Basic Concepts of Psychological Testing PDF

**BASIC CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING** - **ORIGINS OF CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING** - **Historical Roots - Alfred Binet and a colleague** developed a test aimed at placing **Parisian schoolchildren** in appropriate classes. - **Expansion to the United States -** An **English...

**BASIC CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING** - **ORIGINS OF CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING** - **Historical Roots - Alfred Binet and a colleague** developed a test aimed at placing **Parisian schoolchildren** in appropriate classes. - **Expansion to the United States -** An **English-language version of Binet's** test was adapted for use in American schools, helping educators assess students\' intellectual capabilities - **Military Applications:** - **World War I -** There was a pressing need to screen a **large number of military recruits quickly** for intellectual and emotional problems. - **World War II -** The military continued to use these tests extensively to screen recruits for service, ensuring they were **fit for duty both intellectually and emotionally** - **DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE TERMS "PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING" AND "PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT"** - **Psychological Assessment -** The process of **gathering and integrating psychology-related data** to make a psychological evaluation. - This evaluation is achieved through various tools, including tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observation, and specially designed apparatuses and **measurement procedures.** - **Psychological Testing -** This refers specifically to the process of **measuring psychology-related variables** using devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior**.** - **Psychological Test -** Systematic **procedure for obtaining samples** of behavior that are relevant to cognitive, affective, or interpersonal functioning. These samples are then scored and evaluated according to established standards. - **DIFFERENT TYPES OF ASSESSMENTS** - **Varieties of Assessment:** - **Therapeutic Psychological Assessment -** Incorporates a **therapeutic component**, aiming not only to evaluate but also to have a therapeutic effect. - **Educational Assessment -** The use of tests and other tools to **evaluate abilities and skills** crucial for success or failure in educational settings, ranging from pre-school to higher education. - **Less Common Assessment Terminology:** - **Retrospective Assessment -** Using evaluative tools to draw conclusions about the psychological state of a person **as it existed at a previous time, prior to the assessment.** - **Remote Assessment -** Gathers data and draws conclusions about a subject who is **not physically present** with the evaluator, often facilitated through technology. - **Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) -** Involves \"in the moment\" evaluation of specific issues and related cognitive or behavioral variables, typically conducted via smartphones. **This method assesses problems as they occur in real-time** and in the environment where they take place. - **PROCESS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT** - **Initiating the Assessment:** - **Referral -** The assessment process starts with a **referral from a professional source** such as a teacher, psychologist, counselor, judge, clinician, or HR specialist. - **Pre-Assessment Preparation:** - **Clarification and Tool Selection -** The assessor may meet with the assessee or others before the formal assessment to clarify the referral\'s purpose. The assessor then selects appropriate tools based on the referral question. - **Conducting the Assessment:** - **Formal Assessment and Reporting -** Once tools are selected, the formal assessment begins. Afterward, the assessor compiles a report addressing the referral question. - **Approaches to Assessment:** - **Varied Methodologies - Assessors may approach assessments differently.** Some prefer minimal input from the assessee, while others engage in a collaborative psychological assessment where the assessor and assessee work as partners throughout the process. - **Collaborative Psychological Assessment -** In this approach, **there is a partnership between the assessor and the assessee** from the initial contact to the final feedback. - **Dynamic Assessment -** This interactive approach typically involves three stages: **evaluation**, **intervention**, and r**e-evaluation**. Dynamic assessment is often used in educational settings but can also be applied in correctional, corporate, neuropsychological, and clinical contexts. - **THE TOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT** - **The Test -** Refers to tools designed to **measure variables** related to that field, such as intelligence in psychology or blood levels in medicine. - **Variables in Psychological Tests:** - **Content, Format, Administration, and Scoring -** Psychological tests vary in content (what they measure) - **Format -** Structure, layout, and mode of administration - **Administration Procedures -** One-on-one or group-based and scoring/interpretation methods. - **Scoring and Interpretation:** - **Score -** A summary, often **numerical**, that reflects performance on a test. - **Scoring -** Involves **assigning these codes**, and scores can be categorized in various ways. - **Cut Score -** Reference point used to **classify data into categories**, such as pass/fail, and is used in educational and employment contexts for decision-making - **PSYCHMETRIC SOUNDNESS AND UTILITY** - **Psychometrics -** This refers to the **science of psychological measurement.** - **The Psychometric Soundness of a Test -**Indicates how **consistently and accurately** it measures what it claims to measure - **Psychometric utility -** Refers to the **practical value or usefulness** of a test for specific purposes. - **VARIOUS METHODS AND TOOLS USED IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT** - **The Interview -** An interview in psychological assessment **involves direct communication where the interviewer gathers information** not only from what is said but also from how it is said. This includes observing verbal and nonverbal behaviors such as body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and willingness to cooperate. - **Panel Interview** - A panel interview involves multiple interviewers to **minimize individual biases**, though it may be less cost-effective. - **Motivational Interviewing** - This therapeutic technique is used in clinical settings to **gather information while simultaneously working to change the interviewee\'s thinking and behavior.