ICM 25 Theories PDF

### **FRAMING THEORY (Yash Alvarez)** - there is a single \"frame\" or picture or focus in a certain event - where the media focuses on certain events and [then places the happenings within a field of meaning] - how something is presented to the audience influences the choices that...

### **FRAMING THEORY (Yash Alvarez)** - there is a single \"frame\" or picture or focus in a certain event - where the media focuses on certain events and [then places the happenings within a field of meaning] - how something is presented to the audience influences the choices that people make upon processing the presented information - EX: Yulo's issue - due to his certain "frame" (focus) of being an ungrateful child even tho the whole image can be seen more widely (his two-time gold), people's views of him are negatively affected - Primary Framework (basic way of thinking, how we naturally make sense of things): a. Natural Framework (identifies events literally and not attributing any social force to the cause of the event), b. Social Framework (socially-driven occurrences, it thinks that events are a cause of whims, goals, and manipulations on the part of other social players (people)) - Bateson (1972) - first proposed the theory; Goffman (1974) - introduced the primary frameworks. - AGENDA SETTING THEORY -- the whole "setting/stage", FRAMING THEORY -- the "spotlight" ### **INFORMATION MANIPULATION THEORY (Ann Magalueno) 🎀** - how people manipulate information in conversations; to attack or defend - manipulating the truth through lowkey lies (distortion) or direct lies - MAXIMS - conversational norms that people follow to communicate effectively - 4 MAXIMS (violation or identification of the misinformation): a. Quantity (too little or too much information), b. Quality (straight-up lying), c. Relation (irrelevant information), d. Manner (vagueness, distortion) - McCornack (1992) - originated the theory; Grice (1975) - laid the groundworks such as [Cooperative Principle] and [Maxims] ### **EXPECTANCY VIOLATION THEORY (Nino Boydon)** - something happened that WASN\'T what you expected (could be both positive and negative) - explains how people respond to unexpected behaviors - EX: pinagmumura niya tayo bigla sa recitation niya (negative outcome); nalate ka sa klase tapos akala mo katapusan mo na pero in-exempt ka pa ng prof kasi good mood siya (positive outcome) - Burgoon (1978) ### **NARRATIVE PARADIGM (Cassandra Justine Dungca)** - all meaningful communication is in the form of storytelling (according to Fisher) - based on the notion that humans are Homo Narrans: This is the idea that humans are essentially \"storytelling animals.\" We understand and interpret reality through the stories we tell and listen to - qualitative as it focuses on understanding the meaning and significance of communication through stories rather than quantifiable data or numerical analysis (meaning and interpretation, subjective evaluation, context-dependent, holistic and descriptive approach, values and ethics) - one effectively narrates the info = the exchange of info is effective - two principles: a. Coherence (it makes sense: structured, resemblance, consistency ng kwento. Does the story make sense internally? Are the characters consistent, and is the story organized logically?), b. Fidelity (credibility or reliability; are these factual? Does the story \"ring true\" based on one\'s own experiences and understanding of the world?) - Walter Fisher ### **SPEECH ACCOMMODATION THEORY (Franz Lazatin)** - the ability to communicate or conversate - accommodation = how we adapt or fit in a situation (social animals; adaptation) - explains why we change our ways of communication - only involves verbal aspects - why do we need to accommodate; social approval, to leave a positive image - four assumptions why SAT happens: similarities and differences (how it affects the characteristics or traits in line with the discourse (e.g. kapag mas lamang ang similarities the more na mag aaccommodate ang interactant), perceptions and evaluation (importance of comprehending the context so that the interactant is able to respond), social status and power (this means who subordinates the communication are the ones who became the interactant), and degrees of accommodation (social norms are related in deciding if accommodation occurs) - two strategies to accommodate: a. convergence/pagsasama (how the individual changes the way of communication to adjust and fit), and b. divergence/paghihiwalay (how one recognizes the difference in the way of their communication and makes it more \"noticeable\", \) - Howard Giles ### **SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY (Keisha Natividad)** - it is a relationship between two people that has a cost-reward or cost-benefit - relationship between two people is created through a process of cost-benefit analysis - five key elements: a. rewards - benefits (comfort, relationship, emotional support), b. costs - sacrifices (efforts, time, investment, trust), c. outcome - basically the result of the exchange, d. comparison level - measurement of outcome