature of time in the context of the universe? themselves”– that which presents itself to the human person – to see things as they are, independent and free of prejudice. Can the universe be explained purely through natural laws, or is there a need for a creator? Central Idea: Reflection What are the philosophical implications of the multiverse theory? Reflective Practice in Philosophy 4. Psychology: questions related to soul What is the nature of consciousness, and how does it arise? HUMAN SELF-REFLECTION: is the capacity of humans to Is the mind separate from the body, or are they one and the exercise introspection and the willingness to learn more about same? their fundamental nature, purpose, and essence. What is the role of free will in human behavior? PRIMARY REFLECTION: refers to the process directed at deriving How does the subconscious mind influence our actions? clear concepts about reality. Partial POV Can humans achieve true self-awareness, or are there limits to SECONDARY REFLECTION: is the realization of the unity of the knowing ourselves? situation and the individual which provides us with a holistic view 5. Metaphysics: questions related to being and existence of reality. What is the nature of reality—does it exist independently of human perception? ALL QUADRANTS ALL LEVELS (AQAL) Is there a fundamental difference between the physical and the non-physical? According to Ken Wilber, everything can be analyzed using a What does it mean for something to exist? vertical line. How do time and space relate to the nature of existence? The line divides space into two sides: left and right. Can we ever truly understand the nature of being, or is it The left side represents the interior, subjective, aspect of beyond human comprehension? everything. The right side represents the exterior, objective, aspect of HOLISTIC VS. PARTIAL THINKING everything. Another basic distinction was introduced by Ken Wilber using a Two Types of Thinking: Bigger Picture, Detail-Oriented horizontal line that divides space into above and below: Above the line represents what is singular, individual, one. The space below represents what is plural, collective, and many Holistic Perspective An interesting thing happens when we combine the two lines. According to Wilber quadrants are “the inside and outside of the Holism comes from the Greek word "holos" which literally means individual and collective” all, entire, totality. Upper Left (UL) Upper Right (UR) It maintains the interdependence of factors to other agencies of Interior of an individual Exterior of an individual causalities. (mind, own perception) (own body) Holistic thinking refers to a perspective that considers largescale patterns in systems. Lower Left (LL) Lower Right (LR) Interior of the collective Exterior of the collective It requires an individual to have an open mindset and the ability to (cultures) (society) get a general sense or impression regarding a situation.  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 1 EXISTENTIALISM Existentialist Philosophers Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) freedom, and choice. It is the view that humans define their His key contributions include the concept of the meaning in life, and try to make rational decisions despite existing "leap of faith". His analysis of religious in an irrational universe. experience, and the first developed analysis of Both phenomenology and existentialism do not present a set of many key existential concepts, including doctrines but more of an outlook or attitude. It is supported by absurdity, anguish, authenticity, the weight diverse doctrines centered on certain themes which include: the human condition or the relation of the individual to the of responsibility you bear for your choices, and the importance of world; the irrational to human life. the human response to that condition; being, especially the difference between the being of a Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) person (which is “existence”) and the being of other kinds His key contributions include the concepts of of things; the "Übermensch" (Overman), an individual human freedom; who transcends conventional morality to the significance of choice and decision in the absence of create and live by their own values, and the certainty; declaration that "God is dead," suggesting that the decline of religious belief in modern Key Concepts of Existentialism society necessitates the creation of new values. a) Existence precedes essence. Man is a conscious subject, rather than a thing to be predicted or manipulated; Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) b) Absurdity. It is brought about because the human instinct to seek He introduced the idea of "Dasein," which means order and meaning is frustrated by the refusal of the world to be orderly or meaningful. "being there" and refers to human existence as being c) Anxiety. Kierkegaard said, “Anxiety is the dizziness of freedom.” deeply connected to the world around us. d) Alienation. The sense that you’re a stranger in the world or a stranger to yourself. Many aspects of existence can be alienating. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) e) Subjectivity. Your first-person perspective on the world, He argued that "existence precedes essence," including the needs, desires, and emotions that accompany that and his work "Being and Nothingness," explores perspective. themes of freedom, bad faith, and the nature of human existence. Secular Existentialism Vs. Traditional Christianity Secular Existentialism Traditional Christianity Albert Camus (1913–1960) The world is absurd, and there is world is absurd, and it is a In "The Myth of Sisyphus," he suggests that we no hope wonder there is hope. find personal meaning and happiness in the Man is free from imposed moral God’s transcendent universal struggle itself, embracing life despite its lack of values moral values ultimate purpose. His works, like "The Stranger" Each person has their own God is the absolute final authority concerning the truth authority over His creation and and "The Plague," explore themes of absurdity, all things rebellion, and the human condition. Existence precedes essence – Person’s essence is Jean-Paul Sarte predestined by God and precedes existence Existentialism Actions Taking responsibility for your own actions Living your life without regard to commonly-held religious or social beliefs Believing as an educator that that being a teacher is a providing a beneficial and critical role in the growth of students Determining your career choice based on what you think is an important way to spend your future.  