** - **The Portfolio** - **Collection of work products** in various media forms, used as an evaluation tool in fields like art, architecture, and education. - **Case History Data - Includes records, transcripts, and other archival information relevant to an individual\'s history.** Sources can include institutions like schools and hospitals, as well as personal items like letters, photos, and social media posts. - **Use in Assessments** - This data is valuable in clinical and neuropsychological evaluations**, providing insights into past and current adjustment**, and helping to understand the impact of events like trauma on neuropsychological functioning. - **Role-Play Tests -** Involve assesses **acting out a simulated situation**, where they are evaluated on their behavior, thoughts, and abilities. This method is particularly useful in assessing specific skills and is often used in clinical interventions, such as with substance abusers, to establish baseline measures before treatment. - **DIFFERENT SCORING METHODS** - **Scoring Methods:** - **Local Processing -** Scoring can be done **on-site** - **Central Processing -** Scores will be processed in **central location.** - **Types of Scoring Reports:** - **Simple Scoring Report -** This is the most basic form of reporting, **providing just a list of scores** without any additional analysis or interpretation. - **Extended Scoring Report - A** more detailed report than the simple scoring report, it **includes statistical analyses of the test-taker\'s performance**, offering more insight into the results. - **Interpretive Reports:** - **Basic Interpretive Report -** This report **includes numerical or narrative statements** that interpret the scores. These interpretations can be minimal, highlighting only certain high, low, or unusual scores without in-depth analysis. - **Consultative Report -** A more **advanced form of interpretive reporting**, this report is typically written in language suitable for communication between assessment professionals. It **may provide an expert opinion and in-depth analysis of the data**, offering a comprehensive interpretation of the test results. - **Integrative Report -** This type of report goes beyond the test results by **incorporating data from other sources**, such as medication records or behavioral observation data, into the interpretive analysis. This provides a more holistic view of the test-taker's performance, combining various data points for a richer understanding. - **COMPUTERS AS TOOLS** - **Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT):** - **Adaptive Testing -** The term **\"adaptive\"** in CAT refers to the computer's capability to adjust the test based on the test-taker's performance or patterns. - **Score Feedback -** In CAT, the computer can be programmed to **provide real-time score feedback during the test.** This feedback can potentially enhance the test-taker's engagement and performance, depending on factors like intrinsic motivation and external incentives. - **Computer-Assisted Psychological Assessment (CAPA)** - **Assistance to Test Users -** CAPA refers to the **use of computers to assist test administrators**, rather than test-takers. - **Example of CAPA -** A specific example of CAPA is **Q-Interactive** - **PARTIES INVOLVED IN THE PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT PROCESS** - **Test Developers:** - **Role -** Test developers and publishers **create tests** and other assessment tools. - **Ethics and Standards -** Test developers are guided by **professional standards** to ensure responsible development and use of tests. - **The \"Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing,\"** - **Test Users:** - **Role -** Various professionals use psychological tests, including clinicians, school psychologists, human resources personnel, and experimental psychologists. - **Controversies -** There are debates about whether professionals without formal psychological training, such as occupational therapists or HR executives, should be allowed to administer psychological tests. - **Test Takers:** - **Role -** **Test takers** are individuals who undergo psychological assessments. - **Special Cases -** Even deceased individuals can be assessed through **psychological autopsies**, which reconstruct their psychological profiles based on records and interviews. - **Society at Large** - **Role -** Society influences psychological testing through **historical and current needs** for organizing and systematizing individual differences. - **Societal Concerns -**Drive the development of new tests and the enactment of laws governing test practices. - **Historical Practices -** Like **palmistry and phrenology** have evolved into scientifically grounded assessment methods. - **Influence -** Society impacts testing through legislation, court decisions, and evolving needs for psychological measurement. - **Other Participants:** - **Organizations and Agencies -** They may **sponsor test development** for various purposes, including personnel certification. - **Test-Scoring Services -** Companies may provide **test scoring and interpretation services**, either as extensions of test publishers or independently. - **Marketing and Sales -** Individuals involved in **marketing and selling tests**, whether employed by test publishers or not, also contribute to the assessment enterprise. - **Academicians -** Researchers and reviewers evaluate the psychometric properties of tests. - **TYPES OF ASSESSMENT SETTINGS AND THEIR PURPOSES** - **Educational Settings:** - **Types of Tests -** In schools, tests are administered to **identify children with special needs**, assess academic achievements, and evaluate learning. Tests include school ability tests and achievement tests (e.g., SAT, GRE). - **Diagnostic Tests -**help identify areas needing intervention. - **Clinical Settings:** - **Usage -** Clinical settings use tests to screen for or **diagnose behavior problems** in various institutions like hospitals and clinics. - **Types of Tests -** Clinical tests might include intelligence tests, personality tests, neuropsychological tests, and others, focusing on individual cases rather than groups. - **Counseling Settings:** - **Purpose -** Counseling assessments aim **to improve clients\' adjustment, productivity**, and other variables. Tests may evaluate social and academic skills, personality traits, and career interests. - **Settings -** These assessments occur in **schools, prisons, and various institutions** to address questions about task focus, career suitability, and retirement planning. - **Geriatric Settings:** - **Population Growth -** With an increasing **elderly population,** psychological assessments are crucial for evaluating cognitive, psychological, and adaptive functioning. - **Focus -** Assessments often focus on **quality of life, cognitive decline, and dementia.