Introduction to Indian Knowledge System PDF

Self-Instructional Module (e-Content) COURSE Introduction to Indian Knowledge System UNIT 1: History of Indian Knowledge system Dr. Roli Pradhan Assistant Professor,Department of Management Education, National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training and Research, Shamla Hills, Bhopal M.P.INDIA 462002 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System INDEX Unit 1: History of Indian Knowledge System Lesson Title of Lesson Page No. No. 1.1 GENESIS OF BHARTIYA KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM. 1-25 Introduction Growth of Harrapan Civilization Cosmological Framework Geographical Formation and Historical Development Interaction of Regions and Historical Dynamics Geographical Boundaries of Ancient India Frontiers in Early India Transportation and Trade in Early India Climate and Agriculture in Early India Population Calculations: Society in Ancient India Conclusion Lesson Learning Outcomes After going through the E-Content, Videos, Assignments and Discussion topics presented in this unit, the learner will be able to a) Explain the evolution of Indian Knowledge system. b) Identify the stages of Harappan Civilization. c) Explain the unique features of Peninsular India. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 2/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System Lesson 1.1 GENESIS OF BHARTIYA KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM INTRODUCTION Stretching from the mighty Himalayas in the North all the way down to Kanyakumari where three great oceans meet and mingle at her feet and from the Rann of Kutch in the Western all the way across to the ancient monasteries of Arunachal Pradesh in the East, India represents a mosaic of geography and anthropology, culture and languages, traditions and customs, which is unique both in its diversity and its chronological sweep. With China, we are one of the two oldest continuing civilizations in the world, with a history going back unbroken many thousands of years. India has not only been a great civilization but over the millennium its influence has spread throughout South and South East Asia through the great cultural vehicles of Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. The Harappan Civilization laid the foundation for the Bharatiya Knowledge System as it flourished in the north-west and western parts of the Indian subcontinent from 2600-1900 BCE. However, the Harappan culture spans from 5000 BCE to 1500 BCE and is divided into stages. The formative stage from 6000-2600 BCE is termed as the Early Harappan, whereas the stage that spanned from 2600-1900 BCE is termed as the Harappan Civilization. The changing phase of the culture from 1900-1500 BCE is known as the Late Harappan (Shinde, 2016). The best-known sites of the Harappan Civilization are Mohenjodaro in Sind province and Harappa in Punjab province, both of which are now located in Pakistan. These two sites were excavated extensively by British and Indian archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India, under the general direction of the then Director General of the organization, Sir John Marshall, from the 1920s to the late 1930s (Marshall, 1931). The discovery of this culture is very significant, not only from the point of view of its antiquities and contemporariness with the Mesopotamian and Egyptian Civilizations but also because it bridged the gap between the Stone Age and Early Historical phase of the Indian subcontinent. Most of the contemporary authors had indicated that there was a gap in the history of India as it jumped from the Stone Age to the Stupa Period (Early Historic), while the settled way of life was introduced much later as compared to many other regions of the world. Regarding the origin of the Harappan Civilization, it was initially argued by many scholars that Western cultures played a significant role in this respect. However, the excavations at the site of Mehergarh near the Bolan Pass, situated in the Kutch plain of Balochistan, have generated sufficient data for the native origin of the Harappan Civilization. The early food- producing cultures laid the foundation of the Harappan Civilization around 7000 BCE, which gradually grew into an urban civilization in the middle of the third millennium BCE (Jarrige, National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 3/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System 1984). Similar discoveries have been made in India, such as at the Ghaggar (Saraswati) basin in the north-western part of India (Shinde et al., 2011a and 2011b; Shinde, 2016) and other locations, such as Bhirrana, Farmana, Girawad, Kunal, etc. These later discoveries have made us rethink the way we look at the Harappan Civilization, the origin of the Bharatiya Knowledge System, and its traditions. The earlier model of diffusion of people, streaming into the subcontinent from the West, bringing agriculture and basic technologies and other aspects of material culture, has been discredited. The north- western part of the Indian subcontinent, being ecologically congenial, replete with natural resources and of strategic importance, provided ideal conditions for the origin and growth of the early communities of Harappan culture. Besides this, the climate had also become stable and favorable for human occupation and growth. The material culture of the early communities is enriched with varied crafts, specialized production centers, and technologies that were the result of experiences and traditional knowledge accumulated during the evolutionary process. These crafts can be studied under two different categories based on whether the process of manufacture involves the use of fire or not viz. Pyrotechnology (crafts that are created using fire) and Non-pyrotechnology ( crafts that are created without using the fire process). Crafts created using pyrotechnology include ceramics, bricks, terracotta, lime, paste, faience, and metallurgy (copper, gold, and silver), whereas non-pyrotechnology was used in agriculture, architecture, hydraulics, lapidary, flint knapping, shell industry, woodwork, stone working, and ivory, bone, and antler processing. The aforementioned crafts and manufacturing techniques are being studied based on available evidence from an archaeological context. GROWTH OF HARRAPAN CIVILIZATION The gradual growth and development of the Harappan Civilization can be understood through a series of stages that marked the evolution of its society, culture, and urbanization.  Early Harappan (6000-2600 BCE): Formative Stage Settlements and Agriculture: Early Harappan communities were primarily agricultural, with evidence of early farming practices dating back to around 6000 BCE, particularly at sites like Mehargarh. They cultivated crops such as wheat and barley and domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, and goats. Village Settlements: Early Harappan settlements were small and dispersed. These villages gradually evolved into larger, more complex communities with increasing social organization. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 4/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System Craft Production: The early communities developed various crafts, including pottery, bead-making, and tool production. These crafts indicate a growing understanding of material properties and technological skills.  Mature Harappan (2600-1900 BCE): Urbanization and Peak Major Urban Centers: This period saw the rise of major urban centers such as Mohen-jo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Lothal. These cities were characterized by advanced urban planning, including grid-like street layouts, sophisticated drainage systems, and impressive architectural structures. Standardization: The Harappan Civilization exhibited a high degree of standardization in its weights, measures, and bricks, suggesting a centralized administration or a widely accepted system of trade and regulation. Trade and Economy: The economy was diverse, involving agriculture, craft production, and extensive trade. Harappans engaged in trade with neighboring regions, including Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf, exchanging goods such as beads, pottery, and metals. Writing System: The Harappan script, although still undeciphered, reflects a complex system of communication. It was used on seals, pottery, and other artifacts, indicating its role in administrative and possibly religious functions.  Late Harappan (1900-1500 BCE): Decline and Transformation Decline of Urban Centers: The late Harappan period witnessed the gradual decline of major urban centers. Reasons for this decline include climatic changes, shifts in river courses, and possibly socio-political disruptions. Ruralization: There was a shift from large urban centers to smaller, rural settlements. The focus returned to agriculture and local crafts, with reduced long- distance trade. Cultural Continuity and Change: While urban life declined, many aspects of Harappan culture continued in smaller settlements. Pottery styles, craft techniques, and other cultural practices persisted, indicating continuity amid change. Regional Diversification: This period also saw increased regional diversification, with different areas developing distinct cultural traits. Sites like Rangpur and Rojdi in Gujarat and Pirak in Balochistan show local variations of the Harappan culture. COSMOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK Cyclic time, an abstract component of cosmology, is prominently featured in various ancient Indian texts such as the Mahabharata, the Dharma-shastra of Manu, and the Vishnu Purana, etc. These texts elaborate on the vast cycles of time, known as yugas, which are essential for National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 5/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System understanding Indian cosmology and its impact on human civilization. The grand cycle, or mahayuga, spans 4,320,000 years and is divided into four smaller cycles: 1. Kruta Yuga (Satya Yuga) - The Age of Truth 2. Treta Yuga - The Third Age 3. Dwapara Yuga - The Second Age 4. Kali Yuga - The Age of Decline We are currently in the Kali Yuga, which began in 3102 BCE and is expected to last 432,000 years. Each subsequent yuga is shorter in duration and represents a decline in the quality of life and moral standards. This concept is metaphorically illustrated by the bull of Dharma, which loses a leg with each passing age, symbolizing the gradual erosion of righteousness and stability. The cyclic nature of time introduces an element of chance, akin to the throws of dice, particularly in the naming of the cycles, which emphasizes the unpredictability inherent in the passage of time. The Kali Yuga, translated as the age of the losing throw, underscores the degradation and challenges faced by humanity in this age. INTEGRATION OF TIME CONCEPTS In contrast to the cyclic concept, linear time in Indian traditions is often associated with historical and genealogical records. This perception is more familiar to modern studies and is evident in the chronicles of dynasties and clans, where time is measured through the rise and fall of rulers and their lineages. Linear time captures the progression and decline within human history, often depicted through genealogical descent, whether shallow or deep. Indian civilization uniquely integrates both cyclic and linear perceptions of time, creating a comprehensive framework for understanding