ICT-III Past Paper PDF

 Social Media Plate forms Introduction:- Social media refers to the means of interactions among people in which they create share and/or exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks. The office of communities and networks. The office of communications and...

 Social Media Plate forms Introduction:- Social media refers to the means of interactions among people in which they create share and/or exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks. The office of communities and networks. The office of communications and marketing manages the, main Face book, twilter, intagram, Linkedln and YouTube accounts. Introduction Social Media Plate forms:- A Social media platform refers to an online digital service or website that enables users to create, share and interact with content and connect with other users It provides a virtual space for individuals organizations and communities to communicate, Collaborate and engage with one another. Social media platforms allow users to have conversations, share information and create web content. There are many forms of social media including blogs, micro-blogs, wikis, Social networking sites, photo-sharing sites, instant messaging, video-sharing sites, podcasts, widgets, virtual worlds and more. Social Media Plateforms:- Social media are interactive technologies that facilitate the creation, sharing and aggregation of content amongst virtual communities and networks. Common features include: Online platforms that enable users to create and share content and participate in social networking. Social media refers to the means of interactions among people in which they create, share, and/or exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks. The Office of Communications and Marketing manages the main Facebook, X/Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, and YouTube accounts. Cyber Ethics Cyber Ethics:- Cyberethics is a branch of applied ethics that examines moral, legal, and social issues at the intersection of computer/information and communication technologies. This field is sometimes also referred to by phrases such as Internet ethics, computer ethics, and information ethics. Cyberethics is "a branch of ethics concerned with behavior in an online environment". In another definition, it is the "exploration of the entire range of ethical and moral issues that arise in cyberspace" while cyberspace is understood to be "the electronic worlds made visible by the Internet.“ For years, various governments have enacted regulations while organizations have defined policies about cyberethics. Some of the breaches of cyberethics are listed below: 1. Cyber Bullying: Cyberbullying is a form of bullying carried out via internet technology such as social media where individuals are mocked on their physical appearance, lifestyle, preferences, etc. The teenage generation or say youngsters are the major victims of this form of cyber ethic breach. Cyberbullying affects the emotional ethics of individuals and can cause mental disturbance to individuals. 2. Hacking: Stealing a user’s personal or organizational information without authorized permission is not considered a good practice. It is one of the riskiest cyber breaches to data leak. Data leak includes passing of sensitive information such as passwords, bank details of the user to a third-party user who is not authorized to access the information. 3. Copywriting: Claiming of another individual as one’s own is another type of cyber ethic breach that must be eradicated. Never engage in copywriting another person’s content or document and claim as it is your own. It leads to a serious problem called plagiarism, which is a punishable offense and considered a legal crime. It is always advisable to follow general cyberethics, while using the internet or say any kind of technology. A proper code of conduct must be followed while using cyber technology. Cyberethics if not used wisely can lead to serious situations. Social and legal laws are defined to use cyber technology wisely. In extreme cases, legal action can be taken if there is a violation of cyber ethics. Cyber Ethics focuses on the following:- 1. Privacy:- i.The content that is available on the internet should not hurt any moral, emotional, or personal ethics of individuals. ii.Users should have the right to protect any information which they don’t want to share openly. iii.Private information like user’s contact details, address, security-related information like bank details, credit card/debit card details, are all included in basic cyber ethics of user privacy and must not be breached in any case. iv.Any breach of privacy is theft/fraud of user identity and user personal information, which is punishable as per the rules of law. 2. IPR: i. IPR stands for Intellectual Property Rights. ii. IPR defines that the owners have the complete right to the content that is posted on the internet. iii. The entire content is solely a belonging of the originator and no individual is allowed to claim that content published by the original creator as its own. iv. Unauthorized distribution of someone else’s work should never be adopted as it’s ethically incorrect to not give creation and monetary benefits to the creator of the work. 3. Security: i. Security on the internet is the most basic ethical right that every user must be accessible. ii. Users of the internet should feel safe while they surf the net. iii. Security, in general means only authorized users to have access to the content on the computer. iv. And confidential information is safe, without any risk of loss of information/content. 4. Accuracy: i. The content available on the internet is accessed by billions of users. ii. If there is no reliability of the information that is posted online, then it would mislead the masses. iii. Cyberethics assert the importance of posting content on the internet that is correct in all aspects. iv. Users trust the content of the internet and rely heavily on the internet for facts, therefore it is highly needed that the asked information is correct and reliable.  Cyber Law Cyber Law Define:- Cyber Law also called IT Law is the law regarding Information-technology including computers and the internet. It is related to legal informatics and supervises the digital circulation of information, software, information security, and e-commerce. IT law does not consist of a separate area of law rather it encloses aspects of contract, intellectual property, privacy, and data protection laws. Intellectual property is a key element of IT law. The area of software license is controversial and still evolving in Europe and elsewhere. Importance of Cyber Law: 1. It covers all transactions over the internet. 2. It keeps eye on all activities over the internet. 