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 KNOWING THE TRUTH 3. Contingent Truth sometimes expressed by saying that a contingent proposition NATURE OF TRUTH is one that is true in some possible worlds and not in others "It is raining outside right now" is contingent because it is There are two conflicting philosophical views about this true at this moment but not necessarily true at all times. question: those who affirm that truth indeed has a specific "The Eiffel Tower is in Paris" is contingent because it could nature and those who deny it. have been built elsewhere in a different world. o Those who affirm that truth has a specific nature see truth "The car is blue" is contingent since the car could have been as a substantial property. The motivating idea behind this is painted a different color in another circumstance. that by ascribing “is true,” “it’s true,” or any of its cognates 4. Necessary Truth to a given truth-bearer something theoretically significant is a true statement whose negation must imply a contradiction being added to it. in reality, such that the negation would be impossible o Those who deny this claim that when we say that a given "A triangle has three sides" is a necessary truth because truth-bearer is true, the predicate “is true” does not add denying it would lead to a contradiction. anything significant to it at all. "All humans are mortal" is a necessary truth since being ❖ A variety of truth-bearers are considered – statements, beliefs, mortal is part of the definition of being human. claims, assumptions, hypotheses, propositions, sentences, and "The sum of the angles in a triangle is 180 degrees" is a utterances. necessary mathematical truth that cannot be denied without ❖ Proposition refers to a linguistic expression whose function is to contradiction. advance a claim about the world. 5. PRIVATE TRUTH ❖ Propositions are distinguished as the primary bearers of truth, can only be known by the person who has the belief or make while sentences and utterances are properly characterized as the statement considered to be true. true in virtue of expressing true propositions. "I am feeling happy today" is a private truth known only to ❖ Beliefs are the mental expressions of our claims. Sometimes it is the person experiencing the emotion. said that statements are expressions of beliefs, which means "I believe in life after death" is private since only the beliefs as more basic than statements. individual can truly know their belief. "I have a headache" is private because only the person Differences of Fact and Truth experiencing it can know if it's true. FACT TRUTH 6. PUBLIC TRUTH Objective Subjective is a kind of truth known by everyone. Empirical Evidence only Based on evidence, but with "The Earth revolves around the sun" is a public truth known personal and cultural perspective and accepted by everyone. Specific Broader "Barack Obama was the 44th President of the United States" is a public truth because it is widely recognized. KINDS OF TRUTH "Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms" is a public truth known through scientific consensus. 1. Empirical Truth 7. SUBJECTIVE TRUTH described as a posteriori which means that it can only be is dependent on the attitudes, preferences or interests of a known after some relevant experience. person or a group of persons The statement "Water boils at 100°C at sea level" is true "Chocolate ice cream is the best flavor" is a subjective truth based on experimental observation. based on personal preference. "The sun rises in the east and sets in the west" is an "This movie is entertaining" is subjective, as different people empirical truth based on repeated daily experience. may have different opinions. "Ice melts at 0°C under normal atmospheric pressure" is "Running is a fun activity" is dependent on the individual's true only after the relevant experience of observing ice interest in running. melting. 8. Objective Truth 2. Rational Truth is an objective claim is a statement about a factual matter, called a priori which means that it can be known before some one that can be proved true or false. relevant experiences. "The Earth is approximately 93 million miles away from the "All bachelors are unmarried" is a rational truth because it Sun" is an objective truth that can be scientifically verified. is true by definition without requiring experience. "The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean on Earth" is an "2 + 2 = 4" is known to be true through logic and reason, objective fact that can be measured. independent of experience. "Humans require oxygen to survive" is an objective truth "If it is raining, then there are clouds in the sky" is true that applies to all people and can be proven. based on the logical connection between rain and clouds.  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 9. Universal Truth Examples: when a belief or a statement is acknowledged to be true by a) "2 + 2 = 4": This statement is true because it coheres with everyone the system of mathematics, where the rules and logic "All humans need food and water to survive" is universally consistently support this outcome. accepted as true by everyone. b) "All humans are mortal": This belief is coherent with our "Fire burns" is a universal truth acknowledged by all people understanding of biology and human existence, fitting within due to its obvious effects. the broader network of beliefs about life and death. "The Earth has gravity" is a universally recognized truth c) "Democracy is a fair form of government": This experienced by everyone on Earth. statement may be seen as true within a coherent system of 10. Relative Truth beliefs that values equality, freedom, and public when a belief is acknowledge only by some people. participation in decision-making. "In some cultures, it is customary to remove shoes before entering a home" is true for some cultures but not all. 3. Pragmatic Theory "Abortion is morally acceptable" may be true for some William James is considered the father of pragmatism. A individuals or societies but not for others. sentence is meaningful only if believing it would make a "Spicy food is enjoyable" is a relative truth, as not everyone practical difference in your life as opposed to believing some shares the same taste preferences. alternative to it. Explanation: The Pragmatic