cosmology, history, and human existence. The cyclic time, with its vast cosmological spans, provides the necessary framework for astronomical calculations and philosophical reflections on the universe's nature. On the other hand, linear time addresses the more immediate and tangible progression of human events and dynasties. Social Organization: The society was highly organized, with evidence of social stratification. The presence of large granaries, public baths, and elaborate residential buildings suggests a well-managed urban society with distinct social classes. GEOGRAPHICAL FORMATION AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Physical Geography and Human Adaptation: The physical geography of a region significantly influences its historical development. Factors such as soil fertility, water availability, drought, and flood conditions play critical roles in shaping human settlements National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 6/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System and activities. Technological advancements that modify the environment, such as irrigation systems, agricultural practices, and urban planning, further define how regions evolve. Geological Formation: The Indian subcontinent's geological formation is rooted in the ancient landmass of Gondwanaland. Over millions of years, tectonic movements and the rise of mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, played crucial roles in shaping the region's geography. The northern plains of India were formed by sediment deposition from these mountains, creating fertile lands that supported large agricultural communities and subsequent civilizations. HISTORICAL IDENTITY AND SPATIAL CONCEPTS Evolution of Historical Identity: Despite its long geological history, the subcontinent's historical identity is relatively recent. The formation of cultural and political identities evolved over time, influenced by migrations, trade, conquests, and the rise and fall of empires. These identities were marked by specific names and conceptualizations of space, reflecting the transition from localized to broader regional understandings. Spatial Concepts: The understanding of space in historical contexts moved from narrower, localized perceptions to broader regional and subcontinental frameworks. Initially, communities identified themselves with immediate surroundings, gradually expanding to recognize larger territorial entities. This expansion of spatial awareness facilitated the development of more complex political and cultural identities. INTERACTION OF REGIONS AND HISTORICAL DYNAMICS Regional Differences and Integration Regions within the subcontinent developed unique characteristics based on their geographical and environmental contexts. For example, the fertile Indus and Ganges river plains supported early agricultural societies and urban centers, while the arid regions of Rajasthan and the Deccan Plateau had different settlement patterns and economic activities. These regional differences contributed to a diverse and interconnected historical landscape. Influence of Geography on Culture and Society Geographical features influenced cultural practices, trade routes, and political boundaries. Mountain ranges, rivers, and coastlines often acted as natural barriers or conduits for movement and interaction. The adaptation to and modification of these geographical features by human societies played a significant role in shaping historical trajectories. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 7/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System The interplay between geography and history is crucial in understanding the development of regions within the Indian subcontinent. Physical geography provides the foundational conditions for human activities, while historical processes give shape to regional identities and interactions. The dynamic relationship between these elements highlights the importance of considering both natural and human factors in the study of history and geography. The concept of regions and spatial awareness in the Indian subcontinent evolved significantly during the post-Gupta period, with the integration of peripheral areas into the mainstream and the broadening of regional interactions. This period saw an increasing awareness of space and its implications for political, cultural, and economic activities. EVOLUTION OF REGIONAL AND SPATIAL CONCEPTS Integration of Peripheral Regions During the post-Gupta period, previously peripheral regions began to integrate more fully into the cultural and political mainstream. This integration was facilitated by various factors, including: 1. Political Consolidation: The expansion of empires and kingdoms brought previously isolated regions under central control. 2. Trade and Commerce: The growth of trade routes connected distant regions, fostering economic interdependence. 3. Cultural Exchanges: The spread of religious and cultural practices helped unify diverse regions under a shared cultural framework. Influence of External Regions The subcontinent's regions were also influenced by external forces from various directions: 1. Central Asia: Northern India experienced influences through invasions, trade, and cultural exchanges with Central Asia. 2. West Asia: Western coastal areas engaged in maritime trade with West Asia, leading to significant cultural and economic exchanges. 3. South-East Asia: Various regions, particularly in the south and east, had interactions with South-East Asia, influencing local cultures and economies. SPATIAL AWARENESS IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT Regional Projections and Wider Pulls: The perception of regions within the subcontinent was not merely about their geographical orientation but also about their interactions with wider external influences: National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 8/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System 1. Central Pulls: Regions in the central part of the subcontinent acted as hubs for political and cultural activities, drawing influences from both northern and southern areas. 2. Western and Eastern Influences: Coastal areas, both on the western and eastern sides, facilitated maritime trade and cultural exchanges with West Asia and South- East Asia, respectively. 3. Dynamic Interactions: The dynamic interactions between these regions contributed to a complex and interconnected historical landscape. Historical Appositeness: To view the subcontinent solely in terms of regions oriented to specific directions may not fully capture the historical complexities. Instead, a more nuanced approach considers the multifaceted interactions and influences that shaped the development of regions over time. The post-Gupta period marked a significant evolution in the conception of space and regional dynamics in the Indian subcontinent. The integration of peripheral regions, the influence of external forces, and the expansion of pilgrimage networks all contributed to a heightened spatial awareness. This complex interplay of factors underscores the importance of considering both internal and external influences in understanding the historical and geographical development of the subcontinent. GEOGRAPHICAL BOUNDARIES OF ANCIENT INDIA The geographical boundaries of ancient India, often referred to as Bharatvarsha (भारतवषर), varied over time due to the changing political and cultural landscapes. However, ancient texts, inscriptions, and historical records provide a broad understanding of the extent of ancient India's territories. Here are some key geographical boundaries during different historical periods: 1. Indus Civilization Northwest: Extending into modern-day Pakistan, including the regions of Punjab and Sindh. Major sites included Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. West: Bordered by the Makran coast in present-day Balochistan. East: Reaching up to the western fringes of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab. South: Extending into parts of Gujarat and Maharashtra. 2. Vedic Period Northwest: Including the region of Punjab, extending to the Sapta Sindhu (the land of seven rivers). East: Stretching to the western part of the Ganges basin. South: Limited to the north of the Vindhya range. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 9/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System West: Up to the eastern parts of present-day Afghanistan and Balochistan. 3. Maurya Empire Under Emperor Ashoka, the Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires in Indian history. Northwest: Extended into present-day Afghanistan (including Kandahar) and parts of Iran. Northeast: Included the entire Ganges basin, reaching up to present-day Bangladesh. South: Extended to the northern parts of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. West: Up to the eastern parts of Iran and Baluchistan. East: Included present-day Bangladesh and parts of West Bengal. 4. Gupta Empire Northwest: Reached up to the Indus River in present-day Pakistan. North: Included large parts of present-day Nepal and extended up to the Himalayan regions. East: Covered Bengal and parts of Assam. South: Extended to the Narmada River, covering large parts of central India. West: Included Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan. 5. Chola Empire South: Included the whole of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. East: Extended to Southeast Asia, including parts of present-day Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand, especially during the peak of their naval dominance. West: Reached the Maldives and parts of Sri Lanka. CULTURAL INFLUENCE Beyond political boundaries, ancient India's cultural and spiritual influence extended further: North: Cultural influence reached Central Asia and Tibet. East: Spread to Southeast Asia, influencing the regions of Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, and Myanmar. West: Reached the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Peninsula. South: Extended to Sri Lanka and Maldives. The geographical boundaries of ancient India were fluid and evolved over centuries. The regions mentioned above reflect the political dominions during significant periods in ancient Indian history. However, the cultural and spiritual influence of ancient India extended far beyond these political boundaries, impacting a vast region across Asia. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 10/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System DETAILS OF REGIONS IN ANCIENT INDIA Geographically, the Indian subcontinent is divided into three major regions: the Northern Mountains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and the Peninsula. Each of these regions has played a significant role in shaping the history, culture, and interactions within and beyond the subcontinent. The Northern Mountains Indo Gangetic plains Peninsular India A. The Northern Mountains A.1 Geographical and Historical Significance Natural Barrier and Conduit: Historically, the Northern Mountains, including the Himalayas, have often been perceived as a barrier isolating northern India from the rest of Asia. However, this perception overlooks the critical role these mountains played as conduits for communication and interaction. Passes and Connectivity: Key mountain passes, particularly in the north-western part of the subcontinent, such as the Khyber Pass and the Bolan Pass, facilitated continuous communication and movement of peoples, goods, and ideas between the Indian subcontinent and western and central Asia. Strategic Importance: The strategic importance of these passes cannot be overstated. They were vital for trade routes, military campaigns, and cultural exchanges, making the Northern Mountains a bridge rather than a barrier. A.2 Interaction with Western and Central Asia Continuous Interaction: The north-western region of the subcontinent maintained continuous communication with western and central Asia. This interaction was not sporadic but a sustained engagement that influenced the development of the region. Cultural Exchanges: The movement through these mountain passes facilitated significant cultural exchanges. Art, religion, language, and various cultural practices were shared, contributing to the rich tapestry of the subcontinent's history. Trade Routes: These passes were crucial for ancient trade routes, such as the Silk Road, which connected the Indian subcontinent with distant regions in Asia and beyond. Goods such as spices, textiles, and precious stones were traded, enhancing economic prosperity and cultural exchanges. The Northern Mountains of the Indian subcontinent, rather than being mere barriers, have historically served as significant conduits for communication, trade, and cultural exchange. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 11/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System The continuous interaction facilitated by the mountain passes has played a pivotal role in shaping the history and development of the region. Understanding the Northern Mountains as both natural barriers and bridges offers a nuanced perspective on the historical geography of the Indian subcontinent. A.3 Historical Significance of the Northern Mountain Passes (Conduits of Communication and Influence) The mountain passes in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent, including the Bolan, Gomal, and Khyber passes, played a crucial role in the region's history. These passes were less of a barrier and more of a conduit for various forms of interaction between the subcontinent and Central Asia. Bolan Pass: This route was significant in the earliest periods, leading to the Seistan area and the Helmand Valley in Afghanistan. From there, it provided access to northeastern Iran and Central Asia. The Bolan Pass facilitated early movements of pastoralists, traders, and settlers, highlighting its historical importance. Khyber Pass: Known for its strategic importance during the British colonial period, the Khyber Pass was pivotal in British efforts to manage Afghanistan and counter Russian influence in the 19th century. It has been romanticized in literature due to its frequent mention in historical narratives. Gomal Pass: Although not as famous as the Khyber Pass, the Gomal Pass was another critical route that enabled movement between the subcontinent and Central Asia. A.4 Swat Valley and Upper Indus Swat Valley: This fertile valley served as another important route, attracting attention due to its connections with Alexander the Great's route. The Swat Valley's relatively lower elevation compared to the higher Himalayas made it more accessible. Hunza and Upper Indus: These areas provided additional routes for interaction with Central Asia, facilitating frequent travel and trade. A.5 Role of the Passes in Migration and Trade Pastoralists and Traders: The passes were regularly used by pastoralists moving to and from Afghanistan and Central Asia. Trading caravans, missionaries from Persia, and invading armies also traversed these routes. The continuous flow of people through these passes underscores their significance in regional dynamics. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 12/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System Immigration and Settlement: Immigrants from Central Asia, Iran, and Afghanistan, as well as Indian traders and settlers, used these passes to reach distant locations. This movement contributed to cultural exchanges and the establishment of settlements at strategic points. A.6 Strategic Control and Settlements Importance of Controlling the Passes: Control over these passes was crucial for maintaining influence over the movement of people and goods. Settlements at both ends of the passes, such as those in the Helmand Valley and the Indo-Gangetic Plain, highlight their strategic importance. Military and Economic Control: Throughout history, controlling these passes meant having a significant advantage in both military and economic terms. This control allowed rulers to manage the flow of resources and protect their territories from invasions. The mountain passes in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent were far more than mere barriers; they were essential conduits for communication, migration, trade, and cultural exchanges. The Bolan, Gomal, and Khyber passes, along with the fertile Swat Valley and the routes through the Hunza and Upper Indus Indus regions, played pivotal roles in connecting the subcontinent with Central Asia and beyond. These passes facilitated the movement of pastoralists, traders, missionaries, and armies, shaping the historical and cultural landscape of the region. A.7 The Role of the Northern Passes in Regional Dynamics Bolan Pass Earliest Periods: The Bolan Pass was crucial in early times, providing a route to the Seistan area and the Helmand Valley. This connection extended to northeastern Iran and Central Asia, facilitating early trade and migration. Pastoralists and Traders: Regular use by pastoralists and trading caravans highlighted its importance for economic activities and cultural exchanges. Khyber Pass British Colonial Period: The Khyber Pass was significant during the British colonial era, serving as a strategic route for managing Afghanistan and countering Russian influence. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 13/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System Romanticized in Literature: Its frequent mention in historical accounts has romanticized the Khyber Pass, making it a focal point of historical attention. Gomal Pass Strategic Importance: Although less famous, the Gomal Pass was vital for facilitating movement between the subcontinent and Central Asia, contributing to regional interactions. Swat Valley and Upper Indus Routes Swat Valley: The fertile Swat Valley, with its connections to Alexander the Great’s route, served as an important passageway, making it more accessible compared to the higher Himalayas. Hunza and Upper Indus: These areas provided additional routes for communication with Central Asia, enhancing the region's connectivity. A.8 Continuous Movement and Cultural Exchanges Migration and Trade Regular Use: Pastoralists, traders, missionaries, and invading armies used these passes continuously, underscoring their strategic importance. Immigration: Immigrants from Central Asia, Iran, and Afghanistan used these routes to settle in the subcontinent, fostering cultural exchanges and economic integration. Strategic Control and Settlements Controlling the Passes: Control over these passes was crucial for maintaining influence over regional dynamics. Strategic settlements at both ends of the passes facilitated the management of trade routes and military movements. Military and Economic Advantage: Control of the passes provided significant military and economic advantages, allowing rulers to manage resource flow and protect their territories from invasions. The mountain passes in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent were vital conduits for communication, migration, trade, and cultural exchanges. The Bolan, Gomal, and Khyber passes, along with the Swat Valley and routes through the Hunza and Upper Indus regions, played crucial roles in connecting the subcontinent with Central Asia and beyond. Understanding these passes as dynamic channels of interaction rather than mere barriers offers a nuanced perspective on the historical and geographical development of the region. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 14/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System B. The Indo-Gangetic Plain B.1 Geographical Formation and Characteristics The Indo-Gangetic Plain is one of the most fertile and densely populated regions in the world, formed by the alluvial deposits of the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers. Glacial Contributions: The perennial supply of water to these rivers primarily comes from glaciers in the northern mountains. These glaciers not only provide a continuous flow of water but also shape the landscape by carving deeper ravines and reducing elevations, which, in turn, open up high-altitude meadows. Alluvial Deposits: Geologically, the northern plains resulted from the filling of earlier seas. Rivers played a crucial role in this process by spreading a cover of fertile silt, which was a blessing for cultivators. This fertile layer supported extensive agricultural activities, making the region highly productive. B.2 Variability in Fertility Regional Differences: While the Indo-Gangetic Plain is generally fertile, there are variations. The Thar Desert and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan are less conducive to cultivation due to their desert-like conditions. These areas did not receive the same level of alluvial deposits and thus did not become uniformly fertile. The situation is changing now. Role of Forests: Historically, the Indo-Gangetic Plain was covered with dense monsoon forests. These forests were so dense that they provided habitat for tigers and rhinoceroses, which are typically associated with tropical forests. Over time, extensive deforestation cleared these forests for agriculture, altering the landscape significantly. B.3 Historical and Agricultural Importance Early Civilizations: The Indo-Gangetic Plain has been the cradle of ancient civilizations, including the Harappan Civilization, which thrived due to the region’s agricultural productivity. The fertile land supported large populations and complex societies. Cultural Landscape: The region’s fertility and favorable climate have made it a center for cultural and economic activities throughout history. It supported dense populations and became the heartland of several powerful empires and cultural movements. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 15/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System B.4 The Indus and Ganges Plains Indus Plain: The Indus Plain, less densely forested than the Ganges Plain, was integral to the Harappan Civilization. Harappan seals depict various wildlife and activities that suggest a rich and diverse ecosystem. Ganges and / or Gangetic Plain: The Ganges Plain, historically covered with dense forests, has transformed significantly due to agricultural expansion. The region's historical records and ancient texts often depict lush landscapes teeming with wildlife. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is a geographical marvel formed by the alluvial deposits of major rivers fed by Himalayan glaciers. This plain has played a pivotal role in the development of agriculture, culture, and civilization in the Indian subcontinent. While generally fertile, the region shows variability in its agricultural potential due to historical forest cover and the presence of semi-arid areas. The transformation of the landscape from dense forests to extensive agricultural fields underscores the dynamic interaction between natural geography and human activity. C. Peninsular India C.1 Geographical Features and Formation Peninsular India is characterized by its unique geological and topographical features, distinct from the northern plains and mountains. Ancient Landmass: The Indian Peninsula is part of the ancient landmass known as the Gondwanaland. This region is geologically older than the northern plains and mountains, with some of the oldest rock formations on Earth. Deccan Plateau: The Deccan Plateau is the dominant geographical feature of Peninsular India. It is a large plateau that covers most of the southern part of the country, bounded by the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and the Satpura Range. Western and Eastern Ghats: These mountain ranges run parallel to the western and eastern coasts of India, respectively. The Western Ghats are known for their biodiversity and are a UNESCO World Heritage site. The Eastern Ghats are more fragmented but equally significant in terms of ecological diversity. C.2 Climate and Hydrology Monsoon Influence: Peninsular India is heavily influenced by the monsoon, with distinct wet and dry seasons. The Western Ghats play a crucial role in intercepting National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 16/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System the moisture-laden southwest monsoon winds, resulting in heavy rainfall on the western slopes and creating a rain shadow effect on the eastern side. Rivers: Unlike the perennial rivers of the north, the rivers in Peninsular India are largely rain-fed and have seasonal flows. Major rivers include the Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, and the Mahanadi, which play vital roles in irrigation and agriculture. C.3 Biodiversity and Ecosystems Diverse Ecosystems: The region hosts a variety of ecosystems, from the tropical rainforests of the Western Ghats to the dry deciduous forests of the Deccan Plateau. The Western Ghats are particularly noted for their rich biodiversity, home to many endemic species of flora and fauna. Agricultural Practices: Agriculture in Peninsular India varies according to the region's topography and climate. The coastal regions and river valleys are intensively cultivated, while the plateau region is known for dryland farming. C.4 Historical and Cultural Significance Ancient Civilizations: Peninsular India has been home to several ancient civilizations and kingdoms, such as the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, Satavahanas, and the Vijayanagara Empire. These kingdoms made significant contributions to art, architecture, literature, and culture. Trade and Commerce: Historically, the coastal regions of Peninsular India have been active centers of maritime trade. The ancient ports on both the western and eastern coasts facilitated trade with the Roman Empire, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East. C.5 The Western and Eastern Coasts Western Coast: Known for its beautiful beaches and significant ports, the western coast of Peninsular India includes states like Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala. The coast is dotted with estuaries and backwaters, providing fertile land for agriculture and unique ecosystems. Eastern Coast: The eastern coast, including states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha, is characterized by its deltas, particularly those formed by the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri. These deltas are highly fertile and support extensive rice cultivation. Peninsular India, with its ancient geological history, diverse ecosystems, and rich cultural heritage, forms a significant part of the Indian subcontinent. The region's geographical features, such as the Deccan Plateau and the Western and Eastern Ghats, play crucial roles in shaping its climate, hydrology, and biodiversity. Historically, the peninsula has been a National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 17/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System center of ancient civilizations and maritime trade, contributing richly to India's cultural and economic development. C.6 Coastal Areas of Peninsular India: A History of Maritime Activities Maritime Traditions The extensive western and eastern coasts of the Indian peninsula have a rich history of maritime activities, despite not always receiving the attention they deserve. Monsoon Influence: The monsoon has been a dominant feature since ancient times, shaping maritime activities and trade routes. Historically, powered sailing ships relied on monsoon winds for long-distance voyages, which required precise timing and knowledge of wind patterns and currents. Ports and Trade Networks Continuity of Ports: The geomorphology of the coastline and advancements in navigation technology ensured the continuity of ports and harbors over many centuries. The port of Muziris in Kerala is a notable example, remaining active for fifteen centuries from the turn of the Christian era to the arrival of the Portuguese. Piracy: Pirates were active along the coast from Gujarat to Kerala, posing a threat to maritime trade. Piracy, while a form of plunder, also served as a gauge of exchange and wealth redistribution. Controlling piracy was crucial to maintaining uninterrupted trade routes. Coastal Divisions and Core Areas Indian Ocean Divisions: The Indian Ocean is divided into the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal by the Indian peninsula. Historically, the western coast had core areas such as the Indus Delta, Gujarat, Thana, Konkan, and Malabar, while the eastern coast had foci like the Ganges Delta, Kalinga, Godavari and Krishna Deltas, and the Coromandel coast. Maritime Ambitions: These core areas often served as nuclei for kingdoms with maritime ambitions and economies. Coastal regions were hubs of trade, culture, and power, contributing to the region's historical significance. C.7 Environmental Changes and Cultural Movements Sea Level Changes: Changes in sea level over centuries have impacted coastal regions, leading to the emergence or submergence of landforms. Low-lying coastal areas like the Sundarbans in the Ganges Delta are particularly susceptible to these National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 18/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System changes. Similar development is also experienced in Brahamputra basin specially in Majoli in Assam. Cultural Exchange: The east coast witnessed the movement of Buddhism from eastern India to south India and Sri Lanka around the late-first millennium BCE. Traders from the east coast also established trade links with Southeast Asia and southern China, contributing to cultural exchange and economic development. C.8 Coral Islands and Outposts Lakshadweep and Maldives: Coral islands like Lakshadweep and the Maldives served as outposts for traders, breaking the force of incoming monsoons and providing safe harbors for ships. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Closer to Southeast Asia, these islands could have been staging points along Indian Ocean routes. However, historical records suggest they were not extensively used for maritime activities. The coastal areas of Peninsular India have a rich history of maritime activities, trade, and cultural exchange. Ports and harbours along the western and eastern coasts facilitated long- distance trade, contributing to the region's economic prosperity and cultural diversity. Despite challenges such as piracy and environmental changes, coastal regions remained vital centers of commerce, connecting India with the rest of the world through the vast expanse of the Indian Ocean. FRONTIERS IN EARLY INDIA Concept of Boundaries Flexible Boundaries: In early times, boundaries between states were not marked by clearly drawn lines but were rather defined by geographical features such as mountains, rivers, forests, and deserts. These features acted as frontier zones, fostering interaction between different communities living within and outside its jurisdiction. Frontier Zones: Frontier zones were areas where people from different regions interacted, often recognized through changes in language and customs rather than cartographic lines. This flexibility allowed for diplomatic leeway and facilitated normal travel across frontiers. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 19/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System Mobility and Cultural Exchange Mobile Societies: Various groups such as merchants, traders, metalsmiths, pastoralists, and Brahmins were highly mobile, travelling extensively across different regions for trade, employment, or religious purposes. Language and Cultural Spread: The spread of languages like Sanskrit across North India was influenced by the preferences of ruling dynasties and the adoption of Sanskrit as the official language. Sanskrit became associated with the elite and classical literature, while regional languages remained within specific geographical boundaries. Religious Beliefs and Landscape Pilgrimage and Cultural Exchange: Places of pilgrimage, known as tirthas and ziarats, played a significant role in crossing frontiers and carrying cultural idioms from one place to another. Pilgrimage sites often attracted people from diverse religious backgrounds, fostering a cluster of religious connections. Sacred Sites: Sacred sites, such as Somanatha in Gujarat, were revered by followers of multiple religions, including Vaishnavas, Buddhists, Shaivas, Jainas, and Muslims. The association of sacredness with certain locations transcended religious boundaries and attracted devotees from various faiths. In early India, geographical features played a crucial role in defining boundaries and fostering cultural exchange. The mobility of different social groups, coupled with the religious significance attached to certain locations, facilitated interaction across frontiers. Sacred sites served as centers of cultural exchange, attracting devotees from diverse backgrounds and reflecting the fluidity of religious beliefs and power dynamics in society. Transportation and Trade in Early India Animal Transport Adaptation to Environment: Animals used for transporting goods varied according to the terrain and environment. Common animals included oxen and mules, while elephants were preferred in forests, camels in arid lands, and sheep, goats, yak, and dzo in mountainous regions. Caravan Routes: Animal caravans traversed tracks, while ox-carts required minimal roads. Rivers were crossed using ferries, boat bridges, and, from the ninth century CE onwards, stone or corbelled arch bridges. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 20/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System Infrastructure Development Emperor Ashoka's Initiatives: As early as the third century BCE, Emperor Ashoka focused on building rest-houses, digging wells, and planting trees along highways to facilitate transportation and trade. Monsoon Challenges: Transportation of goods was possible for most of the year, but during the three-month period of monsoon rains, it became difficult. Water Transport Prevalence of Water Transport: Until the nineteenth century, water transport was preferred for bulk items whenever possible, as most rivers were navigable, especially in their lower reaches. River Ports: River ports played a significant role in maritime trade, serving as important nodal points along trade routes. Types of Watercraft Local Craft: For short distances or river crossings, floats, rafts, coracles, dugouts, and basket boats were commonly used. Timber Boats: Boats built of timber were used for heavier duty, with local timber, such as teak, being suitable even for ships sailing the seas. Coastal and Oceanic Craft: Coastal craft ranged from elaborate dug-outs to larger ships like kattamaram, while mid-ocean ships were larger and built at special shipyards. Navigation and Knowledge Navigation Skills: Navigating rivers and seas required knowledge of winds, currents, coastal landmarks, and astronomy, particularly for using the south-west monsoon winds. Astronomical Knowledge: Understanding of astronomy, based on observing stars, was crucial for navigation, as it aided in determining directions and predicting weather patterns. Transportation and trade in early India relied on a variety of methods, including animal transport and water transport. Infrastructure development, such as road networks and river ports, facilitated the movement of goods and people. Adaptation to environmental conditions and a deep understanding of navigation and astronomy were essential for successful transportation and trade across diverse landscapes. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 21/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURE IN EARLY INDIA Monsoon Rainfall Seasonal Monsoon: Agriculture in early India was heavily influenced by the seasonal monsoon rain, particularly the south-west monsoon which moves across the Arabian Sea and brings rainfall to the subcontinent from June to September. North-east Monsoon: The lesser north-east monsoon blows briefly in the opposite direction from December to February, affecting mainly the north-eastern area and the peninsula. Regional Variations Humidity and Rainfall: Regions like Bengal, Orissa, and Kerala experience high humidity and heavy rainfall, leading to dense vegetation. In contrast, parts of the Deccan and Rajasthan are semi-arid for most of the year. Himalayan Influence: The Himalayas act as a barrier against cold winds from Central Asia and contribute to regional climatic variations. Impact on Agriculture Changes in Climate: Some changes in climate, such as increasing aridity in north- western India after the Harappan period, have been suggested based on analysis of plant remains and soil. Settlement Patterns: Climate, along with ecological and environmental factors, influenced settlement patterns and architectural styles, with different types of villages and housing structures preferred in dry and wetter regions. Agricultural Practices Importance of Time: Agricultural activities were closely tied to lunar-solar calendars, with planting and harvesting times determined based on celestial observations. Soil Quality: Soil quality varied significantly across regions, with factors like natural nutrients, water retention, and ploughing ease influencing agricultural practices. Irrigation: Methods of irrigation varied based on natural conditions, with debates among historians regarding the use of iron ploughshares and the extent of state control over irrigation systems. Climate, particularly the seasonal monsoon, played a crucial role in shaping agricultural practices and settlement patterns in early India.Regional variations in humidity, rainfall, National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 22/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System and soil quality influenced agricultural techniques and cropping patterns, highlighting the diversity of agricultural practices across the subcontinent. POPULATION CALCULATIONS It seems like the text you provided discusses various estimates and calculations regarding the population of ancient cities and regions in India, as well as factors influencing population growth and decline. Some key points include: 1. Population Estimates: Estimates for the population of ancient cities like Kaushambi and Mohenjo-daro vary, with some calculations based on archaeological evidence and others on historical records. There is uncertainty and debate among scholars regarding the accuracy of these estimates. 2. Factors Affecting Population: Various factors such as agricultural productivity, irrigation practices, natural disasters like floods and famines, epidemics, and military campaigns are suggested as influences on population growth or decline. 3. Challenges in Estimation: Estimating ancient populations is challenging due to limited archaeological evidence, uncertainties in historical records, and the complexity of factors affecting population dynamics. 4. Crop Patterns and Environmental Factors: Crop patterns are mentioned as reflecting climate variations and environmental conditions, suggesting a close relationship between human activity and the landscape. Overall, the text highlights the complexity of understanding ancient population dynamics and the various factors that may have influenced population growth and decline in early Indian history. SOCIETY IN ANCIENT INDIA In ancient India, societies can be broadly categorized based on various factors such as: 1. Varna System: The Varna system classified society into four main categories: o Brahmins (priests and scholars) o Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers) o Vaishyas (merchants and farmers) o Shudras (labourers and service providers) 2. Jati System: Within each Varna, there were numerous subgroups known as Jatis, which were based on occupation, kinship, and social status. These Jatis formed the basis of local communities and played a crucial role in social organization. 3. Geographical Distribution: Societies in ancient India varied based on the geographical region. For example: o The Gangetic plains hosted agrarian societies. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 23/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System o Coastal regions were hubs of trade and commerce, fostering cosmopolitan societies. o The Deccan plateau had its distinct cultural and social dynamics. 4. Religious Communities: India has been the birthplace of several religions, each with its own societal framework: o Hindu society was influenced by the Vedic traditions, epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and later developments such as the rise of Bhakti movements. o Buddhist and Jain societies had their own distinct organizational structures and philosophical underpinnings. o Sikhism 5. Tribal Societies: Tribal communities inhabited various parts of ancient India, often living in forests, hills, or remote areas. These societies had their own cultural practices, social norms, and governance systems. 6. Urban and Rural Divide: Ancient India had both urban and rural societies, with urban centers like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro (in the Indus Civilization), Taxila, and Varanasi showcasing complex urban societies, while rural areas typically revolved around agriculture and pastoralism. 7. Dynastic Societies: Various dynasties ruled different parts of ancient India, each leaving its imprint on societal structures and cultural practices. For example, the Maurya, Gupta, Chola, Vijayanagara and Ahoms empires had distinct social orders and administrative systems. These categories provide a broad framework for understanding the diverse societal structures that existed in ancient India, each with its own complexities and nuances. CONCLUSION The genesis of Bhartiya Gyan represents a confluence of spiritual insight, scientific exploration, and cultural expression that has shaped human thought and civilization. Ancient Indian knowledge systems are characterized by their depth, diversity, and enduring relevance, reflecting a holistic understanding of life and the universe. The contributions of Indian scholars, philosophers, and practitioners have left an indelible mark on global intellectual history, inspiring generations of thinkers and continuing to inform contemporary science, medicine, philosophy, and art. The legacy of Bhartiya Gyan is a reminder of the timeless pursuit of knowledge and wisdom that transcends boundaries and continues to enrich human life even today. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 24/25 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System REFERENCES M A AbidaParveena,The traditional system of Unani medicine, its origin, evolution and Indianisation:A critical appraisal,Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge , p. 511 - 521 Posted: 2022 S Anish,Yoga: How the great Bhartiya Knowledge System unites physical self with metaphysical beyond Posted: 2023-06-21 D N Audichya,Cultural Kaleidoscope: Unveiling the Richness of Indian Culture in Indian Literature, International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews ,p. 1248 - 1252 Posted: 2023 Barbara Csala , C M,The Relationship Between Yoga and Spirituality: A Systematic Review of Empirical Research,Frontiers in Psychology Posted: 2021 R K Barman,From Stigmatization to Neo-Buddhist Identity: Reflections on the Changing Identities of the Scheduled Castes of India Posted: 2023 T Bhardwaj,Reviving India's knowledge systems for modern Indian education and society Posted: 2021 A K Biswas, Development Of Education In India During The Medieval Period: A Historical Approach, International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews , p. 260 - 266 Posted: 2016 N Chandwani,The importance of the Gurukul system and why Indian education needs it Posted: 2019-03-08 D S Das,Vedanta Philosophy and its Significance in searching the Absolute Truth. Retrieved from www.researchgate Posted: 2021-06 A Garg, The Bhagavad Gita's Contribution to Indian Philosophy: A Metaphysical Examination. The Criterion, An International Journal in English , p. 35 - 41 Posted: 2023 H Inbadas, Indian philosophical foundations of spirituality at the end of life Mortality, p. 320 - 333 Posted: 2017 R Khanna,India has a long history of guru-shishya relationships, how have edtechstartups revived this practice Posted: 2023-01-16 R Kumar,Indian Traditional Astronomy Knowledge System and Related,International Journal of Research in Social Sciences Posted: 2023 D T Lehtonen,Belief in Karma: The Belief-Inducing Power of a Collection of Ideas and Practices with a Long History Posted: 2023 Monica Boța -Moisin , R S,Made In India" Through Cultural Sustainability Exploring And Expanding Indian Perspectives Posted: 2021 I R Pathak,Hinduism: An Incredible Blending of Science and Metaphysics. Retrieved from medium, p. 832 - 853 Posted: 2023-09-21 National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 25/25 Self-Instructional Module (e-Content) COURSE Introduction to Indian Knowledge System UNIT 1: History of Indian Knowledge system Dr. Roli Pradhan Assistant Professor,Department of Management Education, National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training and Research, Shamla Hills, Bhopal M.P.INDIA 462002 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System INDEX Unit 1: History of Indian Knowledge System Lesson Title of Lesson Page No. No. 1.2 HISTORY OF IKS 1-17 Vedic Period (1500 BCE - 500 BCE) Upanishadic Period (800 BCE - 200 BCE) Classical Period (200 BCE - 1200 CE) Medieval Period (1200 CE - 1700 CE) Colonial Period (1700 CE - 1947 CE) Post-Independence Era (1947 CE - Present) Impact of Era’s on India Lesson Learning Outcomes After going through the E-Content, Videos, Assignments and Discussion topics presented in this unit, the learner will be able to a) Identify the characteristics of various era’s in History of IKS. b) Analyze the impact of various era’s on India. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 2/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System Lesson 1.2 HISTORY OF INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM INTRODUCTION The history of the Indian Knowledge System is rich and multifaceted, spanning thousands of years and encompassing various fields such as philosophy, science, mathematics, medicine, literature, and spirituality. Here's an overview: 1. Vedic Period (1500 BCE - 500 BCE): The world ‘Veda’ comes from the root world “Vid” – to know. The Vedas are literally the Books of Knowledge – Knowledge of the changeless and Supreme Reality. The Vedas, composed during this period, form the foundation of Indian Knowledge Systems. Rkveda, the oldest of the Vedas, contains hymns on philosophy, rituals, and cosmology. Other Vedas like, Yajurveda,Samaveda and Atharvaveda cover topics ranging from worship of nature, music, medicine, and ethics to mathematics and astronomy. 2. Upanishadic Period (800 BCE - 200 BCE): The Upanishads, philosophical texts embedded within the Vedas, explore the nature of reality, self-realization, and the relationship between the individual soul (Atman) and the universal consciousness (Brahman). They lay the groundwork for various schools of Indian philosophy, including Vedanta, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, and Mima(n)msa. 3. Classical Period (200 BCE - 1200 CE): Scientific Advancements: There is a popular misconception that our forefather, the propounders of the most ancient of all the living religions which today is wrongly yet popularly called Hinduism, were not efficient or sufficiently intelligent and daring enough to probe into the mysteries of nature with a view to control and harness its forces to advantage and therefore, were content with a life of inactivity in the name of religion and philosophy. It is obvious that both the Scientists and the Philosophers are in quest of truth, while the field of investigations of the Scientists is the objective world around him or her, and the Philosophers had selected for his/her field of investigation, the subjective world inside him/her. In fact, the Rishis of yore in India, didn’t make any distinction between the science on one side and the Religion and Philosophy on the other. The Sciences are the Upa-Vedas and the Vedangas, and the philosophies are the Veda-Upangas, all culminating in the Vedantas – the end of the Vedas. ` During this period, significant strides were made in various scientific disciplines. Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara made significant contributions to National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 3/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System mathematics and astronomy. Charaka and Sushruta authored seminal texts on Ayurveda (medicine). Literature and Arts: Classical Sanskrit literature flourished, with works like the Ramayana and Mahabharata achieving canonical status. Kalidasa, the great poet and playwright, produced timeless works like Shakuntala and Meghaduta. Trade and Commerce: India's position as a center of trade led to the exchange of knowledge with other civilizations, contributing to cultural enrichment. 4. Medieval Period (1200 CE - 1700 CE): Islamic Influence: The arrival of Islamic rulers brought about a synthesis of Indian and Islamic knowledge systems. Scholars like Al-Baruni and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) made significant contributions to fields like astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. Bhakti and Sufi Movements: The Bhakti and Sufi movements emphasized personal devotion and mystical experience, respectively, influencing Indian spirituality and literature. 5. Colonial Period (1700 CE - 1947 CE): British Rule: British colonization led to the marginalization of traditional Indian knowledge systems in favour of Western education and institutions. However, efforts by Indian scholars like Raja Ram Mohan Roy,Swami Vivekananda and others helped preserve and revitalize indigenous knowledge. Modernization: The influence of Western science and education led to the modernization of Indian knowledge systems, with institutions like the Indian Institute of Science, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), The Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and The Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) contributing to advancements in science, technology, and management. 6. Post-Independence Era (1947 CE - Present): Promotion of Indigenous Knowledge: Independent India has made efforts to revive and promote traditional Indian Knowledge Systems, recognizing their value in areas like healthcare (Ayurveda, Yoga), agriculture (organic farming), and environment conservation. Integration with Global Knowledge: India actively participates in global scientific and cultural exchanges, contributing to and benefiting from the global knowledge ecosystem. Overall, the history of the Indian knowledge system reflects a continuous process of exploration, assimilation, and innovation, deeply rooted in the country's cultural, spiritual, and intellectual heritage. Each era is further discussed in detail. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 4/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System THE VEDIC PERIOD (1500 BCE - 500 BCE) During the Vedic Period, which lasted from around 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, India witnessed the emergence and flourishing of the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, which laid the foundation for Indian civilization and culture. Here's a detailed overview: 1. Vedas: The Vedas are a collection of ancient hymns and rituals composed in Sanskrit. They are considered the oldest scriptures of Hinduism and are divided into four main texts: Rk Veda: The oldest Veda, consisting of hymns dedicated to various deities such as Agni (fire), Indra (thunder), Varuna (sky), and Soma (a sacred plant). It also contains philosophical speculations about the nature of existence. YajurVeda: Provides instructions for performing rituals, including sacrificial ceremonies (yajnas). SamaVeda: A collection of melodies (saman) derived from the Rigveda, meant to be sung during rituals. AtharvaVeda: Contains hymns and incantations for various purposes, including healing, protection, and prosperity. 2. The Society and Religion: Vedic society was organized along hierarchical lines, with a division of labour based on the Varna system, comprising priests (Brahmins), warriors (Kshatriyas), merchants/farmers (Vaishyas), and labourers (Shudras). Rituals and sacrifices played a central role in Vedic religion, aimed at maintaining harmony with cosmic forces and submitting to deities for prosperity and well-being. Gods such as Indra (God of thunder and rain), Agni (God of fire), Varuna (God of order and cosmic law), and Soma (a sacred plant and deity) were worshipped through elaborate rituals and hymns. 3. Philosophical Speculations: The Rk Veda contains philosophical hymns that ponder the nature of reality, the meaning of existence, and the relationship between humanity and the divine. Concepts such as Rita (cosmic order), Dharma (duty/righteousness), and Atman (individual soul) began to emerge, laying the groundwork for later philosophical developments. 4. Literature and Language: The language of the Vedas, known as Vedic Sanskrit, served as the precursor to Classical Sanskrit, the language of classical Indian literature. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 5/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System Apart from hymns, the Vedas also contain early poetic compositions and linguistic insights that reflect the intellectual achievements of the period. 5. Transmission and Preservation: The Vedas were transmitted orally from generation to generation by word of mouth by a class of priests known as the Brahmins, who were responsible for memorizing and reciting the sacred texts with precision. This meticulous oral transmission ensured the preservation of the Vedas over centuries, laying the foundation for the continuity of Indian spiritual and cultural heritage. The Vedic Period represents a formative phase in Indian civilization, characterized by the emergence of foundational religious, philosophical, linguistic, and social concepts that continue to shape Indian culture and thought to this day. THE UPANISHADIC PERIOD (800 BCE - 200 BCE) The Upanishadic Period, spanning roughly from 800 BCE to 200 BCE, marks a significant philosophical and spiritual development in ancient Indian history. It is characterized by the composition of the Upanishads, a collection of philosophical texts that explore profound metaphysical and spiritual concepts. Here's a detailed overview: 1. Upanishads: The Upanishads, ‘generally’ form the end of the Aranyakaasalso known as Vedanta (the end portion of the Vedas), are a group of texts that delve into the nature of reality, the self, and the ultimate reality (Brahman). They are considered the culmination of Vedic thought and are sometimes referred to as the "Vedanta" or "End of the Vedas" because they come at the end of each Veda. The Upanishads are written in prose and contain dialogues between sages (rishi) and students, exploring deep philosophical questions through metaphors, allegories, and spiritual insights. 2. Key Concepts: Brahman: The Upanishads introduce the concept of Brahman, the ultimate reality or cosmic consciousness that pervades the universe. Brahman is considered eternal, infinite, and beyond description. Atman: The Upanishads also discuss the concept of Atman, the individual soul or self, which is believed to be identical to Brahman. Realizing the true nature of Atman is considered the goal of human existence. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 6/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System Maya: Maya refers to “the illusionary nature” of the world, which veils the true reality of Brahman. The Upanishads emphasize the need to transcend Maya through spiritual insight and self-realization. Karma and Reincarnation: The Upanishads expound upon the concepts of karma (the law of cause and effect) and reincarnation (the cycle of birth and death). Actions performed in one life shape future experiences, leading to the cycle of samsara until liberation (moksha) is attained. Moksha: Moksha is the ultimate goal of human life, representing liberation from the cycle of birth and death and union with Brahman. It is achieved through self- realization and spiritual enlightenment. 3. Schools of Thought: The Upanishads gave rise to various schools of Indian philosophy, collectively known as Vedanta, which interpret and expand upon the teachings of the Upanishads. Major Vedantic schools include Advaita (non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita (dualism). 4. Influence: The teachings of the Upanishads profoundly influenced subsequent Indian philosophy, spirituality, and religious practices, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. They provided the philosophical foundation for later texts such as the Bhagavad Gita, which synthesizes Vedantic teachings with ethical principles and the path of devotion (bhakti). 