3. It touches every action and every reaction in cyberspace. Area of Cyber Law: Cyber laws contain different types of purposes. Some laws create rules for how individuals and companies may use computers and the internet while some laws protect people from becoming the victims of crime through unscrupulous activities on the internet. The major areas of cyber law include: 1. Fraud:- Consumers depend on cyber laws to protect them from online fraud. Laws are made to prevent identity theft, credit card theft, and other financial crimes that happen online. A person who commits identity theft may face confederate or state criminal charges. They might also encounter a civil action brought by a victim. Cyber lawyers work to both defend and prosecute against allegations of fraud using the internet. 2. Copyright:- The internet has made copyright violations easier. In the early days of online communication, copyright violations were too easy. Both companies and individuals need lawyers to bring an action to impose copyright protections. Copyright violation is an area of cyber law that protects the rights of individuals and companies to profit from their creative works. 3. Defamation: Several personnel uses the internet to speak their mind. When people use the internet to say things that are not true, it can cross the line into defamation. Defamation laws are civil laws that save individuals from fake public statements that can harm a business or someone’s reputation. When people use the internet to make statements that violate civil laws, that is called Defamation law. 5. Harassment and Stalking: Sometimes online statements can violate criminal laws that forbid harassment and stalking. When a person makes threatening statements again and again about someone else online, there is a violation of both civil and criminal laws. Cyber lawyers both prosecute and defend people when stalking occurs using the internet and other forms of electronic communication. 6. Trade Secrets: Companies doing business online often depend on cyber laws to protect their trade secrets. For example, Google and other online search engines spend lots of time developing the algorithms that produce search results. They also spend a great deal of time developing other features like maps, intelligent assistance, and flight search services to name a few. Cyber laws help these companies to take legal action as necessary to protect their trade secrets. 7. Contracts and Employment Law: Every time you click a button that says you agree to the terms and conditions of using a website, you have used cyber law. There are terms and conditions for every website that are somehow related to privacy concerns.  Database Define:- A database is an organized collection of data stored in a computer system and usually controlled by a database management system (DBMS). The data in common databases is modeled in tables, making querying and processing efficient. Structured query language (SQL) is commonly used for data querying and writing. The Database is an essential part of our life. We encounter several activities that involve our interaction with databases, for example in the bank, in the railway station, in school, in a grocery store, etc. These are the instances where we need to store a large amount of data in one place and fetch these data easily. Q:- What is Data? Ans:- Data is statically raw and unprocessed information. For example – name, class, marks, etc. In computer language, a piece of information that can be translated into a form for efficient movement and processing is called data. Data is interchangeable information. Q:- What is a Database? Ans:- A database is a collection of data that is organized, which is also called structured data. It can be accessed or stored in a computer system. It can be managed through a Database Management System (DBMS), a software used to manage data. Database refers to related data in a structured form. App:- In information technology, an application (app), an application program, or application software is a computer program designed to help people perform an activity. Depending on the activity for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, audio, graphics, and a combination of these elements. An application program is a computer program designed to carry out a specific task other than one relating to the operation of the computer itself, typically to be used by end-users. Word processors, media players, and accounting software Artificial Intelligence(AI):- In recent years, AI has been seamlessly integrated into various communication systems, such as the internet backbone, cellular networks, mobile devices, base stations, fiber optics, microwave transmission, satellites, and undersea cables. AI in the IT industry refers to the application of artificial intelligence technologies and techniques to various aspects of information technology. This includes software development, data analysis, cybersecurity, infrastructure management, and more. Machine learning (ML):- ML is a branch of artificial intelligence (AI) and computer science that focuses on the using data and algorithms to enable AI to imitate the way that humans learn, gradually improving its accuracy. Machine Learning Technology is defined as a system that optimizes performance by using statistical methods to infer conclusions from data and computer science methods to provide computing power for solving problems and making predictions. Q:- What is machine learning in information technology? Ans:- Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence, which is broadly defined as the capability of a machine to imitate intelligent human behavior. Artificial intelligence systems are used to perform complex tasks in a way that is similar to how humans solve problems. Q:- How is machine learning used in communication? Ans:- It includes ML based signal detection, channel encoding and decoding, channel estimation, prediction, and compression, and resource allocation, which can directly improve the performance of each individual processing block in traditional communications systems. Q:- What is machine learning in ICT and its applications? Ans:- Machine learning (ML) is a branch of artificial intelligence (AI) and computer science that focuses on the using data and algorithms to enable AI to imitate the way that humans learn, gradually improving its accuracy.  The main ML types are supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning. 1. Supervised learning :- Supervised learning (SL) is a paradigm in machine learning where input objects (for example, a vector of predictor variables) and a desired output value (also known as a human-labeled supervisory signal) train a model. The training data is processed, building a function that maps new data to expected output values. 