Theory, associated with William James, THEORIES OF TRUTH asserts that a belief or proposition is true if accepting it leads to practical consequences or benefits in one's life. According to this view, truth is 1. Correspondence Theory determined by the practical effects of a belief—if believing something helps proposes that a proposition is true if it corresponds to the one navigate the world effectively, then that belief is considered true. Truth facts. Often traced back to Thomas Aquinas’ version: “A is not an abstract ideal but rather a tool for achieving desired outcomes. judgment is said to be true when it conforms to the Examples: external reality” (Summa Theologiae, Q. 16). a) "Exercising regularly improves health": This belief is true Explanation: The Correspondence Theory asserts that a statement or pragmatically because acting on it leads to improved proposition is true if it accurately reflects or corresponds to reality or physical well-being, making a practical difference in life. facts. In other words, a belief or judgment is considered true if it matches b) "Wearing a seatbelt reduces the risk of injury in a car what is actually the case in the external world. This theory traces back to accident": This statement is pragmatically true because philosophers like Thomas Aquinas, who believed that truth occurs when following it leads to better safety outcomes in accidents, as thought or judgment aligns with real-world facts. verified by its practical results. Examples: c) "Studying increases your chances of passing an exam": a) "The sky is blue": This statement is true because it This belief is pragmatically true because acting on it typically corresponds to the fact that, under normal conditions, the leads to better academic performance, which makes a sky appears blue to observers. practical difference for students. b) "Water freezes at 0°C": This proposition is true because it corresponds to the physical fact that water changes state METHODS IN PHILOSOPHIZING to ice at this temperature under standard atmospheric pressure. Philosophy of Man c) "There are 50 states in the United States": This The British philosopher Karl Raymund Popper (as cited in statement is true because it corresponds to the factual Demetrio, 2001) theorized that man concurrently exists in three number of states in the U.S. distinct worlds: (1) the physical world of nature 2. Coherence Theory (2) the internal world of ideas, thoughts, and emotions Preferred by many idealists. For idealists, reality is like a (3) the social world of inter-subjectivity. collection of beliefs, which makes the coherence theory Philosophy of the Human Person can be defined as the science of particularly attractive. human beings that interprets the data of experience in the light of Explanation: The Coherence Theory of truth holds that a belief or metaphysical principles. proposition is true if it fits coherently within a larger system of beliefs or Philosophy of Man is as broad as life and as deep as human statements. Rather than depending on external facts, truth here is understanding, since it looks into the wholeness and fullness of determined by how well a proposition aligns with other accepted truths or human existence. Philosophy of Man is an inquiry into the what- beliefs. This theory is often favored by idealists who view reality as who-and-why of man. interconnected, and coherence among beliefs as essential for establishing truth.  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 Approaches in Understanding Man 2. Transcendental Method 1. The descriptive (or scientific) approach asks about what is man Aspect Transcendental Method as person, as a nature, and as existing. It is merely interested in Origin Immanuel Kant describing man’s personhood, nature, and condition. It uses Focus Conditions that make experience and knowledge empirical method and explains that there is no knowable reality possible beyond what one can see, hear, measure, etc. Purpose To uncover the a priori (pre-experiential) Examples: conditions that structure experience a) "Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes": This is a Approach Investigates the structures of consciousness factual, scientific statement about human biology, based on that allow for the possibility of experience empirical research and observation. Key concept A Priori Knowledge: Structures like space, time, b) "Humans sleep an average of 7-8 hours per night": This and causality are preconditions for experience describes human behavior based on statistical data Methodology Analytical: Examines how the mind structures gathered through studies of sleep patterns. experience Use of Bracketing Not central; the focus is on underlying 2. The normative (or prescriptive) approach asks what man as a (Epoché) conditions rather than suspending judgment person, as a nature, as existing is suppose to be. It uses the reflective method and views that there lies beyond what one can Phenomenological Method see, hear, and measure. Explanation: The phenomenological method, developed by Edmund Husserl, Examples: focuses on the study of human experiences as they are perceived by 1. "Humans ought to be compassionate toward others": individuals, without making assumptions about external reality. It involves This is a prescriptive statement suggesting an ethical ideal "bracketing" or suspending one's judgment about the existence of the about how humans should behave in social situations. external world to focus on the subjective experience itself. The goal is to 2. "Humans should strive for self-actualization": This describe and understand how things appear in consciousness, free from reflects a normative view of human potential, suggesting preconceived notions. that individuals ought to aim for the fulfillment of their Examples: highest personal capabilities, as proposed by thinkers like 1. Studying the experience of grief: A phenomenologist might Maslow. investigate how people experience grief by asking individuals to describe their feelings and perceptions, focusing solely on how the Methods in Philosophizing: emotions manifest in their consciousness. A method is a way of doing something, especially in a systematic 2. Analyzing the perception of beauty: Rather than defining beauty way. objectively, a phenomenologist would explore how individuals Philosophy of Human Person, being a rational investigation into the perceive beauty, seeking to describe the lived experience of nature of human being, needs a method so that it