** Tools are used to gauge stress, loneliness, and overall satisfaction. - **Business and Military Settings:** - **Applications -** Assessments are used for career decisions, promotions, and designing environments. They include **tests of aptitude, interest, and motivation, as well as evaluations of product and environment design.** - **Research -** Engineering psychologists use assessments to improve products and environments. - **Marketing Psychologists -** Assess consumer reactions and make recommendations for product strategies. - **Governmental and Organizational Credentialing:** - **Purpose -** Psychological tests are used in credentialing and licensing professionals, such as physicians, attorneys, and psychologists. Organizations may also provide additional certifications and evaluations. - **Academic Research Settings:** - **Usage -** Academic research relies on measurement to address various questions. Researchers use tests and assessments to explore topics like creativity, cognitive abilities, and responses to interventions. - **Other Settings:** - **Legal and Program Evaluation -** Psychological tests support legal decisions (e.g., competency to stand trial) and program evaluations to assess effectiveness and improvements. - **HOW ASSESSMENT ARE CONDUCTED** - **General Principles:** - **Variety of Methods -** Measurement methods are **diverse and only limited by creativity.** The passage highlights a broad range of measurement tools used in psychological testing and assessment, emphasizing that these tools are designed for various purposes. - **Eth\\ical Guidelines -** Responsible test administration involves several key steps before, during, and after the test: - **Before the Test -** Test users must select the most appropriate test for the individual and **ensure the test's contents are kept confidential.** - **During the Test -** Establishing rapport between the examiner and the test-taker is crucial, especially in one-on-one or small-group settings. - **After the Test -** Responsibilities include safeguarding test protocols, clearly communicating results, and noting any unusual occurrences during testing. - **ASSESSMENT FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES** - **Purpose -** Assessments for individuals with disabilities are conducted for the **same reasons as for those without disabilities**, including employment, credentialing, and screening for psychological issues. - **Legal Requirements -** Laws mandate the development of **\"alternate assessment\" programs** for individuals with disabilities who cannot participate in standard assessments. These programs are defined by state or local authorities and involve adaptations to make assessments suitable for individuals with exceptional needs. - **Accommodations - Adapting or substituting tests** to fit the needs of individuals with disabilities. - **Challenges - Accommodations can complicate assessments.** For instance, a student with visual impairment might receive a test in Braille or audiotape. The choice between these methods can affect performance depending on the student's strengths. - **SOURCES FOR AUTHORITATIVE INFORMATION ON TESTS AND ASSESSMENT** - **Test Catalogues:** - **Accessibility -** Test catalogues from publishers are a common and accessible source of information. They can be obtained through internet searches, phone calls, emails, or mail. - **Content -** Typically, catalogues offer brief descriptions of tests and are geared towards selling the test. They often lack detailed technical information and **critical reviews.** - **Test Manuals:** - **Purpose -** Manuals provide in-depth information about a test's development, technical aspects, and psychometric validity. - **Access -** Test manuals can be purchased from the test publisher, often requiring proof of professional training. Universities may have collections of popular manuals in libraries or counseling centers. - **Professional Books:** - **Content -** Books written for assessment professionals can offer extensive insights into specific tests, including their content, improvements over previous versions, and appropriate usage. They may also provide guidelines for test administration, error avoidance, and cultural considerations. - **Reference Volumes:** - **Buros Center for Testing - Publishes the *Mental Measurements Yearbook* and *Tests in Print*.** These sources offer comprehensive reviews and listings of tests, including details on publishers, authors, purposes, and administration times. The *Mental Measurements Yearbook* is **updated every three years.** - **Journal Articles:** - **Types -** Articles in behavioral science and specialized journals often include test reviews, psychometric studies, and practical applications. - **Online Databases:** - **ERIC: (Maintained by the U.S. Department of Education) -** Offers abstracts, articles, and links related to educational assessment. - **APA (American Psychological Association) Databases** - **ETS: Educational Testing Service -** Major provider of tests like the SAT and GRE, with detailed descriptions available on their website **HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING** - **A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON TESTING FROM ANTIQUITY TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY** - **Ancient China (2200 BCE - 1906 CE):** - **Early Testing Practices -** Testing in China began around 2200 BCE, but official appointments were primarily based on political and familial connections. - **Shift to Meritocracy (196 BCE)-** Introduction of a system where local aristocrats recommended candidates who were then interviewed on their problem-solving skills in politics and governance. - **Imperial Examination System (7th Century CE) -** Established by the Sui dynasty emperors to formalize and make the selection of officials more meritocratic. - **Ancient Greco-Roman and Medieval Periods:** - **Greco-Roman Writings -** Attempts were made to categorize people based on personality types influenced by bodily fluids. - **Middle Ages -** Focus on identifying associations with the Devil; measurement procedures were developed for this purpose. - **Renaissance and Early Modern Period -** Emergence of psychological assessment, with Christian von Wolff (1732, 1734) anticipating psychology as a science and psychological measurement as **a specialty.