IKS Module 1 (Compiled) PDF

1.1 Indian Knowledge System – The Indian knowledge system is a treasure trove of ancient wisdom and practices that have been passed down through generations. It includes teachings from texts like the Vedas and Upanishads, which explore deep questions about life and spirituality. Ayurveda, our tradi...

1.1 Indian Knowledge System – The Indian knowledge system is a treasure trove of ancient wisdom and practices that have been passed down through generations. It includes teachings from texts like the Vedas and Upanishads, which explore deep questions about life and spirituality. Ayurveda, our traditional medicine system, focuses on keeping the body healthy through natural methods and balance. Yoga, another ancient practice, combines physical poses, breathing exercises, and meditation to promote physical and mental well-being. Indian mathematics gave the world the concept of zero and a sophisticated decimal system. Our architecture, seen in majestic temples and forts, reflects our rich cultural heritage. These traditions, along with diverse languages and literature, shape our understanding of the world and our place in it, making the Indian knowledge system both diverse and profound. The Indian knowledge system, spanning millennia, embodies a rich tapestry of philosophical, spiritual, scientific, and artistic traditions. Rooted in ancient scriptures like the Vedas and Upanishads, it integrates profound insights into metaphysics, ethics, and the nature of existence. Ayurveda, India's traditional medicine, emphasizes holistic well-being, viewing health as a balance of mind, body, and spirit. Indian astronomy, mathematics, and architecture showcase remarkable advancements, including the concept of zero and intricate temple designs. Literature flourishes in diverse languages, with epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata embodying cultural values and narratives. Socially, ancient Indian systems such as the caste structure and concepts of dharma shaped societal norms and moral duties. The Indian knowledge system thus represents a holistic worldview that integrates spirituality with empirical inquiry, fostering a deep understanding of life's complexities and the universe. Definition of IKS – The Indian knowledge system refers to the extensive and diverse array of traditional wisdom, beliefs, practices, and disciplines that have developed over millennia within the Indian subcontinent. It encompasses philosophical insights, spiritual teachings, scientific advancements, artistic expressions, social norms, and cultural practices that have been transmitted through oral traditions, ancient texts, and experiential learning. This knowledge system includes disciplines such as Ayurveda (traditional medicine), Yoga (spiritual and physical practices), Vedic literature (religious and philosophical texts), mathematics (including the invention of zero), astronomy, literature, architecture, music, dance, and various philosophical schools of thought. It reflects a deep integration of spiritual and practical knowledge, contributing significantly to global knowledge and understanding across multiple domains. History of Indian Knowledge system - The history of the Indian knowledge system spans several millennia and is characterized by continuous evolution, diverse influences, and profound contributions across various fields of human endeavour. 1. Vedic Period (1500 BCE - 500 BCE): The earliest known phase of Indian civilization is marked by the composition of the Vedas, ancient Sanskrit texts that form the foundation of Hinduism. The Vedas contain hymns, rituals, philosophical teachings, and insights into early astronomy and cosmology. 2. Classical Period (500 BCE - 500 CE): This era witnessed the emergence of major philosophical schools such as Vedanta, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, and Mimamsa. These schools explored metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and logic, contributing to profound philosophical debates and shaping the intellectual landscape. 3. Golden Age (500 CE - 1200 CE): India experienced significant cultural and intellectual flourishing during this period. Notable achievements include advancements in mathematics (the concept of zero, decimal system, Aryabhata's contributions to astronomy), development of classical Indian music and dance forms, and architectural marvels like the Ajanta and Ellora caves. 4. Medieval Period (1200 CE - 1700 CE): Despite political and social changes brought by Islamic invasions and subsequent rule, India continued to thrive in various fields. Persian and Arabic influences enriched Indian astronomy, medicine, and literature, resulting in works like Al-Biruni's study of India. 5. Colonial Period (1600 CE - 1947 CE): British colonization brought both challenges and opportunities to Indian knowledge systems. While Western education systems were  introduced, there was also a resurgence in Indian cultural and intellectual movements, such as the Bengal Renaissance, which revitalized literature, arts, and social reforms. 