2. Unsupervised learning:- Unsupervised learning algorithms find structures in data that has not been labeled, classified or categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such commonalities in each new piece of data. 3. Reinforcement learning:- Reinforcement learning (RL) is an interdisciplinary area of machine learning and optimal control concerned with how an intelligent agent ought to take actions in a dynamic environment in order to maximize the cumulative reward. Reinforcement learning is one of three basic machine learning paradigms, alongside supervised learning and unsupervised learning.  Major Social Media Plateform Top 10 Most Popular Social Media Platforms Facebook:- Facebook is a website which allows users, who sign-up for free profiles, to connect with friends, work colleagues or people they don't know, online. It allows users to share pictures, music, videos, and articles, as well as their own thoughts and opinions with however many people they like. YouTube:- YouTube is an American online, free video sharing social media website and app on the internet, and founded on February 14, 2005, by three former PayPal employees. Google (a search engine company) has owned and operated YouTube since 2006. WhatsApp:- WhatsApp is an instant messaging and voice-over-IP service owned by technology conglomerate Meta. It allows users to send text, voice messages and video messages, make voice and video calls, and share images, documents, user locations, and other content. Instagram:- Instagram is a free, online photo-sharing application and social network platform that was acquired by Facebook in 2012. Instagram allows users to edit and upload photos and short videos through a mobile app. TikTok :- TikTok is a social media platform for creating, sharing and discovering short videos. The app is used by young people as an outlet to express themselves through singing, dancing, comedy, and lip-syncing, and allows users to create videos and share them across a community. WeChat:- WeChat or Weixin in Chinese is a Chinese instant messaging, social media, and mobile payment app developed by Tencent. First released in 2011, it became the world's largest standalone mobile app in 2018 with over 1 billion monthly active users. Facebook Messenger:- Messenger, also known as Facebook Messenger, is an American proprietary instant messaging service developed by Meta Platforms. Originally developed as Facebook Chat in 2008, the client application of Messenger is currently available on iOS and Android mobile platforms, Windows and macOS desktop platforms, through the Messenger.com web application, and on the standalone Facebook Portal hardware. Telegram:- Telegram Messenger, commonly known as Telegram, is a cloud-based, encrypted, cross-platform, instant messaging (IM) service. It was originally launched for iOS on 14 August 2013 and Android on 20 October 2013. It allows users to exchange messages, share media and files, and hold private and group voice or video calls as well as public livestreams. It is available for Android, iOS, Windows, macOS, Linux, and web browsers. Telegram also offers end-to-end encryption in voice and video calls, and in optional private chats, which Telegram calls Secret Chats. Snapchat:- Snapchat is an American multimedia instant messaging app and service developed by Snap Inc., originally Snapchat Inc. One of the principal features of Snapchat is that pictures and messages are usually only available for a short time before they become inaccessible to their recipients. Douyin:- Douyin is a popular short video platform in China where users can create and share 15-second videos. It is known for its creative filters, effects, and music options. Major Social Media plateforms:- Social platforms let people easily communicate and exchange ideas or content. Business and product marketing. These platforms enable businesses to quickly publicize their products and services to a broad audience. Businesses can also use social media to maintain a following and test new markets. Important Functional:- These interactive platforms allow individuals, communities, and organizations to share, co-create, discuss, participate in, and modify user-generated or self-curated content. Social media is used to document memories, learn, and form friendships. They may be used to promote people, companies, products, and ideas. Social Media plateforms Security attributes Security:- The top five social media security threats are phishing, social engineering, information disclosure, fake accounts, and malware. Attributes:- Social media is characterised by its openness to user feedback and participation, with few barriers to accessing information or making comments. The networking philosophy and user-friendly content sharing mechanisms enhance this openness.  Definition and importance of DBMS Introduction:- Data is a very important resource in the operation and management of an organization. So, it is very essential to organize the data in a meaningful manner, because an unorganized data has no meaning. With the increased demand of the data in the various organizations such as bank, universities, railways, airlines, companies etc., It becomes a necessity to store data in an organized manner so that it can be used again and again.So, we need a database to store the data in an organized form. DBMS is a software system used to manage database and its various operations like insertion, deletion, updating and retrieval. It enables users to store, modify and extract information from a database as per the requirements. It acts as an intermediator between the user and the database.” Definition:- Database management systems (DBMSs) are specially designed software applications that interact with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is a software system designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases. Well-known DBMSs include MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, and Oracle etc. Importance:- A DBMS is a critical component for system development, as it offers data abstraction, integrity, security, sharing, and analysis. It hides the low-level details of how data is stored and accessed, and provides a high-level interface for users and applications. It also enforces rules and constraints to ensure data accuracy, consistency, and validity. In addition, it implements policies and mechanisms to protect data from unauthorized access and manipulation. Furthermore, it enables data to be shared and accessed by multiple users and applications in a concurrent and coordinated manner. Finally, it provides tools and features for data analysis and decision making. All these benefits make a DBMS an invaluable tool for system development. Databases are essential for storing large amounts of data in one place. With databases, organizations can quickly access, manage, modify, update, organize and retrieve their data. Databases are normally controlled using a database management system (DBMS). Characteristics of Database The Same major characteristics are: 1. Self-describing nature of the database system: Self-describing nature of the database is the approach that the database system not only contains the database itself but also contains the description and definition of the structure of the database and its constraints. 