** - **Nineteenth Century Developments:** - **Charles Darwin (1859) -** Publication of \"On the Origin of Species\" introduced evolutionary theory, emphasizing individual differences and natural selection. This spurred scientific interest in individual differences and animal experimentation. - **Francis Galton -** Influenced by Darwin, Galton conducted pioneering work in heredity and individual differences, developing tools like questionnaires, rating scales, and self-report inventories. - **Galton\'s Anthropometric Laboratory (1884) -** Displayed measurements of various physical and psychological variables, increasing interest in psychological measurement. - **Wilhelm Wundt (Late 19th Century) -** Founded the first experimental psychology laboratory in Leipzig. - **James McKeen Cattell -** Studied individual differences in reaction time, coined the term \"mental test,\" and was instrumental in developing mental testing in America. - **Charles Spearman -** Developed the concept of test reliability and factor analysis. - **Victor Henri -** Collaborated with Alfred Binet on mental tests for measuring higher mental processes. - **Emil Kraepelin -** Experimented with word association techniques. - **Lightner Witmer -** Founded the first psychological clinic in the U.S. and the journal Psychological Clinic, significantly contributing to clinical psychology. - **The Twentieth Century in Psychological Testing** - **Shift from Sensory Measurement -** In the early 1900s, psychological testing expanded beyond sensory abilities and reaction time to include intelligence testing, which had practical applications for families with school-age children. - **Rise in Public Interest -** As intelligence tests and other psychological instruments were introduced, public interest shifted from mild curiosity to enthusiasm. - **Initial Work (1895)** - Binet and Victor Henri published articles on measuring memory and social comprehension. - **Binet-Simon Scale (1905) -** Developed a 30-item scale to identify intellectual disabilities in Paris schoolchildren. This test laid the foundation for the intelligence testing movement and clinical testing. - **Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (1939) -** Introduced by Wechsler, this test aimed to measure adult intelligence as the \"aggregate or global capacity\" to act purposefully, think rationally, and interact effectively. - **World War I and II -** The need for efficient screening methods led to the development of group intelligence tests to assess recruits. Psychologists adapted these tests for large-scale administration. - **Post-War Applications -** Psychologists brought their military testing expertise to civilian and corporate settings, leading to increased use of psychological tests in diverse environments. - **Personal Data Sheet** **(Woodworth) -** Developed during WWI as a paper-and-pencil psychiatric interview to identify psychopathology among recruits. - **Self-Report Personality Testing -** Self-report methods allow individuals to provide personal insights but can suffer from issues like poor self-awareness and reluctance to disclose negative aspects. - **Projective Tests -** Developed as an alternative to self-report methods. These tests use ambiguous stimuli, like inkblots, to reveal underlying needs, fears, and motivations. - **Rorschach Inkblots -** Developed by Hermann Rorschach, these tests use inkblots to analyze personality. - **Storytelling with Pictures:** Popularized by **Henry A. Murray** and **Christiana D. Morgan** - Involves interpreting stories told about ambiguous pictures to assess psychological needs and motivations. - **Academic Tradition -** Researchers in universities use psychological assessment tools to advance understanding of behavior, continuing the traditions of pioneers like Galton and Wundt. - **Applied Tradition -** Modern psychological testing, rooted in historical practices such as ancient Chinese examinations, addresses practical questions in job placement, education, and legal competence. - **Cultural Sensitivity -** Both academic and applied settings recognize the need for cultural sensitivity in psychological testing to ensure accurate and equitable assessment across diverse populations. - **CULTURE AND ASSESSMENT** - **Definition of Culture -** Culture includes behavior patterns, beliefs, and products of work shared by a group, taught by parents, peers, and institutions. It influences language, attitudes, child-rearing practices, and rituals for significant life events. - **Cultural Influence -** Shapes views on gender, race, and expectations from others and oneself. Culture's impact on thoughts and behavior is significant and often underestimated. - **Alfred Binet and Early Testing -** Binet's intelligence tests were used by the U.S. Public Health Service for immigrants. Henry H. Goddard, a key figure in adopting Binet's test in the U.S., **raised questions about the tests\' relevance across different cultural and language backgrounds.** - **Goddard's Findings (1917) -** Found high rates of mental deficiency among various immigrant groups, but his methodology was flawed, as the translated **Binet test overestimated deficiencies in non-English speakers.** His work fueled the nature--nurture debate about intelligence tests. - **Modern Approaches to Cultural Sensitivity:** - **Preliminary Testing -** Modern test developers administer preliminary versions of tests to samples from diverse cultural backgrounds to identify potential biases. - **Test Administration and Review -** Examiners provide feedback on test clarity and test-taker reactions. Statistical analysis and independent review panels are used to detect and address bias. - **Large-Scale Testing -** Revised tests are administered to large, representative samples based on current demographic data to ensure broader applicability and to identify biases. - **ISSUES REGARDING CULTURE AND ASSESSMENT** - **Communication in Assessment:** - **Language Compatibility -** Effective assessment requires both the assessor and assessee to share a common language. Misunderstandings can arise if the assessment language is not the assessee's primary language, affecting comprehension and accuracy. - **Challenges with Translators -** Translators can introduce issues such as loss of meaning, unintentional hints, or changes in difficulty level. Pretraining for interpreters and assessors is recommended to mitigate these issues. - **Written vs. Verbal Communication** - Written tests require the assessee to read and understand the content fully. In contrast, verbal exchanges in interviews might reveal language deficiencies more directly. - **Verbal Communication:** - Clear comprehension of written instructions and test items is crucial. Misunderstandings may result from complex vocabulary or idioms, potentially affecting the assessment outcome. - Assessees might sometimes use language barriers intentionally to hinder evaluation efforts. - Nonverbal Communication: - Nonverbal cues like facial expressions and body language differ across cultures. For instance, eye contact may be seen as a sign of respect in some cultures and deceit in others. - Nonverbal behavior, such as posture and expressions, can provide insights into psychological states but must be interpreted cautiously to avoid misattribution. - **Pace of Life and Timed Tests:** - **Cultural Differences in Pace -** Different