expectations [based on past experiences] and cultural norms, evaluating satisfaction of a current relationship, e. comparison level alternatives - perception of how a current relationship [compares to other potential options], this can influence decisions to stay in or leave a relationship. - different phenomena: a. relationship formation, b. commitment & satisfaction, c. power dynamics, d. reciprocity, e. conflict & decision-making - EX: Filipino culture na "utang na loob" - Homans (1958) - developed; expanded - Thibaut and Kelley (1959), Blau (1964), Emerson (1976) ### **ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL (Zhanelle Azicate)** - dalawang daluyan; a. central route (more on facts, high thinking, listing wrong and right, logical, long-lasting) and b. peripheral route (peripheral cues, how are they likable, emotional response, low engagement, short-lasting/ helps to free mental space, impossible to use deep thinking always) - two routes can both work one at a time - EX: a. love with brain (facts; central) vs. heart (feelings; peripheral), b. commercial products, buying them because we \"like\" or \"love\" the endorser - Petty and Caccioppo (1979) ### **STANDPOINT THEORY (Julius dela Cruz)** - what we mean is the point of view or our viewpoint, how we subjectively see things - social positions shaped by their perspective, based on subjective facts - \"just because you\'re right, doesn\'t mean i\'m wrong. you just don\'t see it from my position.\" - GENERAL STANDPOINT: social contexts, [social location], race, sexuality, class - FEMINISM STANDPOINT: marginalized knowledge, [critical objectivity] - knowledge is affected by the [background] of the speaker (their standpoint) - EX: Yulo: defended by Gen Z (viewpoint of younger gen), offended by the Boomers (viewpoint of older gen) / Farmers - Harding and Hartstock (1970s and 1980s), influenced by a lot of philosophers and sociologists ### **CULTURAL CONTRACTS (Felisa Luarca)** - kontrata in cultures to understand each other. literal \"cultural contracts\" - how we associate with other people by sharing or expressing our cultures (where we came from) - exchange of cultures; adaptable - basic premises for identities: a. affirmation (confirm or recognize our own culture, requiring \"assurance\" or validation from the culture itself \, there\'s a deep relationship, mix of culture) - Jackson (1999) ### **TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION (Elle Patasin)** - sender and receiver taking turns to sending or receiving messages - sender \> message \> receiver \> feedback - both are referred to as communicators as communication occurs simultaneously - aka circular model - dynamic, multilayered (verbal, non-verbal) - Barnlund (1970) ### **COMMUNICATION PRIVACY THEORY (John Robert Macahilig)** - setting boundaries, there\'s a control in spreading the information through boundaries or agreement between the channels - Formerly known as "Communication Boundary Management" it was renamed to include the private disclosure information role - three components: a. privacy ownership (siya pa lang nakakaalam), b. privacy control (boundaries, co-ownership), c. privacy turbulence (agreement between the information holders, conflicts to confrontation) - EX: may sakit ako (privacy ownership), sinabi ko sa close friends (privacy control), sana h\'wag nila ikalat pero kinalat (conflict) - Petronio (1991) ### **CO-CULTURAL THEORY (Gwyneth Salazar)** - dominant (mainstream) culture vs. co-culture (sub-culture, minority) - how marginalized people communicate in society (vs. the majority of the society) - e.g. factors: racial discrimination, LGBTQ+, social class - Three communication process: a. assimilation (trying to fit in the dominant group), b. accommodation (joins the majority group but doesn\'t change their identity, free), c. separation (avoids any interaction with the majority group) - three approaches: a. nonassertive (nagpapatalo na lang, hinahayaan 'yung ka-argue na manalo na lang), b. assertive (balanced, able to accommodate others' opinions while not disregarding their own, e.g. constructive conversation or argument), c. aggressive (opposite of nonassertive, hindi nagpapatalo, pinipilit 'yung sariling opinyon) - Orbe (1996) ### **TWO-STEP FLOW THEORY (Noren Arbuis)** - two distinct steps: the information is passed from the (1) media to the (2) opinion leaders to the mass audience/public - opinion leaders - more exposure and are influential to the mass (influencers, artista, politiko, news, personalities) - information [are filtered by the "opinion leaders"] (influencers, professionals, experts, celebrities) from the main source (publications, newspapers, TV) - EX: nagshare si Taylor Swift na si Kamala Harris 'yung pambato niya sa election kasi ganito ganiyan, tapos 'yung followers niya naimpluwensiyahan sa opinyon niya kaya gumaya sila ng pabor - Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet (1944) ### **FACE NEGOTIATION THEORY (James Andrew Catanoy)** - how people from different cultures communicate as they manage differences - \"face\" as the image to preserve popularity, honor - preserving REPUTATION - four faces: a. face restoration, kunwari kapag nagkaroon ka ng argument with one of your friends, tapos yung friends mo ang tingin sayo masama kasi parang inatake mo yung isa mong friend. So para ma restore mo yung image mo Infront if your friends, mag aapologize ka. In that way na restore mo na yung face (image) mo. (the need to give oneself freedom and to protect oneself, to repair "image") b. face saving, dito naman sinasave mo yung face (image) ng others kapag nakikita mong nag struggle sila. In that way na miminimize yung tensiong nararanasan ng tinulungan mo. (minimizing embarrassment), c. face-assertion, dito naman inaassert mo yung face (image) mo kapag feeling mong na ooverlooked ka , in short dinedefend at prinoprotektahan mo yung face mo (resolving the "image"), d. face giving, dito naman nag shshow or sinusupport mo yung face ng iba kapag feeling mo na lolook down sila, dinedefend and pinoprotect mo sila. (supporting others to boost their "image") - Ting-Toomey (1985) ### **ATTRIBUTION THEORY (Nadine Madjos) 💢** - how we interpret the cause of behaviors of others or an event - basically 'yung tawag mismo kapag tinatry nating ipaliwanag 'yung isang bagay by suggesting or understanding the cause - two core concepts: a. Internal Attribution (based on personal aspects such as character, traits, attitude, skills), b. External Attribution (based on external aspects such as environment, circumstances, situational) - EX: a. Internal Attribution - "late siya sa klase kasi mabagal siyang kumilos at wala ring paki", b. External Attribution - "late siya kasi napuyat siya kagabi kaka-aral kaya ayan, tinanghali ng gising/kasi na-traffic" - Kelley's Covariation Model: a. consensus (how do other people behave in the same or similar situation?), b. consistency (how often does this person behave this way in the same situation?), c. distinctiveness (how unique is this behavior to this situation? does he also behave this way in other situations?) - - Heider (1958); developed - Weiner ### **COGNTIVE DISSONANCE (Sharynn Aya)** - how individuals experience a psychological tension when their behavior contradicts their thoughts and beliefs - motivates individuals [to change their attitudes] to achieve consistency between their thoughts and behaviors - to strive consistency and reduce inconsistency - two underlying hypotheses: a. dissonance is an inconsistency in cognitive elements, (knowledge, opinions, beliefs, or the behaviors), b. mental discomfort and motivates the individual to take some actions [to reduce or eliminate it] - contradicting beliefs or their sense of self - Festinger (1957) ### **COMMUNICATION CONSTITUTE ORGANIZATION (Ian Verano)** - [organizational communication (within organizations)]; no history kasi nad-develop siya overtime; is not founded by a single person, associated siya sa mga scholars, meaning up until this day evolving pa din yung structure niya - [it looks after how the information flows within the organization] - two perspectives: a. Tompkins, 1984 - as structure since it is most likely influenced by rules and hierarchies within the organization, b. Christensen & Cornelissen, 2010 - by-product meaning, communication only happens when an activity occurs within the organization - AXIAL - ine-emphasize lang nito na parang necessary yung communication para mag function yung organization - key concepts: a. communication - mediator created by the individuals, facilitating interactions or the exchange of information (includes complexities such as to change actions that shape the organization), b. constitution/constitute - the bridge (substance - components and relationships, formal part - boundaries and frames, causal part - guidelines for control), c. organization - common goals, constructed and sustained social system - associated by scholars, not founded by a single person ### **UNCERTAINTY REDUCTION THEORY (Juris Beltran)** - focus on initial (first) interactions of individuals - when we first meet and encounter new people, [we seek ways to reduce uncertainty] by predicting or explaining to ourselves our surroundings - three factors that boost our need to reduce uncertainty: a. anticipation of the future (we know we will see them again), b. incentive value (they have something we want), c. deviance (they act in a weird way) - two categories of uncertainty: a. cognitive uncertainty (uncertainty in what another person might be thinking or what we ourselves are thinking), b. behavioral uncertainty (uncertainty in being able to predict the actions of another person or our own) - 8 AXIOMS: a. Verbal Communication (familiarity through verbal exchanges increases = uncertainty decreases), b. Non-verbal/Warmth (physical tense decreases = uncertainty decreases), c. Information Seeking (uncertainty decrease = information seeking decreases), d. Self-disclosure (low levels of uncertainty = high level of intimacy), e. Reciprocity (high levels of uncertainty create high rates of reciprocity, low levels of uncertainty produce low levels of reciprocity), f. Similarity (similarity reduces uncertainty, differences increase