can bring out its encountering something they find beautiful, such as a painting or a subject matter in a lucid and logical manner. sunset. Phenomenological and transcendental - because human beings Transcendental Method have two aspects, namely, the physical and the psychic. Explanation: The transcendental method, notably developed by Immanuel Kant, seeks to understand the conditions that make knowledge and 1. Phenomenological Method experience possible. It explores how the mind structures experiences of Aspect Phenomenological Method the world, rather than focusing on subjective experiences alone. Origin Edmund Husserl Transcendental inquiry asks what universal structures or principles must Focus Direct description of lived experience exist for experiences to be comprehensible, examining the "conditions of Purpose To describe experiences as they are perceived, possibility" for knowledge and perception. without presuppositions Examples: Approach Investigates the content of consciousness as it 1. Studying the structure of time: Using the transcendental method, presents itself a philosopher might investigate the way human minds perceive Key concept Intentionality: Consciousness is always directed time, questioning what makes the experience of past, present, and toward something future possible and how time is structured in the mind. Methodology Descriptive: Focuses on describing the lived 2. Exploring the nature of causality: Instead of just observing experience cause-and-effect relationships, a transcendental philosopher would Use of Bracketing Central: Bracketing is used to set aside biases ask what conditions must exist in the mind for us to understand (Epoché) and focus purely on the experience events in terms of causality, focusing on the underlying cognitive frameworks that shape this understanding.  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 Critical Thinking as Method that Leads to Wisdom and Truth Example: "I think online education is more effective than 1. For Double (1999) the subject matter of philosophy is questions, traditional classroom learning because it offers more which have three major characteristics: flexibility for students." Philosophical questions have answers, but the answers remain in 2. Beliefs are statements that express convictions that are not dispute. easily and clearly explained by facts. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common Example: "I believe that good things happen to those who wait, sense or faith. even though it cannot be proven scientifically." Philosophical questions are of perennial intellectual interests to 3. Explanations are statements that assume the claim to be true human beings. and provide reasons why the statement is true. 2. For Maboloc and Pascua (2008), critical thinking is a lifelong Example: "The car stopped running because it ran out of fuel. process or self-assessment that further consists of: Without gasoline, the engine cannot generate power." defining, analyzing and devising solutions; 4. Arguments are a series of statements that provide reasons to arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions; convince the reader or listener that a claim or opinion is truthful. applying understanding and knowledge to new and different Example: "Since exercise reduces the risk of heart disease problems; and improves overall health, everyone should aim to exercise willingness to change one point of view; at least 30 minutes a day to stay healthy." continually examining and re-examining ideas; and willingness to 5. Fallacies are arguments based on faulty reasoning. Some of them say “I don’t know”. are intentional, as the person making the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her argument. Importance of Philosophy of Man Example: Ad hominem fallacy: "You shouldn't listen to her It provides guidance in better understanding man’s nature and opinion on climate change because she's not a scientist." personhood. 6. Biases are the personal views of the person presenting it. They It enables man to appreciate the diverse views on the ideals of full are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies humanness. or influences which affect the views of people It tells man the similarities and differences among man, plants, and Example: "The news article favors the company's decision animals. because the journalist has personal ties to the CEO, making It enables man to appreciate the nature of life and the meaning of the coverage less critical of potential downsides." his existence. It opens the way for better relationships among men, others, and FALLACIES God are arguments based on faulty reasoning. Some of them are intentional, FACT VERSUS OPINION as the person making the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her argument. Aspect Fact Opinion Definition A statement that can be A personal belief, Kinds of Fallacies proven true or false judgement, or feeling 1. Ad Hominem based on evidence or that cannot be proven Attacking the person instead of the argument itself. reality. true or false. "You can't trust John's opinion on climate change because Example “Water freezes at 0˚C” “Vanilla is the best ice he's not smart enough to understand science." cream flavor.” "Why should we believe what she says about healthy eating? Verification Can be verified through Cannot be verified; it She's overweight." observation, varies from person to "Your argument about politics is invalid because you're too measurement, or person. young to know anything about it." reliable sources. 2. Ad Baculum Basis Based on objective Based on personal Using the threat of force or an undesirable event to advance reality and evidence. views, preferences, or an argument emotions. "If you don’t vote for me, I’ll cut funding to your community." Universality True for everyone Can differ widely "You should agree with me or else you'll be sorry when I regardless of beliefs or between different report this to the boss." opinions. people or groups. "If you don't do what I say, you'll regret it when something bad happens." How can philosophy guide us in distinguishing truth from opinion? 3. Ad Misericordiam 1. Opinions are comprised of statements which not only give facts Using emotions such as pity and sympathy but also provide conclusions or perspectives regarding certain "You should give me a good grade because I have been going situations. They may advance a belief about certain things or through a tough time." provide explanations. "Please don't fire me, I have a family to feed."  