2. Insulation between data and program, and data abstraction: In traditional file system the file structure is embedded in the application, therefore if there is any change in the file structure then it may require that all the programs are changed which access these file. In contrast, the DBMS system does not require such changes in most of the case. The file structure here is stored in the DBMS catalog separate from the access program. We can call this property as DATA INDEPENDENCE. 3. Support multiple user view of the data: A database typically has many users and each user may have a different perspective or view of the database. So it is important that a multiple user database that has a variety of distinct application provides the facility for defining multiple views. 4. Sharing of data and multiple user transaction processing: A DBMS must allow multiple users to share the data at the same time. It must include concurrency control software to ensure that multiple users trying to update the same data do it in a controlled manner so that the result of the update is correct. Advantage of DBMS 1. Reduction of Redundancies: Centralized control of data by the DBA avoids unnecessary duplication of data and effectively reduces the total amount of data storage required. 2. Elimination of Inconsistencies: The main advantage of avoiding duplication is the elimination of inconsistencies that tend to be present in redundant data files. 3. Shared Data: A database allows the sharing of data under its control by any number of application programs or users. 4. Integrity: Centralized control can also ensure that adequate checks are incorporated in the DBMS to provide data integrity. Data integrity means that the data contained in the database is both accurate and consistent. 5. Security: Data is of vital importance to an organization and may be confidential. Such confidential data must not be accessed by unauthorized persons. Disadvantage of DBMS 1. Cost of software/hardware and migration: A significant disadvantage of the DBMS system is cost. In addition to the cost of purchasing or developing the software, the hardware has to be upgraded to allow for the extensive programs and work spaces required for their execution and storage. 2. Problem associated with centralization: While centralization reduces duplication, the lack of duplication requires that the database be adequately backed up so that in the case of failure the data can be recovered. 3. Complexity of Backup and Recovery: Backup and recovery operations are fairly complex in a DBMS environment, and this is exacerbated in a concurrent multi user database system. Components of DBMS 1. Database Engine:- Database Engine is the heart of DBMs. It is responsible for storing retrieving and updating the data. This component is responsible for the speed(performance) and scalability of a database. 2. Data Dictionary:- A data dictionary is a database about databases. It holds all information about each data element in the databases, such as its name, data type, range of values, source, access authorization and indicates which application programs use this data item. 3. Query Processor:- Query processor is a functional component of database management system whose function is to break down query (SQL) statements (given by user) into instructions understood by the DBMS and which helps the database system to access and update data. 4. Security and Other Utilities:- DBMS must be responsible for establishing and maintaining security access controls. Security component of DBMS must identify the user and then provide or limit access to various parts of the database. Various administrative utilities such as backup and recovery, user management, data storage evaluation and performance monitoring tools are provided with most of the DBMSs. 5. Other components include forms (data entry screens) generator, report (output screens) generator and data acommunication and networking utilities.  Conceptual In DBMS (Three-Level Architecture of DBMS) In DBMS, the database can have different aspects to reveal if seen from different levels of abstraction. The term abstraction means the amount of detail you want to hide. Any entity can be seen from different perspectives and levels of complexity to make it a reveal its current amount of abstraction.  In the same manner, the database can also be viewed from different levels of abstraction to reveal different levels of details. From a bottom-up manner, we may find that there are three levels of abstraction in the database: 1. External Level:- In this database view, maximum detail about the database will be hidden from the user. At external level, only the restricted portion of the database is available to end user, because an end user does not need to know everything about the structure of the entire database, rather than the amount of details he/she needs to work with. It implements highest level of data abstraction. 2. Conceptual Level:- This view will provide some more detail about the database to the user like-structure or schema detail of the database. Conceptual level describes what data are stored in the database and what relationships exist among those data. At this level, we are not interested with the raw data items anymore; we are interested with the structure of the database. This means we want to Know the information about the attributes of each table, the common attributes in different tables that help them to be combined, what kind of data can be input into these attributes, and so on. It implements middle level of data abstraction. 3. Internal Level:- This level is concerned with the physical storage of the data. It provides the internal view of the actual physical storage of data. It deals with the description of how raw data items (like 1, ABC, D20 etc.) are stored in the physical storage devices (Hard Disc, CD, DVD, Tape Drive etc.). It also describes the data type of these data items, the memory size of the items in the storage media, the location (physical address) of the items in the storage device and so on. It implements lowest level of data abstraction. Although, both internal level and physical level is considered as a single level, but there is slight difference between them. Actually, physical level is one that is managed by the operating system under the direction of DBMS, while the internal level is managed by DBMS. Data Independence:- Database management system (DBMS) supports the concept of data independence since it represents a system for managing data separately from the programs that use the data. The three-level architecture of DBMS provides the concept of data independence, which means that upper-levels are unaffected by changes to lower-levels. In other words, it allows changes to the structure of a database