6. Post-Independence Period (1947 CE onwards): Independent India focused on modernizing education and scientific research while also preserving and promoting traditional knowledge systems. Institutions like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) have played crucial roles in advancing scientific research and historical studies. Throughout its history, the Indian knowledge system has been characterized by a synthesis of diverse influences, a deep spiritual and philosophical foundation, and significant contributions to mathematics, science, medicine, arts, literature, and social systems. It continues to evolve and influence global thought, reflecting India's rich cultural heritage and intellectual depth. 1.2 Ancient Knowledge System – Ancient knowledge systems refer to the accumulated wisdom, beliefs, practices, and teachings of early civilizations, often rooted in oral traditions and later documented in written form. These systems evolved over centuries and contributed significantly to the development of human societies across various regions of the world. Here are some notable ancient knowledge systems from different civilizations: 1. Mesopotamian Civilization: o Cuneiform Writing: The Sumerians developed one of the earliest writing systems around 3500 BCE, which enabled the recording of administrative, legal, and literary texts. o Mathematics and Astronomy: Babylonian scholars made advancements in mathematics, including the development of the sexagesimal (base-60) system and astronomical observations. 2. Egyptian Civilization:  o Hieroglyphic Writing: The ancient Egyptians developed a complex writing system using hieroglyphs around 3200 BCE, primarily for monumental inscriptions and religious texts. o Architecture: They built monumental structures such as the pyramids and temples, demonstrating advanced engineering and architectural knowledge. 3. Indus Valley Civilization: o Urban Planning: Cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa exhibited sophisticated urban planning with well-laid-out streets, drainage systems, and public baths. o Seals and Script: The Indus script, though undeciphered, indicates a system of writing used for administrative and possibly ritual purposes. 4. Chinese Civilization: o Oracle Bones: Used for divination during the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE), oracle bones provide insights into early Chinese writing, religion, and social structure. o Confucianism and Taoism: Philosophical systems like Confucianism and Taoism emerged, shaping Chinese thought, ethics, and governance. 5. Greek Civilization: o Philosophy: The Greeks developed systematic approaches to philosophy, including metaphysics (Aristotle), ethics (Plato), and logic (Socrates). o Mathematics and Science: Greek scholars such as Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes made foundational contributions to mathematics and science. 6. Mayan Civilization: o Calendar System: The Maya developed a complex calendar system with remarkable accuracy, incorporating astronomy and ritualistic practices. o Hieroglyphic Writing: Maya writing consisted of glyphs that recorded historical events, rituals, and astronomical observations. Ancient knowledge systems laid the groundwork for subsequent developments in science, philosophy, art, governance, and spirituality. They reflect the ingenuity, curiosity, and intellectual achievements of early human civilizations, providing insights into the foundations of modern thought and culture. Importance of Ancient Knowledge System – Ancient knowledge systems hold significant importance for several reasons: 1. Cultural Heritage: They preserve the cultural and historical identities of civilizations, offering insights into their beliefs, practices, values, and social structures. They provide a foundation for understanding the roots of modern cultures and traditions. 2. Technological Advancements: Ancient knowledge systems often include early developments in science, mathematics, engineering, and medicine. For example, ancient Mesopotamians developed mathematical concepts like the sexagesimal system and made astronomical observations that influenced later civilizations. 3. Philosophical and Ethical Foundations: Many ancient philosophies, such as those of the Greeks, Indians, and Chinese, explored fundamental questions about existence, ethics, morality, and the nature of reality. These philosophies continue to influence contemporary thought and ethical frameworks. 4. Artistic and Literary Contributions: Ancient civilizations produced literature, poetry, music, dance, and visual arts that reflected their values, beliefs, and societal norms. These artistic expressions provide cultural insights and aesthetic inspiration. 5. Techniques and Practices: Ancient knowledge systems often include practical skills, techniques, and practices that were essential for everyday life, such as agriculture, architecture, urban planning, and craftsmanship. These skills contributed to the sustainability and development of early societies. 