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 "You must vote for this policy, think of all the children who be terrible at driving." will suffer if it doesn't pass." "The first person I met in that country was rude, so all people 4. Ad Populum from there are impolite." Idea is presented as acceptable because a lot of people 11. Petitio Principii accept it The conclusion of an argument is assumed in the premises, "Everyone is buying this product, so it must be the best one creating a loop of reasoning that doesn't provide any actual on the market." support for the argument. "You should follow this trend because everyone else is doing "Reading is beneficial because it’s good for you to read." it." "God exists because the Bible says so, and the Bible is true "Most people believe in this myth, so it must be true." because it’s the word of God." 5. Ad Antiquitatem "The government must be obeyed because the laws say we The idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long should obey the government." time 12. Post Hoc "This method has been used for centuries, so it must be the Assuming a cause-and-effect relationship between best way to do it." unrelated events "We should continue this practice because it’s always been "I wore my lucky socks and won the game, so the socks must done this way." be the reason we won." "Monarchy is the right system of government because it's "The rooster crowed, and then the sun rose, so the rooster's been around for hundreds of years." crowing must have caused the sunrise." 6. Ad Verecundiam "After the new mayor was elected, crime rates increased, Misusing an authority so the mayor must be responsible for the rise in crime." "A famous actor endorses this product, so it must be good." "A well-known politician supports this law, so it must be beneficial." "This diet is recommended by a celebrity, so it must be effective." 7. Dicto Simpliciter Argument based on an unqualified generalization "Exercise is good for everyone, so even people with heart conditions should exercise vigorously." "All college students are lazy because the ones I know don’t study much." "Reading books makes you smarter, so everyone who reads must be a genius." 8. Fallacy of Composition Assuming that what is true of a part is true for the whole "This athlete is amazing, so their entire team must be the best." "Each ingredient in the recipe is healthy, so the entire dish must be healthy." "Each department in the company is well-managed, so the whole company must be perfectly run." 9. Fallacy of Division Assuming that what is true of the whole is true for its parts "The university has a great reputation, so every student there must be brilliant." "This car model is reliable, so every single car from this brand will never break down." "The team won the championship, so every player must be exceptional." 10. Hasty Generalization The generalization is reached too hastily. There are too few instances or evidences to support such a conclusion. "My friend got sick after getting the flu shot, so vaccines must be unsafe." "I saw two bad drivers today, so everyone in this city must  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 2 BIASES instances when predictions fail. 3. Conflict Interest - are the personal views of the person presenting it. They are not A person or a group is connected to or has a vested necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies or interest in the issue. influences which affect the views of people A pharmaceutical company funding a research study on the - Thomas Kelly distinguishes a pejorative from a non-pejorative effectiveness of its own drug, which may lead to biased sense of “bias”. results in favor of the drug. A judge ruling on a case where one of the parties is a close A. Pejorative personal friend, potentially leading to biased legal decisions. A pejorative bias refers to a negative or derogatory bias A financial analyst providing overly positive that leads to unfair, discriminatory, or unjust views and recommendations on a stock they hold significant shares in, judgments about certain groups, individuals, or ideas. potentially skewing investment advice. A news outlet consistently portrays immigrants as 4. Cultural Bias criminals, leading the audience to develop negative and Analyzing an event or issue based on one’s cultural unfair views about immigrants as a group. standards. A teacher unfairly assumes that students from a specific Evaluating a different culture’s family structure based on socioeconomic background are less capable, treating them one's own cultural norms, assuming other family models are with lower expectations and stifling their potential. less valid or inferior. Judging a country’s educational system harshly because it B. Non-Pejorative differs from the observer's cultural standards of education, Non-pejorative bias refers to biases that are not necessarily without understanding the context or effectiveness within negative or harmful but are simply tendencies or that culture. inclinations that shape how one perceives and evaluates Analyzing an art form from another culture and dismissing information. it as primitive or unsophisticated based on one’s own A person prefers to listen to expert opinions from well- cultural aesthetic values. known scientists over lesser-known experts, not because 5. Framing the lesser-known are wrong but due to a natural inclination Focusing on a certain aspect of a problem while ignoring to trust familiar names. other aspects A film critic tends to favor films from a particular genre, Presenting a new policy as "a significant tax cut for the such as drama, over action films, due to personal taste, middle class" rather than "a reduction in government without necessarily thinking that action films are bad. revenue" to emphasize its positive aspects while downplaying potential negatives. Kinds of Bias Reporting a company’s decision to increase prices as "a 1. Correspondence Bias necessary adjustment for inflation" rather than "a decision Tendency to judge a person’s personality by his/her actions to maximize profits," influencing public perception. without regard for external factors or situations. Describing a political candidate's controversial statement Observing someone being late to a meeting and assuming as "a candid and honest moment" instead of "an offensive they are irresponsible, without considering they might have remark," which shapes how people perceive the candidate’s faced