without requiring application programs or users to make any changes in the way they access the data. Types of Data Independence:- Two types of Data Independence are:- a.Logical Data Independence:- The ability to change the logical or conceptual schema of database without changing the external schema is called logical data independence. For example, the addition or removal of an attribute or field to the conceptual schema should be possible without having to change existing external schema or having to rewrite existing application programs. b. Physical Data Independence:- The ability to change the physical or internal schema without changing the logical schema is called physical data independence. For example, a change to the internal schema, such as using different storage devices should be possible without having to change the conceptual or external schemas. (Logical Data Independence V/s. Physical Data Independence) Logical Data Independence Physical Data Independence It is concerned with the structure of the It is concerned with storage of the data. data. It is very difficult as the retrieving of It is easy to retrieve. data is very much dependent on the logical structure of data. Application program need not be Physical database is concerned with the changed if new fields are added or change of the storage device. deleted from the database. It is concerned with the conceptual It is concerned with the internal schema. schema. Data Model:- A data model is a description of the organization of a database. Data modeling is used for representing entities and their relationships in a database. In a database, a group of similar information or data, which is of interest to an organization, is called an entity. Each entity can have a number of characteristics. The characteristics of an entity are called attributes. For example, an entity, say client, can have characteristics like name, address, phone number, balance due, etc. Security General Considerations: Implementation of database security is process of protecting a database from unintended activity. Unintended activity can be categorized as authenticated misuse, malicious attacks or inadvertent mistakes made by authorized individuals or processes. Database Security includes policies framed to protect data, falling in the hands of unauthorized user. Security also includes the techniques used to ensure that data elements are not changed or deleted by viruses or by unauthorized persons. In short, data security addresses the following issues: (a) Privacy of certain data elements. (b) Preserving Policies of the Organization. (c) System related security level. (d) Maintaining integrity of database. Privacy of certain Data Elements:- Privacy relates to the legal and ethical rights regarding the access to certain personal data items. Some critical information may be regarded as private say for example the medical records of a person. Such records should not be accessed, read or modified by unauthorized persons. System related Security Level:- The level of the system at which the security should be enforced. For example, whether a security should be enforced at the hardware level, operating system level or DBMS level. Maintaining Integrity of Database:- Data items stored in the database should be valid and consistent. Besides integrity constraints in the database management system, controlling access to the database can greatly help to preserve the database integrity. Data Security Risks:- A database involves the following threats to its security: a) An unauthorized user can get access to a database and damage its files or alter it. b) The authorized user can accidently of deliberately give privileges to user, who have no time to access databases. c) Improper usage of concurrent transaction processing can cause variations in the data values read and written, by two users at the same time. d) An unauthorized person could get access to a database through a communication channel, via a terminal, and even insert virus and destroy data completely. e) A database user (such as an operator or programmer) can intentionally bypass the security mecahnisms and make unauthorized copies of secret data, for malicious purposes. f. Authorized persons could transmit secret information under force or for personal gain(such as bribe or other favours). g. Failure of memory protection against virus attack may lead to errors in the DBMS package. h. Due to some system malfunctioning, a user may get access to the portion of a database, which he is not authorized under normal conditions. DATABASE SECURITY REQUIREMENTS Database security requires the following: (a) Ethical and social culture of the employees of the organization should forbid an individual from obtaining something by unfair means and forcibly entering into an organizations computing facility. Legislation and security laws that make it illegal to obtain an unauthorized access to an organization’s computer systems should be implemented. b. Computers and terminals should be kept locked and their access should be limited to authorized users. Physical storage devices (such as magnetic tapes, disk drives) should be secured both within the organization and while they are being sent from one location to another. c. Username and passwords should be kept confidential. The database administrator determines whether a user should be given the privilege or not and if yes, what privileges should be given. d. The operating system should have some built-in safety features such as identification and authentication of users, avoiding direct access to data in primary files, memory access as well as resource management including thread synchronization. LEVELS OF SECURITY Database management systems (DBMSs) provide different levels of security. These are the following: a) Network Level Security:- Network software Level security is required in case of distributed database systems. Network software have built-in method for login security controls, permitting authorized users to log in and gain access to resources on the network. Another level of security provided by network software is the rights security. b) Operating system (OS) Level Security:- Even if you have a strong DBMS software, a weak operating system may serve as a means of unauthorized deletion of database files. So, secure OS is important. c) Database System Level Security:- Some database users may be allowed to access only a portion of the database and denied access only a portion of the database and denied access to other portions. A user, Ram Lal, may be given permission to view information but not to modify data. That is, he can issue SELECT queries but not INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE queries. d) Program Level Security:- It debars unauthorized users from using particular programs that may access the database. For example, a bank clerk may be allowed to use a program that retrieves details of