uncertainty), g. Liking (uncertainty decreases = liking increases), h. Shared Networks ([lack] of shared networks increases uncertainty) - Berger and Calabrese (1975) ### **TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM (Caira Figues)** - ito yung ideya na lahat ng technological advancements natin ay siyang nagpapaikot ng lipunan, kultura, at ekonomiya natin - suggesting that advancements in technology drive social change, history - "Determinism in Sociology" is the idea that people\'s behavior, actions, and even their life outcomes are shaped by [forces beyond their control] - a branch of determinism in sociology - technology determines the course of history: adapt to changes, evolve continuously, which drives exponential growth or progress; influencing how people think, act, and interact (**Merrit Roe Smith (1994)**, technological determinism can be summarized as: ["Technology decides history."]) - a\. hard determinists - technology plays a complete and totalizing role in shaping human society; b. soft determinists - the manner in which humans interact with society also needs to be considered (how we rule it) - Veblen (1857-1929) ### **SEMIOTICS (Fiona Labong)** - study of signs and symbols and the production and interpretation of meaning - three main types; a. icon (literal; e.g., cat as cat), b. index (causal or empirical; e.g., smoke is an index of fire), c. symbol (cultural, whimsical; e.g., flags, cross for religion) - three classes: a. general (abstract and formal, detached from context \), b. social (e.g., Barong Tagalog - Filipino), c. multimedia (multiple sign systems e.g., language, visuals, gestures -- e.g., Horror Movie) - vs. semantics -- focuses on language, words and sentences - Saussure (1857-1913), Peirce (1839-1914) ### **DRAMATISM THEORY (Maxene Quintos) 🎀** - all interactions involving communication are a part of play - bodily movements more than the words - five elements (THE PENTAD): a. act ([what was done?]; action, depicts the behavior or the message), b. scene (setting), c. agent (characters, performers), d. agency (production, tools/insruments), e. purpose (why? the story or narrative, the main intention of why the individual performed the action) - EX: act - silence, passive-aggression; scene - day, at cafe; agent - bf and gf; agency - nonverbal cues, body languages, attitude; purpose - upset and frustration - Kenneth Burke ### **MUTED GROUP THEORY (Juris Diez) 🎀** - [explains the muteness] within a certain group of people - especially that of women in the society (main e.g.; dominance of men over women), [the theory upholds a gender perspective where the male is the dominant class] - including but not limited to men and women, could also be applied to marginalized groups (LGBTQ+) - Ardener's Model: MUTED GROUP - chopped up line to perception of reality (hindi napapakinggan, translating or adjusting words to make them understand), while DOMINANT GROUP has a straight line that implies they have the direct or absolute power to be regarded - sociological tool used to study interactions between dominant and sub-dominant groups - helps understand subtle power issues - three key points: a. language was made by dominant groups, particularly men, b. marginalized groups can find it harder to articulate themselves, c. marginalized groups have to translate their thoughts before speaking - process of silencing: ridicule, harassment, control, shaming, social rituals (norms/culture e.g., marriage) - Ardener, Kramarae ### **CULTIVATION THEORY (Juliana Bianca Aduana) 🎀** - [cultivate - try to acquire or develop] - television as the medium - time as the driving force - CULTIVATION DIFFERENTIAL (types of viewers): a. heavy viewers (mas affected or influenced), b. light viewers (hind ganun kaapektado) - effects of cultivation: a. first order - everyday world, general, b. second order - specific attitude, e.g., law, personal safety - Mean World Syndrome - the viewers control what media to seek, and not the other way around, [that is why it's a cultivation theory] (e.g., heavy TV viewers are more likely to perceive the world more dangerous dahil sa nakikita nila sa TV) - Gerbner, developed during mid-1960s ### **Coordination Management of Meaning (Danica Jagmis) 🎀** - practical theory - co-constructing of meaning of their own social realities - explains how individuals create and interpret meaning through interaction - coherence, coordination - Message (interpretation) \> Action (feedback) \> Construction (reconstruction of meaning) \> Coordinated meaning - hierarchy (diff levels of meaning; general to specific), coordination (adapting to different perspectives) - EX: Christmas vacation - Pearce and Cronen (1970s -- 1980s) 25. **AGENDA SETTING** - three parts in the process: a. Media (list of events or issues ranked in hierarchy of importance), b. Public (what the media want the public to know through mass media), c. Policy (demands that policy-makers agree to consider) - how we shape reality (highlighting and ignoring others); giving importance to certain issues (increased coverage to public) - media gatekeepers, (framing) - McCombs and Shaw (1972)