5. Transmission and Preservation: Like the Vedas, the Upanishads were transmitted orally from teacher to student within a guru-disciple tradition, ensuring their preservation and continuity. They were later compiled and written down to prevent their loss and to make them accessible to future generations. The Upanishadic Period represents a golden age of philosophical inquiry and spiritual exploration, laying the groundwork for the diverse philosophical traditions and spiritual practices that continue to shape Indian culture and thought. THE CLASSICAL PERIOD The Classical Period in Indian history, spanning roughly from 200 BCE to 1200 CE, witnessed significant developments in various fields including philosophy, literature, art, science, and governance. Here's a detailed overview of this period: National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 7/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System 1. Philosophical Flourishing: Schools of Indian Philosophy: The Classical Period saw the emergence and flourishing of diverse philosophical schools, known as Darshanas, which explored fundamental questions about existence, consciousness, ethics, and the nature of reality. Major Schools: Schools such as Vedanta (including Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita), Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, and Mimamsa continued to develop and refine their philosophical doctrines, engaging in debates and discussions. 2. Literary Masterpieces: Epics: The two great epics of Hindu mythology, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, were composed and compiled during this period. These epics not only narrate the stories of heroes and Gods but also explore complex moral, ethical, and philosophical themes. Dramatic Literature: Sanskrit drama flourished, with playwrights like Kalidasa producing masterpieces such as Shakuntala and Malavikagnimitram. These works combined poetic beauty with profound philosophical insights. Poetry: Classical Sanskrit poetry reached its zenith with works like the lyrical compositions of Kalidasa, the erotic poetry of Amaru, and the philosophical verses of Bhartrihari. 3. Scientific Advancements: Mathematics and Astronomy: Indian mathematicians and astronomers made significant contributions during this period. Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara developed advanced mathematical concepts such as zero, decimal notation, algebra, and trigonometry. They also made pioneering discoveries in astronomy, including the heliocentric model of the solar system. Medicine: The classical texts of Ayurveda, including the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita, were compiled during this period. These texts provided comprehensive knowledge of anatomy, physiology, herbal medicine, and surgical techniques, laying the foundation for traditional Indian medicine. 4. Golden Age of Arts and Architecture: Sculpture and Architecture: The Classical Period witnessed the construction of magnificent temples and monuments, showcasing exquisite sculptures and intricate architectural designs. The temples of Khajuraho, Ellora, Ajanta, and Konark are renowned for their artistic brilliance and spiritual symbolism. Painting: The Ajanta and Ellora caves contain some of the finest examples of classical Indian painting, depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha, Hindu mythology, and daily life. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 8/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System 5. Political and Social Developments: Dynastic Empires: Various dynasties such as the Mauryas, Guptas, Cholas, Pallavas, and Chalukyas ruled different parts of the Indian subcontinent, fostering political stability and cultural prosperity. Social Order: The caste system continued to be a dominant feature of Indian society, with Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras occupying distinct social roles. However, there were also social and religious movements advocating for social reform and equality. 6. Religious Diversity and Synthesis: The Classical Period witnessed the coexistence and interaction of multiple religious traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and various indigenous folk religions. Philosophical exchanges and syncretism between different religious traditions led to the development of new religious movements and sects, contributing to the rich tapestry of Indian spirituality. The Classical Period represents a pinnacle of cultural, intellectual, and artistic achievement in ancient India, characterized by a flourishing of knowledge, creativity, and innovations that continues to influence Indian society and culture to this day. THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD The Medieval Period in Indian history, spanning from roughly 1200 CE to 1700 CE, was marked by significant political, social, cultural, and religious changes. This period saw the rise and fall of various dynasties, the spread of Islam in the Indian subcontinent, the flourishing of regional kingdoms, and the emergence of new forms of art, literature, and religious movements. Here's a detailed overview: 1. Islamic Invasions and Sultanates: The Medieval Period witnessed a series of invasions by Islamic rulers from Central Asia, beginning with Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th century and later by the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century. The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE marked the beginning of Muslim rule in North India. The Sultanate was characterized by the consolidation of power by Turkic and Afghan dynasties, including the Slave Dynasty, Khalji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, and Lodi Dynasty. The Sultanate period saw the fusion of Indian and Islamic cultures, leading to the development of Indo-Islamic architecture, art, music, and cuisine. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 9/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System 2. Mughal Empire: The arrival of Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, in 1526 CE marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire in India. Babur's victory over Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of Panipat established Mughal rule in North India. The Mughal Empire reached its zenith under emperors like Akbar, who pursued policies of religious tolerance, cultural syncretism, and administrative reforms. Akbar's court was a center of art, literature, and intellectual exchange. Shah Jahan, Akbar's grandson, is renowned for commissioning architectural marvels such as the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, and Jama Masjid in Delhi. 3. Regional Kingdoms: While the Mughals ruled over North India, the Medieval Period also witnessed the rise of powerful regional kingdoms in South India, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, the Bahmani Sultanate, the Deccan Sultanates, and the Maratha Empire. These regional powers played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of medieval India and contributed to the richness and diversity of Indian culture. 4. Cultural Renaissance: Despite the political upheavals, the Medieval Period saw a cultural renaissance in literature, art, and music. Persian and Urdu literature flourished under Mughal patronage, producing works of poetry, history, and philosophy. The Bhakti and Sufi movements gained prominence during this period, emphasizing personal devotion (bhakti) and mystical experience (sufism) as paths to spiritual realization. Saints and poets like Kabir, Guru Nanak, Mirabai, and Tulsidas propagated these movements through their devotional compositions. 5. Decline of Medieval Empires: The later part of the Medieval Period witnessed the decline of the Mughal Empire due to internal strife, succession conflicts, economic challenges, and external invasions. Similarly, regional kingdoms faced challenges from external threats and internal dissensions, leading to the fragmentation of political power and the emergence of smaller states. 6. European Contact: The latter half of the Medieval Period also saw the arrival of European powers, including the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British, who established trading outposts along the Indian coast. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 10/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System European traders gradually expanded their influence, leading to the establishment of colonial rule by the British East India Company in the 18th century, ultimately paving the way for British colonial domination in India. The Medieval Period in India was characterized by a dynamic interplay of political, cultural, and religious forces, shaping the course of Indian history and laying the groundwork for the modern nation-state. THE COLONIAL PERIOD The Colonial Period in Indian history, spanning from roughly 1700 CE to 1947 CE, was marked by the colonization of the Indian subcontinent by European powers, primarily the British. This period witnessed significant political, economic, social, and cultural transformations, culminating in India's struggle for independence. Here's a detailed overview: 1. European Expansion and Establishment of Colonies: The Colonial Period saw the expansion of European colonial powers, including the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British, into the Indian subcontinent. The British East India Company gradually established control over Indian territories through trade agreements, alliances, and military conquests. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the Battle of Buxar in 1764 were pivotal moments in British consolidation of power in India, leading to the establishment of British colonial rule over large parts of the subcontinent. 2. British Raj: The British East India Company's control over India was transferred to the British Crown after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, leading to the establishment of direct British rule, known as the British Raj. The British colonial administration implemented various policies and reforms aimed at consolidating British control, exploiting Indian resources, and transforming Indian society and economy to serve British interests. The British Raj was characterized by administrative centralization, economic exploitation through land revenue systems and taxation, promotion of British education and legal systems, and the suppression of Indian industries in favour of British goods. 3. Economic Exploitation and Deindustrialization: British colonial policies led to the systematic exploitation of India's resources, including agriculture, textiles, and raw materials, for the benefit of the British economy. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 11/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System The imposition of land revenue systems, heavy taxation, and discriminatory trade policies contributed to the impoverishment of Indian peasants, artisans, and industries. The British Raj's emphasis on raw material extraction and the export of finished goods from Britain led to the deindustrialization of India, causing the decline of traditional Indian industries like textiles, handicrafts, and metallurgy. 4. Social and Cultural Impact: British colonial rule had profound social and cultural implications for Indian society. The imposition of British education, legal systems, and social norms led to the spread of Western ideas and values, as well as the erosion of traditional Indian social structures and cultural practices. Social reform movements emerged in response to British colonialism, advocating for social justice, education, women's rights, and religious reform. Figures like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Mahatma Gandhi played crucial roles in these movements. 