unexpected traffic or personal issues. character. Judging a colleague as lazy because they missed a deadline, 6. Hindsight without recognizing they may have been dealing with a Is when after an event occurs, we feel we already knew what serious health problem. was going to go. Assuming a student who fails an exam is not intelligent, After a sports team loses a game, claiming "I knew they disregarding the possibility of external factors like would lose" despite not having made such a prediction inadequate teaching or personal difficulties. before the game. 2. Confirmation Bias Following a financial crisis, asserting "It was obvious that The tendency to look for and accept information in that the market was going to crash," even though the signs were confirms one’s own beliefs and reject ideas that go not clear before the event. against it. After a political decision results in negative outcomes, A person who believes that a particular diet is effective will stating "It was clear that the policy would fail," even though only seek out success stories and ignore any negative the outcome was not predictable at the time of the decision. reports or studies. A political supporter only reads news articles and views media that align with their political beliefs, dismissing opposing viewpoints as biased or incorrect. A person who believes in astrology selectively remembers instances when horoscopes seem accurate while ignoring  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 3 HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT As an embodied spirit human beings demonstrates the following qualities (Abella, 2016): Defining Concepts SELF-AWARENESS refers to a person having a clear Concept Definition perception of oneself, including his or her thoughts, Man By definition, it is generally and commonly defined to represent the entire human race. emotions, identity, and actions (Abella, 2016). The self is the Human A term used to refer for various classifications and subject that thinks, feels, and acts. It is your I amness species. For a living man, human is under the (Wilber, 2006). classification of Mamalia Human A term used to separate man from other Human A human person can connect and interact with another Being Classifications like animals. person, an animal or an inanimate object. We call this Person Refers to an individual who possess self-awareness, self-determination, rational mind, and the capacity EXTERNALITY. to interact with other and with himself/herself. Others do not determine us. Because we have interiority; Personhood A general term refers to the state of being a person we can direct the course of our own life. This is what we with unique, sacred and ethical status within him/herself. call SELF-DETERMINATION which is “the capability of Human A general term refers to the deepest and natural persons to make choices and decisions based on their Nature behaviour of a person that distinguish human from own preferences, monitor and regulate their actions, and animals. A collective traits that formed and considered the very essence of humanity. be goal-oriented and self-directed” (Abella 2016). Finally, a human person has an inherent value and Human Person importance. This is what we call DIGNITY. That is why no is someone with an exact origin of his/her classification. amount of money can equal the value of a human life. This is Human person from time after time learned how to live beyond what also the reason why individual rights are absolute (Rand was traditional through the various human evolutions from 1964). The American Founding Fathers called rights Hominid to Homo Sapiens or the Modern Man people learn the “inalienable” because they cannot be separated from our concept of power, politics and economics. humanity Human person is typically with a tangible body with three components: TRANSCENDENCE 1. Soul This power is your ability to surpass your limits. This is the 2. Mind definition of Transcendence. You are able to transcend your limit 3. Spirit. through your physical and mental abilities. (Abella, 2016). St. Thomas Aquinas, a philosopher and one of the greatest 2 General Kinds to Distinguish Human Person theologian in the Catholic Church in the 13th century, said that 1. Cognitive Self “of all creatures, human beings have the unique power to - is the essential components of a human persons that deals change themselves and things for the better.” (Ramos, 2016). Buddha left his royal life in the palace and spent his life for 6 years with THE WHAT OF A PERSON which includes human in the wilderness to find answers for his questions about life. And persons’ belief, desire, dreams, and intentions. when he sat under the Tree of Enlightenment for 40 days, voila 2. Physical Self he finds the answers. The Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path - which deals with the essential features of the human way 4 Noble Truths of life or THE WHO OF A PERSON which includes his/her body type, strength and appearances. The Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): Life is inherently unsatisfactory and filled with suffering. Embodied Spirit A person experiences emotional suffering after the loss of a Embodied spirit is an animating core living within each of us. It is loved one, feeling grief and sorrow. known to be the driving force behind what we actually think, do A person feels unfulfilled and dissatisfied despite having a and say. successful career and material wealth. In the context and views of Christian philosophy, the embodiment Physical pain due to illness or injury, such as a chronic of the spirit particularly refers to the inseparable union of human condition causing daily discomfort. body and soul. Inseparable which also means the body and soul work together at all times The Truth of the Cause of Suffering (Samudaya): The root cause of suffering is desire or attachment (tanha).  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 3 A person suffers because they are deeply attached to their 2. Right Intention (Samma Sankappa) possessions and fear losing them. Explanation: Cultivating wholesome thoughts, intentions, and desires. It involves avoiding harmful thoughts like greed, hatred, Someone experiences frustration and disappointment and delusion while fostering good intentions such as kindness and because of their constant craving for recognition and praise renunciation. from others. Examples: A person feels anxious and stressed due to their strong 1. Intending to help others without expecting anything in return. desire for a particular outcome in their life, such as getting 2. Committing to live a life of non-violence and a promotion. compassion. 