6. Spiritual and Religious Insights: Many ancient knowledge systems include spiritual and religious teachings that shaped individuals' beliefs, rituals, and worldview. These insights continue to inform religious practices and spiritual traditions around the world. 7. Influence on Modern Thought: Ideas and concepts from ancient knowledge systems have influenced subsequent intellectual developments in fields such as philosophy, science, medicine, law, and governance. They provide a historical context for understanding the evolution of human thought and knowledge. 8. Preservation of Traditional Wisdom: Ancient knowledge systems often encompass traditional wisdom passed down through generations via oral traditions and written  texts. They represent accumulated wisdom and practical knowledge that have sustained societies over time. 9. Roots of Culture: They help us understand where our customs, traditions, and languages come from. 10. Early Innovations: Ancient people invented things like writing systems, calendars, and basic medicines that laid the foundation for future developments. 11. Lessons in Ethics: Ancient philosophies teach us about right and wrong, helping shape how we think about morality and fairness. 12. Art and Creativity: They produced beautiful artwork, music, and stories that reflect their beliefs and experiences. 13. Practical Skills: They developed skills like farming, building cities, and making tools that were essential for survival. 14. Spiritual Guidance: Ancient religions and spiritual teachings offer guidance on how to live a meaningful life and connect with something greater than ourselves. 15. Impact on Modern World: Many ideas from ancient times still influence our laws, governments, and ways of thinking today. 16. Preserving Wisdom: They passed down wisdom from generation to generation, helping communities thrive and adapt over time. Overall, ancient knowledge systems are invaluable for understanding human history, cultural diversity, technological innovations, philosophical thought, and the development of civilizations. They continue to inspire and inform contemporary societies, highlighting the enduring legacy of early human achievements and intellectual pursuits. Vedic philosophy VEDIC CORPUS The Vedic corpus refers to the body of ancient sacred texts that form the foundation of Vedic literature and Hinduism. These texts, are composed in Sanskrit, and are among the oldest religious scriptures in the world.AS per the ancient Historians the Vedic corpus can be divided into two parts early Vedic texts and later Vedic texts. Rigveda is considered as first book in Vedic corpus. Then later on Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas, and the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads attached to all the four Vedas. WHAT ARE VEDAS? The Vedas are the written form of ancient literature which was written in Sanskrit and originated in ancient India. It considered as the oldest form literature and scripture on which Hinduism is based on. The word Veda is derived from the root Vid which means “to know”. Thus, the veda means knowledge. Ved Vyasa was the complier of the four vedas. He arranged the four kinds of Mantras in to four Vedas i.e. Rigveda, Samaveda, Athrvaveda and Yujurvedas. RIGVEDA The Rigveda ऋग्वेद was the First and the Oldest form of written scripture in Indian History.it is also the most sacred texts in Hinduism. The content and significant of the Rigveda amused the historians today also. There are ten books in the Rigveda, referred to as Mandalas. With a total of 10,600 verses and 1028 hymns, it is the largest scripture among the four. The individual Verses in Rigveda are called as Richa. Rigveda, is one of the oldest known sacred texts. It is a collection of hymns dedicated to various deities, (God) composed in Vedic Sanskrit around 1500–1200 BCE. It consists of 1,028 hymns organized into ten books. The hymns cover a range of topics including cosmology, philosophy, and rituals, and they provide insight into early Vedic society and religious practices. Features of Rigveda 1. It has 10600 verses. 2. Out of 10 books or mandalas, book number 1 and 10 are the youngest ones as they were written later than books 2 to 9. 3. Rigvedic books 2-9 deal with cosmology and deities. 4. Rigvedic books 1 and 10 deal with philosophical questions and also talk about various virtues including a charity in the society.  5. Rigvedic books 2-7 are the oldest and shortest also called family books Rigvedic books 1 & 10 are the youngest and longest. 6. 1028 hymns deal with deities including Agni, Indra and are attributed and dedicated to a sage rishi. 