cultures have varying speeds for completing tasks, affecting performance on timed tests. Some cultures may favor a faster or slower pace, influencing test outcomes. - **Standards of Evaluation:** - Evaluative standards are culturally relative. For example, preferences for chicken soup recipes vary by culture, just as judgments about behavior and psychological traits do. - **Individualist** vs. **Collectivist Cultures**: - Individualist cultures emphasize traits like autonomy and uniqueness, while collectivist cultures value interdependence and group goals. **These cultural orientations affect self-perception and behaviors**. - TEST AND GROUP MEMBERSHIP - **Group Differences in Test Scores:** - **Systematic Differences -** When groups show consistent differences in test scores, it often leads to conflict, especially in contexts like education and employment. - **Impact on Outcomes** - If a group consistently fails to achieve desired outcomes, the criteria used for these decisions may face scrutiny and potential legal challenges. - **Vocational Assessment and Fairness:** - **Testing and Job Ability -** Ideally, tests should evaluate job-related skills without being influenced by factors unrelated to job performance, such as group membership. This view supports equal opportunity but can be contested as discriminatory. - **Discrimination Concerns -** Legal and ethical issues arise when tests disproportionately impact certain groups, leading to claims of discrimination. - **Psychological Attributes and Group Differences -** Group differences in psychological variables, like intelligence, often provoke skepticism and accusations of bias, especially if these differences affect opportunities. - **Responses to Group Differences -** Some argue that if tests accurately measure job ability, no changes are needed, as differences in scores reflect real-world performance differences. - **Affirmative Action and Test Scoring -** Adjusting test scores based on group membership is one way to implement affirmative action, aiming to correct past inequities. However, this method is debated for potentially introducing \"inequity in equity." - **Guidance and Regulation -** Test developers and users must adhere to societal laws, regulations, and ethical standards in their practices, ensuring fairness and equity in test applications. - **Public Awareness -** While psychological tests are commonly used in various settings, public awareness often increases in high-profile cases where their implications become more visible. **MAJOR TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST** - **TYPES OF TESTS BY ADMISTRATION** - **Individual Tests -** Administered to **one** person at a time. - **Group Tests -** Administered to **multiple** people simultaneously. - **CATEGORIZATION BY BEHAVIOR MEASURED** - **Ability Tests -** Measure speed, accuracy, or both. - **Scoring** depends on the **number of correct responses** or **speed** of responses. - **Achievement -** Measures previous learning. - **Aptitude -** Measures potential for learning or acquiring a specific skill. - **Numerical Reasoning Tests -** Evaluate a candidate's aptitude for manipulating numbers, deciphering data, and resolving mathematical issues**.** - **Verbal Reasoning Tests -** Measure a candidate's aptitude for reading, comprehending, and analyzing written material. - **Intelligence -** Measures general potential to solve problems, adapt, think abstractly, and learn from experience. - **DISTINCTION BETWEEN ABILITY AND PERSONALITY TESTS** - **Ability Tests -** Related to capacity or potential. - **Personality Tests -** Measure overt and covert dispositions. - Focus on typical behaviors or tendencies in specific situations. - **TYPES OF PERSONLITY TEST** - **Structured (Objective) Personality Tests -** Provide statements, usually self-reports, with fixed response options - **Projective Personality Tests -** Unstructured, involving ambiguous stimuli or responses. - **Assumption -** Responses to ambiguous stimuli reflect unique personal characteristics. - **TYPES OF TESTS** - **Diagnostic test -** Any examination or assessment measure that may help reveal the nature and source of an individual's physical, mental, or behavioral problems or anomalies. - **Screening test -** Any testing procedure designed to separate out people or items with a given characteristic or property. **CODE OF ETHICS AND IRR OF RA 10029** - IMPLEMENTING RULES AND REGULATIONS OF REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10029, KNOWN AS THE \"PSYCHOLOGY ACT OF 2009\" - *Republic Act No. 10029 (Psychology Act of 2009)* - **Role of Psychologists in Nation-Building** - The State acknowledges the crucial role of psychologists in contributing to nation-building and development. - **Psychological Services -** The Act emphasizes the importance of psychological services provided to various types of clients. - **Goals for Psychologist -** The State aims to nurture competent, ethical, and diligent psychologists. - **Definitions and Concepts:** - **Psychology** - Defined as the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. - **Practice of Psychology -** Aimed at describing, understanding, predicting, and influencing behavior to help individuals or groups achieve optimal growth and functioning. - **Types of Psychological Services:** - **Psychological Interventions** - Includes counseling, psychotherapy, psychosocial support, life coaching, debriefing, group processes, and other interventions aimed at improving psychological functioning. - **Psychological Assessment -** Involves gathering and integrating psychology-related data for evaluations and assessments of psychological functions. - **Psychological Programs** - Encompasses the development, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of psychological treatment and intervention programs for individuals or groups - ***Psychologist -*** A registered individual with a valid Certificate of Registration and Professional Identification Card as a Professional Psychologist. - Authorized to deliver various psychological services as defined under the IRR. - **Psychometrician -** Authorized to perform activities such as administering and scoring objective and structured personality tests interpreting test results, and conducting intake interviews. - Professional Organizations: - **IPO (Interim Professional Organization) -** Refers to the Psychological Association of the Philippines, Inc. (PAP), recognized by the Commission before the registration and licensure of psychologists and psychometricians. - **AIPO (Accredited Integrated Professional Organization)** - Represents the licensed and registered psychologists and psychometricians, ensuring adherence to professional standards and ethical practices - **CODE OF ETHICS FOR THE PHILIPPINE PSYCHOLOGISTS** - **Background and Initiation** - **Original