3. Choosing to let go of materialistic desires to focus on personal growth. The Truth of the End of Suffering (Nirodha): Suffering can be 4. Intending to speak truthfully and kindly in all overcome by eliminating desire and attachment. conversations. A person attains peace of mind after letting go of their need 5. Cultivating thoughts of love and kindness towards for validation from others and accepting themselves as they people who have wronged you. are. 3. Right Speech (Samma Vaca) Someone overcomes suffering by detaching from material Explanation: Speaking in a truthful, harmonious, and desires and finding contentment in simplicity and compassionate manner. Avoiding lying, harsh words, gossip, and minimalism. divisive speech. A person experiences inner calm and joy after resolving Examples: 1. Refraining from gossiping about coworkers or their attachment to a past relationship, accepting that it has friends. ended. 2. Apologizing sincerely when you’ve hurt someone with your words. 3. Speaking truthfully, even when it's difficult or The Truth of the Path to the End of Suffering (Magga): The path uncomfortable. to the cessation of suffering is the Eightfold Path. 4. Using words to comfort and support someone in A person practices right mindfulness by meditating daily to distress. remain present and aware of their thoughts and emotions 5. Avoiding insults or harsh criticism in disagreements, opting for respectful dialogue instead. without being consumed by them. Someone follows right livelihood by choosing a career that 4. Right Action (Samma Kammanta) does not harm others or involve unethical practices, thus Explanation: Acting in ways that do not cause harm to others. It reducing inner conflict and suffering. involves following ethical conduct by avoiding actions like killing, stealing, or engaging in harmful sexual behavior. A person embraces right intention by committing to Examples: compassionate and kind actions, which reduces feelings of 1. Refraining from harming any living beings, including anger and hatred. animals. 2. Choosing not to steal, whether it’s tangible items or Eightfold Paths intellectual property. 3. Volunteering to help those in need, such as assisting 1. Right View (Samma Ditthi) at a local shelter. Explanation: Understanding the nature of reality, the Four Noble 4. Living a lifestyle that respects the environment and Truths, and the impermanent and interconnected nature of life. It promotes sustainability. involves seeing things clearly and correctly as they are. 5. Treating others with respect and dignity, avoiding actions that exploit or abuse. Examples: 1. Realizing that material wealth alone cannot bring 5. Right Livelihood (Samma Ajiva) lasting happiness. 2. Understanding that suffering is a part of life and Explanation: Earning a living in a way that does not harm others accepting it without resistance. and is ethically sound. Avoiding occupations that directly or 3. Recognizing the cause of suffering as attachment and indirectly harm people, animals, or the environment. desire. Examples: 4. Seeing that everything in life is impermanent and 1. Working in a field that promotes education, health, or constantly changing. well-being, such as teaching or healthcare. 5. Understanding the importance of compassion and 2. Avoiding jobs in industries that harm the environment empathy in relationships. or exploit workers. 6.  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 3 3. Running a business that practices fair trade and Right View treats its employees ethically. ❖ Rachel reflects on the impermanence of life and lets go of clinging 4. Working in a profession that helps others, such as to the past. social work or counseling. 5. Choosing not to engage in or support industries that ❖ Caroline realizes that craving for praise leads to suffering and harm animals, such as meat production or fur works on detaching from it. trading. Right Livelihood 6. Right Effort (Samma Vayama) ❖ Jason leaves an unethical job to find one aligned with his values. Explanation: Making an ongoing effort to develop and maintain ❖ Andrew chooses a profession that helps others and avoids wholesome states of mind, while eliminating unwholesome states like greed, anger, and ignorance. This involves persistence in exploitation cultivating good habits. ❖ Charlie chooses teaching because it helps young people and Examples: contributes positively to society. 1. Persistently working on controlling anger and practicing patience in stressful situations. Right Mindfulness 2. Making a conscious effort to meditate daily, even ❖ Samantha is mindful of her eating habits, paying attention to each when feeling busy or tired. 3. Avoiding negative influences such as toxic bite. environments or harmful content in media. ❖ Maya practices being fully present while doing household chores, 4. Consistently practicing acts of kindness, even focusing on the moment. towards difficult individuals. 5. Refraining from procrastination by diligently working Right Speech towards personal goals and growth. ❖ Tom recognizes his hurtful words and apologizes to repair the 7. Right Concentration (Samma Samadhi) relationship. Explanation: Developing a deep focus and mental discipline through ❖ Alex speaks truthfully and kindly, avoiding lies or exaggerated practices like meditation. It involves the ability to concentrate the claims. mind on a single object without distraction. ❖ Lily speaks up against injustice but does so in a calm, constructive Examples: 1. Practicing deep meditation by focusing on the breath manner for extended periods. 2. Developing focus at work or in studies, avoiding Right Concentration distractions like phones or social media. ❖ Laura maintains focus during meditation, returning her attention to 3. Engaging in mindful activities like painting, gardening, her breath when distracted. or walking, giving full attention to the task. ❖ Single-mindedness 4. Using visualization techniques to stay concentrated on a specific goal. Right Action 5. Practicing yoga or mindfulness exercises to enhance focus and mental clarity. ❖ Greg helps his elderly neighbor, showing compassion through his actions. 