a customer account, but not a program the modifies the balance amount. e) Record Level Security:- It dabars Unauthorized users from accessing or updating certain records, such as records of managers in the EMPLOYEE table. f) Field Level Security:- It dabars unauthorized users from accessing or updating data in certain fields such as Salary field. Integrity Database integrity is the preservation od data correctly and implies the process of keeping the database from accidental deletion or alteration. General Considerations:- When many users enter data items into a database it becomes very important that the values data item are not disturbed. Hence, data insertions, updations, etc. Have to be carried out in such a way that database integrity is always maintained. Integrity cheeks can be performed at the data entry level itself, by checking that data values conform to certain specified rules, namely the value lies within a specified range’. For example, the age of the employee will be in the range of 18 years to say 70 years. Integrity Rules:- Relational database model specifies the following integrity rules or constraints. a) Entity Integrity Constraint b) Referential Integrity Constraint c) Domain Integrity Constraint 1.Entity Integrity Constraint:- Entity Integrity constraint specifies that entities (row) should be distinguishable. That is, each entity must be unique. Primary key values perform this unique identification function. No prime attribute (component of a primary key) value would be null. This is because, if two or more entities have nulls in their primary key value, they cannot be distinguished. If an attribute of a table is prime attribute (unique identifier), it cannot accept null values. That is, values of primary key cannot be null. 2.Referential Integrity Constraint:- Referential Integrity constraint ensures that a value that appears in one relation for an attribute should also appear for a matching attribute in another relation, if the two relations are related to each other on this common attribute.  Referential Integrity is concerned with the concept of foreign key. The domain of a foreign key are those of the primary key of another relation. 3. Domain Integrity Constraint:- Domain Integrity constraint specifies that the value of an attribute, say A, must be from the domain, i.e. from Domain(A). A domain is a set of atomic values. For example, the domain for the attribute AGE of EMPLOYEE table, will be the set of all possible positive numbers between 18 and 65. The attribute cannot hold a value other than those specified in the domain. Restrictions On Integrity Constraints Integrity constraint checking can be in-built in a Database Management Software (DBMS). Each database request (for insertion, deletion or updation of data) is first checked for any integrity violations. The requesting user or application program is then sent a message indicating the problem, if any, and the request is also rejected.  Most DBMS have some form of language constructs, such as triggers, for data validation and for performing some operation when an erroneous database request is encountered. Triggers are just like the procedures and functions, except that they are not invoked explicitly. Database triggers are made and associated with a database table. They get implicitly executed when the table gets affected (integrity rule violated) due to an operation. Including integrity checking in the DBMS itself (rather than coding validation rules in the application programs) has the following advantages: a) A failure in an application program will not cause inconsistency in the database, since the DBMS itself checks for data validating before entertaining any operation, written in SQL. b) The application programmer does not have to know about the complete semantics of the database, which he is making use of. c) No duplication of efforts, would be made. d) Had the data validation checks been done in the application programs, malicious users could have directly manipulated the database using a query language, without needing an application program. This action needs to be prevented.  User Authentication User Authentication is a process in which the identity of any user is verified before they can access anything in your database. It is the process of securing data from unauthorized access. It is important to implement user authentication in DBMS to prevent data theft, data loss, or network attacks. There are various methods of data authentication in DBMS such as multi-factor authentication, password authentication certificate authentication, biometrics token authentication, device authentication API authentication, etc. In this article, we will be discussing the importance and implementation of user authentication in DBMS. What is User Authentication in DBMS? It is the process of verifying whether the person accessing the data is legitimate or not. In other words, it is a process in DBMS of verifying the identity of the user to prevent unauthorized access to any database. It is used in securing the database and preventing malicious access.  It typically involves asking the user for a username and password to access the contents of any database. These credentials are typically also stored in another database which is used to verify the legitimacy of these credentials by matching them both and checking if they are correct. In simple terms, only the correct person who is authorized to access the data inside the database is allowed to do so. There are various benefits of user authentication in DBMS: 1. Preventing unauthorized or malicious access: Proper authentication in DBMS will allow you to prevent unauthorized access which can lead to harm such as stealing, modifying, or deleting your important data. 2. Preventing Data Loss & corruption: User authentication in DBMS allows you to prevent data loss and corruption by verifying only experts are allowed to access the database. An unauthorized person may not have proper understanding about the structure of the DBMS which may lead to accidental deletion of important data. 3. Providing Access Control: It means that only some specific user roles (such as Administrators) are allowed to access the data which helps prevent data abuse and accidental information loss. 4. Securing Networks and Network Chains: User authentication in a fairly large database will help prevent ransomware attacks on a large network of any organization by preventing unauthorized access to the interface. 5. Preventing Data theft: User authentication will help prevent data theft by not allowing hackers or people with malicious intent to access and leak the data on the dark web. Implementing User Authentication in DBMS To implement user authentication in DBMS, you need to follow certain steps and guidelines to ensure the proper implementation. The most common way of implementing user authentication in DBMS in providing access control, Access control allows only certain individuals or set of individuals to access the contents of any DBMS.  