Code** - The PAP adopted a Code of Ethics for Clinical Psychologists in the 1980s, which remained unchanged until 2007. - **Need for Revision** - In 2007, the PAP Board of Directors decided to revise the Code to update and broaden its applicability to all psychologists. - **Reporting Violations** - Individuals who believe a PAP member or Certified Psychology Specialist has violated the Code should provide written evidence to the PAP President and Board of Directors. - **PRINCIPLE I: RESPECT FOR THE DIGNITY OF PERSONS AND PEOPLE** - **Fundamental Ethical Principle -** Respect for the dignity of persons is considered the most fundamental ethical principle across all cultures, geographic regions, and professional disciplines. - **Inherent Worth of Human Beings -** This inherent worth means all human beings deserve equal moral consideration. - **Cultural Continuity and Respect -** Respect for the dignity of persons includes recognizing and respecting the dignity of entire peoples and cultures. - **Psychologists\' Commitment to Respect -** Psychologists recognize respect for the dignity of persons and peoples as a fundamental principle - **PRINCIPLE II: COMPETENT CARING FOR THE WELL-BEING OF THE PERSONS AND PEOPLES** - **Maximizing Benefits and Minimizing Harm -** The principle involves maximizing benefits for individuals and groups while minimizing potential harm. - Appropriate Application of **Knowledge and Skills -** Competent caring requires applying appropriate knowledge and skills based on the specific nature of a situation and the relevant social and cultural context. - **Interpersonal Relationships -** Effective caring involves building interpersonal relationships that enhance benefits and reduce potential harm. - **Self-Knowledge and Awareness -** Adequate self-knowledge is essential to understand how one's own values, experiences, culture, and social context might influence actions and interpretations. - **PRINCIPLE III: INTEGRITY** - **Importance of Integrity -** Essential for advancing scientific knowledge and maintaining public trust in psychology as a discipline - **Honesty -** Involves being truthful in all professional activities. - **Transparency -** Requires openness and clear communication, ensuring that information is conveyed accurately - **Bias Management -** Recognizes the importance of identifying, monitoring, and managing biases and conflicts of interest. - **PRINCIPLE IV: PROFESSIONAL AND SCIENTIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES TO SOCIETY** - **Context of Psychology in Society -** Psychology operates within the broader context of human society and holds responsibilities as both a science and a profession - **Knowledge Contribution -** Expanding knowledge about human behavior to improve the well-being of individuals, families, groups, communities, and society. - **Application of Knowledge -** Using psychological knowledge to benefit society while safeguarding it from misuse, incompetence, or becoming ineffective. - **Ethical Conduct -** Conducting all professional activities ethically and in a manner that promotes the well-being of society and its members. - **Social Policy Advocacy -** Encouraging the development of social structures and policies that benefit all individuals and groups. - **PRINCIPLE V: ADVERTISEMENTS AND PUBLIC STATEMENTS** - **Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements:** - **Truthfulness in Promotions -** Announcements and promotions of psychological advice, programs, books, or other products must be scientifically accurate and factually informative. - **Permissible Information in Announcements -** Professional service announcements may include relevant details such as name, highest academic degrees, certification status, address, contact information, office hours, and a description of the services offered. - **Prohibition of Misleading Communications** - All forms of communication should avoid false, deceptive, or fraudulent statements - **PRINCIPLE VI: RECORDS AND FEES** - Documentation and Maintenance of Records: - Psychologists are responsible for maintaining, disseminating, storing, retaining, and disposing of records and data appropriately. - Maintain confidentiality in all processes involving records, including creation, storage, access, transfer, and disposal, regardless of the medium or form. - **Agreement on Fees -** Reach an agreement on compensation and billing arrangements with clients or service recipients as early as feasible in the professional relationship. - **PRINCIPLE VII: ASSESSMENT** - **Bases for Assessment -** Recommendations, reports, and diagnostic or evaluative statements are based on substantial information and appropriate assessment techniques. - Provide expert opinions on psychological characteristics only after conducting adequate assessment procedures and examinations. - **Obtaining Consent -** Obtain informed consent before conducting assessments, except when: - Mandated by law. - Implied in routine activities (e.g., educational, institutional, organizational). - Assessing an individual's decisional capacity. - **Client Education -** Educate clients on the nature of services, financial arrangements, potential risks, and confidentiality limits. If clients cannot provide consent, discuss these with family members or legal guardians. - **Use of Interpreters -** Ensure confidentiality and test security when using third-party interpreters and discuss the limitations of the data obtained - Assessment Tools: - **Test Selection -** Select and administer tests relevant to the referral reasons and assessment purpose. - **Consistency with Developments -** Use methods and procedures consistent with current scientific and professional developments. - **Appropriate Tests -** Use standardized, valid, reliable tests with normative data applicable to the client\'s population. - **Client-Specific Tools -** Administer tools appropriate to the client\'s language, competence, and relevant characteristics. - Release of Test Data: - **Restricted Access -** Ensure test results and interpretations are used only by agreed-upon persons prior to the assessment. - **Limited Data Release -** Do not release raw data or sensitive client information unless required by court order - Explaining Assessment Results: - **Results to Referrers -** Release test results to referral sources and obtain written permission for self-referrals. - **Non-Technical Language -** Communicate results to relatives, parents, or teachers using non-technical language. - **Client Understanding -** Explain findings to clients or their representatives unless the relationship precludes it, and this is clarified in advance. - **Supervised Sharing -** Supervise the release of results to external parties like schools, courts, or industries. - Test Security - **Qualified Personnel -** Ensure that all test materials (manuals, keys, answer sheets, booklets) are handled only by qualified users or personnel. - **Avoiding Unqualified Use -** Do not promote the use of assessment tools by unqualified persons, except under supervision for training. - **Secure Test Records -** Keep test protocols and records secure from unqualified individuals. - **Test Construction** - **Development Standards -** Develop assessment tools using current scientific knowledge, proper psychometric properties, and appropriate validation and standardization procedures. - **PRINCIPLE VIII: THERAPY** - Confidentiality - **Obligation of Confidentiality -** Confidentiality is a fundamental obligation arising from client trust, restricting disclosure except when legally mandated or regulated. - **Discussing Client Information -** When discussing clinical or counseling outcomes with colleagues for evaluation purposes, ensure it does not unduly invade privacy. - **Release of Information -** Release client information only after careful consideration, especially when there is imminent danger or a court order. Limit data shared to what is pertinent to the request. - Informed Consent: - **Obtaining Consent -** Seek freely given informed consent for therapy, explaining the therapy\'s nature, potential risks, conflicts of interest, fees, third-party involvement, client commitments, and confidentiality limits. - **Respecting Client Rights -** Respect clients\' rights to commit to or withdraw from therapy. - **Experimental Techniques -** When using unestablished techniques, inform clients about the treatment\'s nature, risks, alternatives, and obtain consent for participation. - **Therapist Rights and Responsibilities -** Discuss mutual rights and responsibilities at appropriate points in the therapy relationship. - Referrals - **Client Consent for Referrals -** Ensure referrals are discussed with clients and consented to, providing clear explanations about the disclosure of information involved in the referral. - **Competent Recipients -** Ensure the referral recipient is competent and that the client will benefit from the referral. - **Assessing Referral Appropriateness -** Carefully assess the appropriateness and benefits of referrals and the adequacy of client consent. - **PRINCIPLE IX: EDUCATION AND TRAINING** - **Program Design and Quality -** Education and training programs must be designed to provide appropriate knowledge and experiences. - **Accurate Program Descriptions -** Programs must have current and accurate descriptions of content, including required supervised practicum or internship, training goals and objectives, stipends and benefits, and completion requirements. - **PRINCIPLE X: RESEARCH** - **Respect and Welfare -** Uphold the rights, dignity, and welfare of research participants in all aspects. - **Cultural Sensitivity -** Before research in unfamiliar communities, gather essential information about their culture, customs, and traditions. - **Participant Withdrawal -** Respect participants\' rights to withdraw at any time and be responsive to non-verbal cues indicating a desire to withdraw. - **Ethical Standards -** Avoid contributing to research that violates international humanitarian laws, including methods intended for torture, prohibited weapons, or environmental destruction. - **Risk Assessment -** Identify potential harm, including pre-existing conditions, and mitigate any foreseeable risks before starting research. **PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAITS, STATES, AND NORMING** - **PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAITS ANS STATES** - **Trait -** Any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which one individual varies from another - **Psychological Trait -** Intelligence, specific intellectual abilities, cognitive style, adjustment, interests, attitudes, sexual orientation and preferences, psychopathology, etc. - **States -** Distinguish one person from another but are relatively less enduring - Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving in a concrete situation at a specific moment in time - **Construct -** Informed, scientific concept developed or constructed to explain a behavior, inferred from overt behavior - **PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAITS AND STATES CAN BE QUANTIFIED AND MEASURED** - Once the trait, state or other construct has been defined to be measured, a test developer considers the types of item content that would provide insight to it, to gauge the strength of that trait - **Cumulative Model of Scoring -**Assumption that the more the test taker responds in a particular direction keyed by the test manual as correct or consistent with a particular trait, the higher that test taker is presumed to be on the targeted ability or trait - **TEST-RELATED BEHAVIOR PREDICTS NON-TEST-RELATED BEHAVIOR** - The tasks in some tests mimics the actual behaviors that the test user is attempting to understand - Such tests only yield a sample of the behavior that can be expected to be emitted under non test conditions - **VARIOUS SOURCES OF ERROR ARE PART OF THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS** - **Error -** Refers to something that is more than expected - **Error Variance -** Component of a test score attributable to sources other than the trait or ability measured - Potential Sources of error variance: - Assessors - Measuring Instruments - Random errors such as luck - **Classical Test Theory -** Each test taker has true score on a test that would be obtained but for the action of measurement error - **WHAT IS A "GOOD TEST"** - Includes clear instructions for administration, scoring, and interpretation; offered economy in the time and money it took to administer, score, and interpret; and, measures what it purports to measure - **Reliability -** Consistency of the measuring tool - The precision with which test measurers and the extent to which error is present in measurements - **Validity -** Measure what it is supposed to measure - **NORMS** - **Norm-Referenced Testing and Assessment -** Method of evaluation and a way of deriving meaning from test scores by evaluating an individual test taker's score and comparing it to scores of a group test taker - **Norms -** Usual, average, normal, standard, expected, or typical - **Normative Sample -** Group of people whose performance on a particular test is analyzed for reference in evaluating the performance of individual test takers - **Norming -** Process of deriving norms - **User Norms or Program Norms -** Consists or descriptive statistics based on a group of Test takers in a given period of time rather than norms obtained by formal sampling methods - **Age Norms -** Average performance of different samples of test takers who were at various ages at the time the test was administered - **Grade Norms -** Developed by administering the test to representative