5. Indian Nationalism and Independence Movement: The Colonial Period witnessed the rise of Indian nationalism and the struggle for independence against British colonial rule. Various political, social, and cultural organizations, including the Indian National Congress (INC), played key roles in mobilizing Indian masses against British imperialism. The Indian independence movement was marked by nonviolent protests, civil disobedience campaigns, boycotts, and mass mobilizations led by leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel, and Subhas Chandra Bose. India finally gained independence from British rule on August 15, 1947, following negotiations between Indian leaders and the British government, culminating in the partition of British India into the two independent nations of India and Pakistan. The Colonial Period in India represents a tumultuous era characterized by exploitation, resistance, and eventual liberation, shaping the course of Indian history and the modern nation-state. THE POST-INDEPENDENCE ERA The Post-Independence Era in India, spanning from 1947 CE to the present day, is characterized by the consolidation of independence, nation-building efforts, economic development, political transformations, and social change. Here's a detailed overview: National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 12/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System 1. Partition and Independence: India gained independence from British rule on August 15, 1947, following a prolonged struggle for freedom led by the Indian National Congress and other nationalist leaders. The partition of British India led to the creation of two separate nations, India and Pakistan, based on religious lines, resulting in one of the largest migrations in history and communal violence that claimed millions of lives. 2. Nehruvian Era and Nation-Building: Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister, played a pivotal role in shaping the nation's early post-independence trajectory. His vision emphasized secularism, democracy, socialism, and non-alignment in foreign policy. Nehru initiated a series of economic, social, and educational reforms aimed at nation-building, including the establishment of large-scale public sector industries, investment in education and healthcare, and the formulation of Five-Year Plans for economic development. 3. Political Landscape: India adopted a parliamentary system of democracy, with universal adult suffrage and periodic elections at the national, state, and local levels. The Indian National Congress dominated the political scene in the initial years post- independence, but subsequent decades saw the emergence of regional and caste- based parties, leading to a more fragmented political landscape. 4. Economic Development: India pursued a mixed economy model, combining elements of state-led planning and private enterprise. The state played a significant role in industrialization, infrastructure development, and social welfare through Five-Year Plans. The Green Revolution in the 1960s and 1970s boosted agricultural productivity, leading to self-sufficiency in food grains. Economic reforms in the 1990s liberalized the economy, opening it up to foreign investment and market forces. Social Reforms and Challenges: Post-independence India witnessed significant social reforms aimed at addressing caste discrimination, gender inequality, and social injustice. Policies such as reservation (affirmative action) for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes aimed to promote social inclusion and equality. Despite progress, India continues to face challenges such as poverty, illiteracy, healthcare disparities, and religious and communal tensions. Efforts to address these issues remain ongoing. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 13/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System 5. Technological Advancements and Globalization: India has emerged as a global player in technology, IT services, and innovation, with cities like Bengaluru (Bangalore), Hyderabad, and Pune becoming hubs for technology and research. Globalization has led to increased trade, investment, and cultural exchange, as well as challenges related to economic inequality, environmental degradation, and cultural homogenization. 6. Foreign Policy and International Relations: India's foreign policy has been characterized by non-alignment, strategic autonomy, and a focus on regional cooperation and global peace. India has played an active role in international organizations like the United Nations and Non-Aligned Movement. Relations with neighboring countries, particularly Pakistan and China, have been complex, marked by periodic tensions and conflicts. The Post-Independence Era in India represents a period of immense change, progress, and challenges as the nation strives to fulfil the aspirations of its diverse population and emerge as a global power while remaining rooted in its rich cultural. Ancient Bharat, known today as India, had a rich and expansive cultural, economic, and political influence that extended far beyond its current geographical boundaries. The spread of ancient Bharat's influence can be seen in several key areas: 1. Trade and Commerce Silk Road/Route: India was a significant part of the Silk Road/Route, facilitating trade between the East and the West. Indian spices, textiles, and gemstones were highly sought after in the Roman Empire, China, and the Middle East. Maritime Trade: Indian traders established extensive maritime trade networks that reached Southeast Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, and East Africa. Ports like Lothal, Dwarka, and Kaveripattinam were bustling trade hubs. 2. Cultural and Religious Influence Buddhism and Hinduism: Indian missionaries and traders played a crucial role in spreading Buddhism and Hinduism across Asia. Buddhism spread to Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia, while Hinduism influenced the culture, architecture, and governance of Southeast Asian kingdoms. Epics and Literature: Indian epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, along with Puranic stories, influenced literature and folklore in Southeast Asia. Temples and monuments in Cambodia (e.g., Angkor Wat) and Indonesia (e.g., Prambanan) reflect this influence. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 14/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System 3. Scientific and Technological Exchange Mathematics and Astronomy: Indian scholars made significant contributions to mathematics (concept of zero, decimal system) and astronomy, which were transmitted to the Islamic world and later to Europe. Medicine: Ayurvedic knowledge and medical texts like the Sushruta Samhita and Charaka Samhita influenced medical practices in the Islamic world and Europe. 4. Political and Diplomatic Relations Diplomatic Ties: Ancient Bharat established diplomatic relations with various empires, including the Roman Empire, Persian Empire, and Chinese dynasties. The exchange of ambassadors and envoys facilitated cultural and economic ties. Colonization and Empire Building: Indianized kingdoms and empires, such as the Chola Empire, extended their influence through conquest and trade. The Cholas, for instance, had a formidable navy and established dominance over parts of Southeast Asia. 5. Migration and Settlement Southeast Asian Influence: Indian settlers, including traders, Brahmins, and artisans, migrated to Southeast Asia, contributing to the development of local cultures, languages, and societies. Spread of Indian Culture: Temples, inscriptions, and other archaeological evidence in countries like Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Malaysia show the deep cultural integration of Indian traditions. 6. Art and Architecture Temple Architecture: Indian architectural styles, such as the Nagara and Dravidian styles, and at places Vaserastyle influenced the construction of temples and monuments in Southeast Asia. Artistic Exchange: Indian art forms, including sculpture, painting styles, and dance forms, found new expressions and interpretations in different regions. 7. Language and Script Spread of Scripts: Indian scripts like Brahmi and Kharosthi were the precursors to many Southeast Asian scripts. The spread of Sanskrit as a scholarly and liturgical language also facilitated cultural exchange. Linguistic Influence: Many Southeast Asian languages have borrowed extensively from Sanskrit and Tamil, enriching their vocabulary and literary traditions. The influence of ancient Bharat was multifaceted, encompassing trade, culture, religion, science, politics, and art. This extensive spread not only shaped the civilizations of Asia but also contributed significantly to the global cultural and intellectual heritage. The legacy of National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 15/16 MOOC on Introduction to Indian Knowledge System ancient Bharat's influence can still be observed today in various aspects of life across many regions. CONCLUSION The history of India is a tapestry woven with diverse cultural, social, economic and political threads. Each historical period has left its mark contributing to the rich and complex identity of modern India. Understanding this history is crucial for appreciating the depth and breadth of India’s contribution to global civilization. REFERENCES Chakrabarty, A. M. Jigeesh&Sreeparna (2023-10-07). "UGC to train over 1,000 teachers to teach Indian knowledge systems from degree level". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-10-25. Kumar, MamidalaJagadesh (2023-07-29). "Embrace Indian Knowledge System, enrich higher education". The Sunday Guardian Live. Retrieved 2023-10-25. "Philosophy is necessary: Exploring Indian knowledge systems beyond Science". Free Press Journal. Retrieved 2023-10-25. "Mandatory 'Indian knowledge' course seen as 'indoctrination'". Times Higher Education (THE). 2023-06-27. Retrieved 2023-10-25. Chandra, Jagriti (2022-12-15). "UGC recommends training in Indian Knowledge Systems". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-10-25. "Reviving India's knowledge systems for modern Indian education and society". Financialexpress. 2021-12-06. Retrieved 2023-10-25. "Merge indigenous knowledge systems with modern technology for a better planet". The Week. Retrieved 2023-10-25. "Autonomous colleges in state face challenges in implementing Indian Knowledge System". Hindustan Times. 2023-09-25. Retrieved 2023-10-25. "Opinion | Indigenising Education: Ancient Indic Knowledge is Finally Getting its Due in New India". News18. 2023-10-10. Retrieved 2023-10-25. Sharma, Kritika (2018-09-26). "In engineering courses soon: Wright brothers didn't invent plane, batteries existed in Vedic age". ThePrint. Retrieved 2023-12-10. Thomas-Alexander, Tiya (2023-06-27). "Mandatory 'Indian knowledge' course seen as 'indoctrination'". Times Higher Education (THE). Retrieved 2023-12-10. "Government faces trust deficit over introduction of IKS". University World News. Retrieved 2023-10-25. "G N Devy writes: Replacing 'western knowledge' with 'Indian knowledge' could result in intellectual disaster". The Indian Express. 2023-04-18. Retrieved 2023-10-25. National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research, Bhopal Page 16/16 Self-Instructional Module (e-Content) COURSE Introduction to Indian Knowledge System UNIT 2: IKS: India’s Characteristic Knowledge & India’s Epistemology Dr. Roli Pradhan Assistant Professor,Departm

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