7. The ninth Rigvedic book/mandala is solely dedicated to Soma. 8. The meters used to form hymns are Gayatri, Anushtubh, Trishtubh and Jagati (Trishtubh and Gayatri are most important). YJURVEDA Yajurveda is centered around the practices involved in performing rituals and sacrifices. It is divided into two main parts: the *Shukla (White) Yajurveda* and the *Krishna (Black) Yajurveda*.It contains prose mantras and detailed instructions for priests on conducting various ceremonies. Its content includes invocations, chants, and prayers, essential for the proper execution of Vedic rituals. (Like Ganesh Chaturthi is a 10-day Hindu festival that celebrates the birth of Lord Ganesha. The festival includes several rituals, including: Pranapratishtha: Shhodashopachara: Uttarpuja: Ganpati Visarjan: The Yjurveda Stands for 'Worship Knowledge', (1100-800 BCE) 1. It includes the ritual offering mantras/chants. The priest and another person, who had previously performed a ritual, offered these chants together. It has two types - Krishna (Black/Dark) & Shukla (White/Bright) 2. Krishna Yajurveda has an un-arranged, unclear, motley collection of verses 3. Shukla Yajurveda has arranged and clear verses 4. The oldest layer of Yajurveda has 1875 verses mostly taken up from Rigveda The youngest layer of Yajurveda consists of various Upanishads - Brihadaranyaka 5. Upanishad, the Isha Upanishad, the Taittiriya Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the Maitri Upanishad Vajasaneyi Samhita is the Samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda SAMAVEDA Samaveda, primarily consisting of melodies and chants. It is notable for its musical notation and is intended to be sung during rituals. It plays a crucial role in the development of Indian music and ritualistic practices. Known as the Veda of melodies and chants, Samaveda dates back to 1200-800 ВСЕ. Features of Samaveda  1. There are 1549 verses (except 75 verses, all have been taken from Rigveda) 2. There are two Upanishads embedded in Samaveda - Chandogya Upanishad and Kena Upanishad 3. The Samaveda is considered as the root of the Indian classical music and dance 4. It is considered as the storehouse of the melodious chants 5. There are three recensions of the text of the Samaveda - Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaimaniya Samaveda is categorised into two parts - Part-I includes melodies called Gana & Part-II includes three verses book called Archika. 6. Samaveda Samhita is not meant to be read as a text, it is like a musical score sheet that must be heard. ATHARVAVEDA It stands to mean a tatpurusha compound of Atharvan, an ancient sage, and knowledge. Atharvaveda. its focus on practical knowledge and everyday life.It is more oriented toward rituals and hymns, the *Atharvaveda* contains a wide range of hymns, spells, and incantations addressing health, healing, domestic life, and social issues. It provides insights into the daily lives, beliefs, and practices of ancient Indian society and includes both spiritual and worldly topics, such as medicine, magic, and social norms. to 1000-800 BCE. (atharvan+knowledge) Features of Atharvaveda 1. The daily procedures of life are very well explained in this Veda. it has 730 hymns/suktas, 6000 mantras, and 20 books. 2. Paippalada and the Saunakiya are two surviving editions of Atharvaveda Called a Veda of magical formulas, it includes three primary Upanishads - Mundaka Upanishad, the Mandukya Upanishad, and the Prashna Upanishad 3. This Veda contains hymns many of which were charms and magic spells which are meant to be pronounced by the person who seeks some benefit, Why Vedic knowledge is important? Vedic knowledge is essential because it forms the foundation of Hindu philosophy, spirituality, and cultural practices. It offers insights into ancient wisdom on cosmology, ethics, rituals, and social organization, influencing Indian thought and lifestyle for millennia. Studying the Vedas enhances understanding of early human civilization, religious traditions, and the development of languages and literature, making it crucial for both historical scholarship and spiritual growth.  CHAPTER – II HISTORY OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE 2.1 INTRODUCTION Indian agriculture has long, old and beyond memory history which begins the Indus valley civilization. One of the most old water regulating structure in the world is Grand Anicut dam on river Kaveri (1st-2nd Century CE). Indian agriculture began by 9000 BCE as a result of early cultivation of plants, and domestication of crops and animals. Settled life soon followed with implements and techniques being developed for agriculture. Double monsoons led to two harvests being reaped in one year. Indian products soon reached the world via existing trading networks and foreign crops were introduced to India. Plants and animals—considered essential to their survival by the Indians—came to be worshiped and venerated. The middle ages saw irrigation channels reach a new level of sophistication in India and Indian crops affecting the economies of other regions of the world under Islamic patronage. Land and water management systems were developed with an aim of providing uniform growth. Despite some stagnation during the later modern era the independent Republic of India was able to develop a comprehensive agricultural program. Reference 