One of the most popular ways of providing user authentication in DBMS are known as role based access control and attribute based access control. User Authorization:- Authorization is the process where the database manager gets information about the authenticated user. Part of that information is determining which database operations the user can perform and which data objects a user can access. Authorization in a database is the process of determining a user's access to a database and the actions they can perform: 1. Access: Authorization determines which data objects a user can access. For example, a user might be authorized to create tables, but not to alter them. 2. Actions: Authorization determines which database operations a user can perform.  Authorization is usually paired with authentication, which verifies the user's identity. For example, in a coffee shop, a barista might only be able to place and view orders, while a manager might also be able to access sales totals Users can gain authorization by being granted it to their user ID, or by being a member of a group or role that has the authorization. Other ways to protect databases include: Access control, Inference control, Flow control, and Encryption. Concept of Data Encryption Define:- Data Encryption is a method of preserving data confidentiality by transforming it into ciphertext, which can only be decoded using a unique decryption key produced at the time of the encryption or before it. The conversion of plaintext into ciphertext is known as encryption. Types of Data Encryption There are multiple encryption techniques, each of which have been developed with various security requirements in mind. Symmetric and Asymmetric encryption are the two types of data encryption. 1. Symmetric Key Encryption:- There are a few strategies used in cryptography algorithms. For encryption and decryption processes, some algorithms employ a unique key. In such operations, the unique key must be secured since the system or person who knows the key has complete authentication to decode the message for reading. This approach is known as “symmetric encryption” in the field of network encryption. 2. Asymmetric Key Encryption:- Some cryptography methods employ one key for data encryption and another key for data decryption. As a result, anyone who has access to such a public communication will be unable to decode or read it. This type of cryptography, known as “public-key” encryption, is used in the majority of internet security protocols. The term “asymmetric encryption” is used to describe this type of encryption. Importance of Data Encryption The significance of encryption cannot be overstated in any way. Even though your data is stored in a standard infrastructure, it is still possible for it to be hacked. There’s always the chance that data will be compromised, but with data encryption, your information will be much more secure. Consider it this way for a moment. If your data is stored in a secure system, encrypting it before sending it out will keep it safe. Sanctioned systems do not provide the same level of protection. Access control in Encryption Access control is a data security process that enables organizations to manage who is authorized to access corporate data and resources. Secure access control uses policies that verify users are who they claim to be and ensures appropriate control access levels are granted to users.  Access control is defined as a security technique used to regulate who has the authority to view what data; while encryption simply encoding all data into an unreadable format and only allowed access if one holds the decryption key. In a glance, most would unanimously agree that encryption would be the better option. The three types of access control are:- 1. Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) systems:- RBAC is a method of controlling access to computer systems, networks, or resources based on a user's role within an organization 2. Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC):- ABAC is a logical access control model that uses attributes to determine access to resources. ABAC is used to protect sensitive data and other digital assets from unauthorized users. 3. Discretionary Access Control (DAC):- DAC is a decentralized access control policy that allows subjects to control access to objects. You can find DAC in smartphone apps, Google Docs, and Operating Systems worldwide. A database administrator (DBA) has many roles, including: 1. Database design: DBAs design, implement, and maintain databases. They may also oversee the construction of databases in larger organizations. 2. Data security: DBAs ensure data is stored securely and is easily accessible to users. They may also be responsible for authentication. 3. Database performance: DBAs monitor database performance and tune it as needed. 4. Backup and recovery: DBAs are responsible for backing up database servers and restoring them when necessary. 5. Troubleshooting: DBAs troubleshoot issues and work with developers to implement new features. 6. User support: DBAs provide training and support to users. 7. Capacity planning: DBAs plan for capacity. 8. Data handling: DBAs handle data extraction, transformation, and loading. 9. Software maintenance: DBAs install and maintain software A database administrator (DBA) is responsible for the maintenance, security, and operation of a database system. Their responsibilities include: 1. Database management: DBAs are responsible for the design, implementation, and maintenance of databases. They may also be responsible for overseeing the construction of databases in larger organizations. 2. Data security: DBAs ensure that data is stored and retrieved correctly, and that the database is secure. They manage user access to the database, ensuring that users have the appropriate permissions and access levels. 3. Performance: DBAs monitor the performance of the system and take action to address any issues. They may also tune the performance of the database. 4. Backups and recovery: DBAs are responsible for ensuring that data is backed up and can be recovered in the event of a disaster. 5. Troubleshooting: DBAs work with developers to troubleshoot any issues that arise. 6. Training and support: DBAs may provide training and support to users. 7. Reporting: DBAs may be responsible for reporting on various components of software design.  Backup and Recovery Transaction Recovery:- A single DBMS operation such as updation, insertion, selection or deletion is not a single task but involves many tasks. For example, in the EMPLOYEE table, to update the designation of an employee from MANAGER to ANALYST, following operations need to be performed. 1. Locating the required record in the secondary storage medium (hard disk, etc.) 2. Copying the record to primary memory. 