8. Right Mindfulness (Samma Sati) ❖ Dan chooses to act ethically by not stealing or taking what isn’t his. Explanation: Being fully aware of the present moment and paying attention to thoughts, feelings, and sensations without judgment. It Right Effort involves cultivating awareness of one’s body, mind, and ❖ Julie cultivates patience and non-attachment to avoid reactivity in surroundings. stressful moments. Examples: 1. Practicing mindful eating by paying attention to the ❖ Ben commits to healthy habits, recognizing the need to sustain good taste, texture, and smell of food. physical and mental well-being. 2. Being aware of your emotions when interacting with others, and responding with calmness rather than Right Intention reacting impulsively. 3. Observing your thoughts during meditation without ❖ Nina decides to replace her anger with understanding and kindness getting caught up in them. toward her colleague. 4. Taking a mindful walk in nature, paying attention to ❖ Claire decides to stop holding grudges and make an effort to forgive the sounds, sights, and smells around you. 5. Practicing body awareness, being conscious of those who have wronged her. posture and breathing throughout the day.  PHILOSOPHY – LESSON 3 HUMAN LIMITATIONS REFLECTION ON MY BODY We have only a certain amount of strength to carry things or The capacity of human beings to think or even to feel is the very accomplish tasks. We cannot prevent accidents entirely no matter basis of consciousness of the “I” of its existential existence; how careful we are. We cannot move as fast as we could from one that is tangibly exists as a thinking substance. place to another. Despite all advances in technology, we can never Moreover, “my body” is the main basis for reflection and self- reverse the course of time. Moreover, there are things that we consciousness. It means that the statement of certainty of cannot do and perform because we are not angels and something is always related and rooted in the very foundation of superheroes. reflection: “my body”. Human limitations are not solely obstacles; they also play a “My body” is the manifestation of my existential, of who I am. crucial role in shaping creativity, resilience, and innovation. I Have My Body Constraints often drive individuals and societies to find novel The experience of the oneness of my body and I is manifested in the claim solutions, fostering progress and adaptation. “I have my body.” The claim “I have my body” implies possession. I own my body; it is mine. Nonetheless, this does not only show authority over it, but Body Transcendence also great responsibility. While we mostly complain about how there are so many things that I Am My Body we cannot change about our lives because of our bodies we hardly The union between my body and I is not just a mere relationship of two see that the body also opens possibilities. There is a important organisms or entities. For Marcel, this union means existential existence paradox about the body that we need to understand. While the body to my body and to myself. My body cannot exist alone apart from me; and that I cannot exist apart from my body. My relationship with my body is not limits us, the very same limitations create opportunities for us. the same with my relationship with other things that I own or possess. Thus, my body is not a mere instrument for “I am my body.” Limitations of Human Person as an Embodied Spirit Facticity- It refers to the things in our life that are already given. Philosophers: A person is born into a particular family with a specific 1. Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973) socioeconomic background, which is a fact they cannot - “I encounter the Transcendence through my body.” change. 2. Karl Jaspers (1883-1969) Someone's height or genetic traits, like eye color, are - The body is seen as an object to be studied like other predetermined and form part of their facticity. objects.” Spatial-Temporal Being- As temporal beings, our most obvious limitation is our finitude-our finite quality or state. Also, as spatial beings, we are limited by our bodies to be present in two or more places at the same time. A person can only be at one place at a time, such as being at work but unable to be at home simultaneously. As temporal beings, humans are bound by time and age, meaning they cannot reverse aging or stop time from passing. The Body as Intermediary- Intermediary means acting as a mediator (Meriam-Webster). Our body serves as an intermediary between us and the physical world. Using your hands to feel the texture of a fabric, where your body acts as a mediator between you and the material world. Eating food, where your body processes the physical sensation of hunger and mediates between your need for nourishment and the food you consume.  PHILOSOPHY – Lesson 4 THE EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES TOWARDS THE ENVIRONMENT According to Timbreza... Human beings have the responsibility to take care of, protect, and cultivate his/her potentialities, faculties, and functions. This responsibility is not limited to his/her self; it extends to his/her external world and the environment. The encyclical letter of Pope Francis … Pope Francis points to the evil of consumerism- the desire to consume has already consumed us. As Pope Francis says: “When people become self-centered and self-enclosed, their greed increases. The emptier a person’s heart is, the more he or she needs things to buy, own, and consume. It becomes almost impossible to accept the limits imposed by reality. In this horizon, a genuine sense of the common good also disappears.” Now, from a holistic perspective, the fight for the environment can be done in both: 1. Personal Level 2. Societal Level Personal Level a) Minimizing Single-Use Plastics: Individuals can significantly reduce their environmental impact by cutting down on the use of single-use plastics like water bottles, straws, and grocery bags. b) Adopting a Minimalist Lifestyle: Rethinking the urge to buy unnecessary items is a personal choice that combats consumerism. c) Energy Conservation in Daily Life: By turning off lights when not needed, unplugging devices, or switching to energy-efficient appliances, individuals can reduce their carbon footprint. d) Waste Segregation and Composting: Sorting household waste into recyclables, non-recyclables, and organic waste is a practical way for individuals to reduce landfill contributions. e) Supporting Sustainable Brands: Consumers can choose to purchase products from brands that prioritize environmental sustainability, such as those using recycled materials or supporting fair trade practices. Societal Level a)