1: Stein, Burton (1998), A History of India, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-20546-2 40 2.2 HISTORY OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE 2.2.1 Early History Wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9000 BCE. Domestication of sheep and goat soon followed. This period also saw the first domestication of the elephant. Barley and wheat cultivation—along with the domestication of cattle, primarily sheep and goat—was visible in Mehrgarh by 8000- 6000 BCE. Agro pastoralism in India included threshing, planting crops in rows— either of two or of six—and storing grain in granaries. By the 5th millennium BCE agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir. Zaheer Baber (1996) writes that 'the first evidence of cultivation of cotton had already developed'. Cotton was cultivated by the 5th millennium BCE-4th millennium BCE. The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practiced till the modern Industrialization of India. A variety of tropical fruit such as mango and muskmelon are native to the Indian subcontinent. The Indians also domesticated hemp, which they used for a number of applications including making narcotics, fiber, and oil. The farmers of the Indus Valley grew peas, sesame, and dates. Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea. Wild Oryza rice appeared in the Belan and Ganges valley regions of northern India as early as 4530 BCE and 5440 BCE respectively. Rice was cultivated in the Indus Valley Civilization. Agricultural activity during the second millennium BC included rice cultivation in the Kashmir and Harrappan regions. Mixed farming was the basis of the Indus valley economy. Denis J. Murphy (2007) details the spread of cultivated rice from India into South-east Asia: References 1 : Baber, Zaheer (1996), The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-2919-9. Reference 2: Murphy, Denis J. (2007), People, Plants and Genes: The Story of Crops and Humanity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-920713-5. 41  Several wild cereals, including rice, grew in the Vindhyan Hills, and rice cultivation, at sites such as Chopani-Mando and Mahagara, may have been underway as early as 7000 BP. The relative isolation of this area and the early development of rice farming imply that it was developed indigenously....Chopani- Mando and Mahagara are located on the upper reaches of the Ganges drainage system and it is likely that migrants from this area spread rice farming down the Ganges valley into the fertile plains of Bengal, and beyond into south-east Asia. Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers. Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE. Archeological evidence of an animal- drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization. 2.2.2 Vedic period – Post Maha Janapadas period (1500 BCE – 200 CE) Accoridng to Gupta (2004) the summer monsoons may have been longer and may have contained moisture in excess than required for normal food production. One effect of this excessive moisture would have been to aid the winter monsoon rainfall required for winter crops. In India, both wheat and barley are held to be Rabi (winter) crops and—like other parts of the world—would have largely depended on winter monsoons before the irrigation became widespread. The growth of the Kharif crops would have probably suffered as a result of excessive moisture. Jute was first cultivated in India, where it was used to make ropes and cordage. Some animals— thought by the Indians as being vital to their survival—came to be worshiped. Reference 1: Gupta, Anil K. (2004), "Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration", Current Science, 87 (1), Indian Academy of Sciences. 42 Trees were also domesticated, worshiped, and venerated—Pipal and Banyan in particular. Others came to be known for their medicinal uses and found mention in the holistic medical system Ayurveda. In the later Vedic texts (c. 1000–500 BC), there are repeated references to iron. Cultivation of a wide range of cereals, vegetables, and fruits is described. Meat and milk products were part of the diet; animal husbandry was important. The soil was plowed several times. Seeds were broadcast. Fallowing and a certain sequence of cropping were recommended. Cow dung provided the manure. Irrigation was practiced. The Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE) categorized soils and made meteorological observations for agricultural use. Other Mauryan facilitation included construction and maintenance of dams, and provision of horse-drawn chariots—quicker than traditional bullock carts. The Greek diplomat Megasthenes (c. 300 BC)—in his book Indika— provides a secular eyewitness account of Indian agriculture: 2.2.3 Early Common Era – High Middle Ages (200–1200 CE) The Tamil people cultivated a wide range of crops such as rice, sugarcane, millets, black pepper, various grains, coconuts, beans, cotton, plantain, tamarind and sandalwood. Jackfruit, coconut, palm, areca and plantain trees were also known. Systematic ploughing, manuring, weeding, irrigation and crop protection was practiced for sustained agriculture. Water storage systems were designed during this period. Kallanai (1st-2nd century CE), a dam built on river Kaveri during this period, is considered the as one of the oldest water-regulation structures in the world still in use. Spice trade involving spices native to India—including cinnamon and black pepper— gained momentum as India starts shipping spices to the Mediterranean. Roman trade with India followed as detailed by the archaeological record and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Chinese sericulture attracted Indian sailors during the early centuries of the common era. Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Guptas (320- 43 550 CE), and the earliest reference of candied sugar come from India. The process was soon transmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks. Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar- refining. Each mission returned with results on refining sugar. Indian spice exports find mention in the works of Ibn Khurdadhbeh (850), al-Ghafiqi (1150), Ishak bin Imaran (907) and Al Kalkashandi (fourteenth century). Noboru Karashima's research of the agrarian society in South India during the Chola Empire (875-1279) reveals that during the Chola rule land was transferred and collective holding of land by a group of people slowly gave way to individual plots of land, each with their own irrigation system. The growth of individual disposition of farming property may have led to a decrease in areas of dry cultivation. The Cholas also had bureaucrats which oversaw the distribution of water—-particularly the distribution of water by tank-and-channel networks to the drier areas. 2.2.4 Late Middle Ages – Early Modern Era (1200–1757 CE) The construction of water works and aspects of water technology in India is described in Arabic and Persian works. The diffusion of Indian and Persian irrigation technologies gave rise to an irrigation system which bought about economic growth and growth of material culture. Agricultural 'zones' were broadly divided into those producing rice, wheat or millets. Rice production continued to dominate Gujarat and wheat dominated north and central India. The Encyclopedia Britannica details the many crops introduced to India during this period of extensive global discourse: Introduced by the Portuguese, cultivation of tobacco spread rapidly. The Malabār Coast was the home of spices, especially black pepper, that had stimulated the first European adventures in the East. Coffee had been imported from Abyssinia and became a popular beverage in aristocratic circles by the end of the century. Tea, which was to become the common man's drink and a major export, was yet undiscovered, though it was growing wild in the hills of Assam. Vegetables were 44 cultivated mainly in the vicinity of towns. New species of fruit, such as the pineapple, papaya, and cashew nut, also were introduced by the Portuguese. The quality of mango and citrus fruits was greatly improved. Land management was particularly strong during the regime of Akbar the Great (reign: 1556-1605), under whom scholar-bureaucrat Todarmal formulated and implemented elaborated methods for agricultural management on a rational basis. Indian crops—such as cotton, sugar, and citric fruits—spread visibly throughout North Africa, Islamic Spain, and the Middle East. Though they may have been in cultivation prior to the solidification of Islam in India, their production was further improved as a result of this recent wave, which led to far-reaching economic outcomes for the regions involved. 2.2.5 Colonial British Era (1757–1947 CE) In 1857 a Rampur canal on river Sutlej was constructed and a number of irrigation canals are located on the Sutlej river. Few Indian commercial crops—such as Cotton, indigo, opium, and rice—made it to the global market under the British Raj in India. The second half of the 19th century saw some increase in land under cultivation and agricultural production expanded at an average rate of about 1 percent per year by the later 19th century. Due to extensive irrigation by canal networks Punjab, Narmada valley, and Andhra Pradesh became centers of agrarian reforms. There was influence of the world wars on the Indian agricultural system. Reference 1: Roy, T. (2006), "Agricultural Prices and Production, 1757–1947", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 20–22, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0- 684-31350-2. 