3. Performing the required updation. 4. If successful, perform commit1 action. Else perform rollback2 action. Thus, the updation, insertion or deletion operation requires a number of distinct tasks or steps to be performed by the DBMS. Such a collection of tasks or steps for execution of a single database operation (like insertion, updation, deletion, etc.) is called a Transaction.  A transaction is a program unit whose execution may or may not change the contents of a database. Transaction is executed as a single unit. If the database was in a consistent state before a transaction, then after execution of the transaction also, the database must be in a consistent state. Once committed, a database cannot be rolled back. A transaction can be terminated in three ways. These are: 1. Suicidal Termination: The Transaction detects an error while processing and decides to terminate itself by performing a rollback operation. 2. Murderous Termination: The Database Management Software or the operating system can force the Transaction to be terminated due to some specified reasons. 3. Successful Termination: The Transaction is terminated after executing it successfully. Database Backups:- Database backup is the activity of copying database to a permanent storage (such as magnetic tape) so that they will be preserved in case of equipment failure or other disasters. Equipment failures include system crashes, disk damage etc. Disasters include fire, flood or earthquakes. The backup copy can then be used to restore data. The backup must be kept synchronized with the primary copy of the database, regularly. That is, one should copy the primary database onto the backup everyday, every week or every month depending on the need. Generally, the backup copy of the database is kept separated from the primary copy. This is because a disaster at the primary location should not damage the backup site. Keeping a backup increases the availability of data. That is, data is available to the user in spite of system failures or environmental disasters. Latest copy of the backup is loaded from the tape to the system and thus the normal operations are restarted. Why to Plan Backups? The backup copy and backup logs must be kept away from the primary database site, so that disasters, such as theft or fire, do not destroy them also. The backup logs must be moved to a different place at least once in a day. An important part of database planning is backup planning. Planning backup means to make sure that a current copy of the database is always available even in case of catastrophes. Any disaster, be it fire, flood, earthquake, terrorist or virus attacks, disk drive crash, power failure or accidental deletion may not block the normal functioning the system. Types of Backups Backups are of two types: a) Immediate Backup b) Archival Backup Immediate Backups:- Immediate Backups are kept in a floppy disk, zip disk, hard disk or magnetic tapes. These comes handy when a technical fault occurs in the primary database such as system failure, disk crashes, network failure or accidental erasure of data. Damage due to virus attacks are also repaired using the immediate backup. Archival Backups:- Archival Backups are kept in mass storage devices such as magnetic tape, CD-ROMs, Internet Servers etc. They are useful for recovering data after a disaster such as fire, earthquake, flood, terrorist attack etc. Archival backups should be kept at a different site other than where the system is functioning. Archival backup at a separate place remains safe from thefts and intentional desctruction by user staff. Database system Recovery. All electronic devices are subject to failures in one form or another. A computer system is also an electronic device and hence is subject to failures of various forms. Since DBMS forms part of the computer system, it is also prone to failures and errors of various kinds. Following are likely reasons for a transaction to fail in the middle of execution. a) System crash: A hardware, software or network error can occur in the computer system during transaction execution. Hardware crash may also occur due to main memory failure. b) Transaction error: Some erroneous operation such as integer overflow or division by zero etc., in the transaction may cause a failure in between. c) Transaction might be terminated before completion due to the detection of deadlock condition. d) Disk failure: Some disk blocks may lose their data because of a read or write malfunction or because of a disk read/write head error. e) Natural Catastrophes: This refers to a number of problems including power failure, fire, theft, overwriting tapes or disks by mistake.  Big data and Big data Define:-Big data describes large and diverse datasets that are huge in volume and also rapidly grow in size over time. Big data is used in machine learning, predictive modeling, and other advanced analytics to solve business problems and make informed decisions. Big data is a collection of data that is too large and complex for traditional data management systems to process, store, and analyze. It can include structured, semi-structured, and unstructured data, and is often characterized by the following three V's: Volume: The large amount of data Variety: The wide range of data types Velocity: The speed at which the data is generated, collected, and processed Data analytics define:- Data analytics is the process of collecting, transforming, and organizing data in order to draw conclusions, make predictions, and drive informed decision making. The field encompasses data analysis, data science, and data engineering.  Data analytics converts raw data into actionable insights. It includes a range of tools, technologies, and processes used to find trends and solve problems by using data. Data analytics can shape business processes, improve decision-making, and foster business growth. The four forms of analytics— 1. Descriptive:- Descriptive analytics is a statistical interpretation used to analyze historical data to identify patterns and relationships. Descriptive analytics seeks to describe an event, phenomenon, or outcome. 2. Diagnostic:- Diagnostic analytics examines data to understand the root causes of events, behaviors, and outcomes. Data analysts use diverse techniques and tools to identify patterns, trends, and connections to explain why certain events occurred. 3. Predictive:- Predictive analytics is a branch of advanced analytics that makes predictions about future outcomes using historical data combined with statistical modeling, data mining techniques and machine learning. Companies employ predictive analytics to find patterns in this data to identify risks and opportunities. 4. Prescriptive:- Prescriptive analytics is a form of data analytics that helps businesses make better and more informed decisions. Its goal is to help answer questions about what should be done to make something happen in the future.