45  Agricultural performance in the interwar period (1918–1939) was dismal. From 1891 to 1946, the annual growth rate of all crop output was 0.4 percent, and food-grain output was practically stagnant. There were significant regional and intercrop differences, however, nonfood crops doing better than food crops. Among food crops, by far the most important source of stagnation was rice. Bengal had below-average growth rates in both food and nonfood crop output, whereas Punjab and Madras were the least stagnant regions. In the interwar period, population growth accelerated while food output decelerated, leading to declining availability of food per head. The crisis was most acute in Bengal, where food output declined at an annual rate of about 0.7 percent from 1921 to 1946, when population grew at an annual rate of about 1 percent. The British regime in India did supply the irrigation works but rarely on the scale required. Community effort and private investment soared as market for irrigation developed. Agricultural prices of some commodities rose to about three times between 1870-1920. A rich source of the state of Indian agriculture in the early British era is a report prepared by a British engineer, Thomas Barnard, and his Indian guide, Raja Chengalvaraya Mudaliar, around 1774. This report contains data of agricultural production in about 800 villages in the area around Chennai in the years 1762 to 1766. This report is available in Tamil in the form of palm leaf manuscripts at Thanjavur Tamil University, and in English in the Tamil Nadu State Archives. A series of articles in The Hindu newspaper in the early 1990s authored by researchers at The Center for Policy Studies led by Shri Dharampal Dharampal highlight the impressive production statistics of Indian farmers of that era. 46 2.2.6 Republic of India (1947 CE onwards) Bhakra Dam (completed 1963) is the largest dam in India. Special programs were undertaken to improve food and cash crops supply. The Grow More Food Campaign (1940s) and the Integrated Production Programme (1950s) focused on food and cash crops supply respectively. Five-year plans of India—oriented towards agricultural development—soon followed. Land reclamation, land development, mechanization, electrification, use of chemicals—fertilizers in particular, and development of agriculture oriented 'package approach' of taking a set of actions instead of promoting single aspect soon followed under government supervision. The many 'production revolutions' initiated from 1960s onwards included Green Revolution in India, Yellow Revolution (oilseed: 1986-1990), Operation Flood (dairy: 1970-1996), and Blue Revolution (fishing: 1973-2002) etc. Following the economic reforms of 1991, significant growth was registered in the agricultural sector, which was by now benefiting from the earlier reforms and the newer innovations of Agro-processing and Biotechnology. Due to the growth and prosperity that followed India's economic reforms a strong middle class emerged as the main consumer of fruits, dairy, fish, meat and vegetables—a marked shift from the earlier staple based consumption. Since 1991, changing consumption patterns led to a 'revolution' in 'high value' agriculture while the need for cereals is experienced a decline. The per capita consumption of cereals declined from 192 to 152 kilograms from 1977 to 1999 while the consumption of fruits increased by 553%, vegetables by 167%, dairy products by 105%, and non- vegetarian products by 85% in India's rural areas alone. Urban areas experienced a similar increase. Agricultural exports continued to grow at well over 10.1% annually through the 1990s. Contract farming—which requires the farmers to produce crops for a company 47 under contract—and high value agricultural product increased. Contract farming led to a decrease in transaction costs while the contract farmers made more profit compared to the non-contract workforce. However, small landholding continued to create problems for India's farmers as the limited land resulted in limited produce and limited profits. Since independence, India has become one of the largest producers of wheat, edible oil, potato, spices, rubber, tea, fishing, fruits, and vegetables in the world. The Ministry of Agriculture oversees activities relating to agriculture in India. Various institutions for agriculture related research in India were organized under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (est. 1929). Other organizations such as the National Dairy Development Board (est. 1965), and National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (est. 1982) aided the formation of cooperatives and improved financing. The contribution of agriculture in employing India's male workforce declined from 75.9% in 1961 to 60% in 1999–2000. Dev (2006) holds that 'there were about 45 million agricultural labor households in the country in 1999–2000.' These households recorded the highest incidence of poverty in India from 1993 to 2000. The green revolution introduced high yielding varieties of crops which also increased the usage of fertilizers and pesticides. About 90% of the pesticide usage in India is accounted for by DDT and Lindane (BHC/HCH). There has been a shift to organic agriculture particularly for exported commodities. Reference 1 :Dev, S. M. (2006), "Agricultural Labor and Wages since 1950", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 17–20, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31350-2. 48