samples of children over a range of consecutive grade levels - **Developmental Norms -** Norms developed on the basis of any trait, ability, skill, or other characteristics that is presumed to develop, deteriorate, or otherwise affected by chronological age, school grade, or stage of life - **National Norms -** Derived from a normative sample that was nationally representative of the population at the time norming study was conducted - **Local Norms -** Provide normative information with respect to the local population's performance on some test - **Standardization -** Process of administering a test to a representative sample of test takers for the purpose of establishing norms - **Sample -** Portion of the universe of people that represents the whole population - **Sampling -** Process of selecting sample used with the test and also describe the recommended setting for giving the test - **Percentile -** Expression of the percentage of people whose score on a test or measure falls before a particular raw score - **Fixed Reference Group Scoring System -** Distribution of scores obtained on the test from one group of test takers is used as the basis for the calculation of test scores for future administrations of the test - **Criterion-Referenced Tests and Assessment -** Method of evaluation and a way of deriving meaning from test scores by evaluating an individual's score with reference to a set standard - **Domain- or Content-Referenced Testing and Assessment -** How scores relate to a particular content area or domain **STATISTIC REFRESHER** - **SCALES OF MEASUREMENT** - **Measurement -** The act of assigning numbers or symbols to characteristics of things according to rules - **Descriptive Statistics -** Methods used to provide concise description of a collection of quantitative information - **Inferential Statistics -** Method used to make inferences from observations of a small group of people known as sample to a larger group of individuals known as population - **Magnitude -** The property of "moreness" - **Equal Intervals -** The difference between two points at any place on the scale has the same meaning as the difference between two other points that differ by the same number of scale units - **Absolute 0 -** When nothing of the property being measured exists - **Scale -** A set of numbers who properties model empirical properties of the objects to which the numbers are assigned - **Continuous Scale -** Takes on any value within the range and the possible value within that range is infinite - **Discrete Scale -** Can be counted; has distinct, countable values - **Error -** Refers to the collective influence of all the factors on a test score or measurement beyond those specifically measured by the test or measurement - Measurement with continuous scale always involve with error - **FOUR LEVELS OF THE SCALES OF MEASRUREMENT** - **Nominal -** Involve classification or categorization based on one or more distinguishing characteristics - Label and categorize observations but do not make any quantitative distinctions between observations - Mode - **Ordinal -** Rank ordering on some characteristics is also permissible - Median - **Interval -** Contains equal intervals, has no absolute zero point (even negative values have interpretation to it) - Zero value does not mean it represents none - **Ratio -** Has true zero point (if the score is zero, it means none/null) - Easiest to manipulate - **DESCRIBING DATA** - **Distribution -** Defined as a set of test scores arrayed for recording or study - **Raw Scores -** Straightforward, unmodified accounting of performance that is usually numerical - **Frequency Distribution -** All scores are listed alongside the number of times each score occurred - **MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY** - **Measures of Central Tendency -**Statistics that indicates the average or midmost score between the extreme scores in a distribution. - **Mean -** The average of all the raw scores - Equal to the sum of the observations divided by the number of observations - Interval and ratio data (when normal distribution) - Point of least squares - Balance point for the distribution - **Median -** The middle score of the distribution - Ordinal, Interval, Ratio - Useful in cases where relatively few scores fall at the high end of the distribution or relatively few scores fall at the low end of the distribution - In other words, for extreme scores, use median - Identical for sample and population - Also used when there has an unknown or undetermined score - Used in "open-ended" categories (e.g., 5 or more, more than 8, at least 10) - **Mode -** Most frequently occurring score in the distribution - **Bimodal Distribution -** If there are two scores that occur with highest frequency - Useful in analyses of qualitative or verbal nature - Value of the mode gives an indication of the shape of the distribution as well as a measure of central tendency - **MEASURES OF VARIABILITY** - **Variability --** an indication how scores in a distribution are scattered or dispersed - Provides a quick but gross description of the spread of scores - When its value is based on extreme scores of the distribution, the resulting description of variation may be understated or overstated - **Measures of Variability -** Statistics that describe the amount of variation in a distribution - **Range -** Equal to the difference between highest and the lowest score - **Quartile -** Dividing points between the four quarters in the distribution - Specific point - **Quarter -** Refers to an interval - **Interquartile Range -** Measure of variability equal to the difference between Q3 and Q1 - **Semi-interquartile Range -** Equal to the interquartile range divided by 2 - **Standard Deviation -** Equal to the square root of the average squared deviations about the mean - Equal to the square root of the variance - **Variance -** Equal to the arithmetic mean of the squares of the differences between the scores in a distribution and their mean - Distance from the mean - **NORMAL CURVE** - Also known as Gaussian Curve - Bell-shaped, smooth, mathematically defined curve - **Symmetrical Distribution -** Right side of the graph is mirror image of the left side - Has only one mode and it is in the center of the distribution - Mean = median = mode - **Skewness -** Nature and extent to which symmetry is absent - **Positive Skewed -** Few scores fall the high end of the distribution (The exam is difficult) - **Negative Skewed -** When relatively few of the scores fall at the low end of the distribution (The exam is easy) - **Kurtosis -** Steepness if a distribution in its center - **Platykurtic -** Relatively flat - **Leptokurtic -** Relatively peaked - **Mesokurtic -** Somewhere in the middle - High Kurtosis - High peak and fatter tails - Lower Kurtosis - Rounded peak and thinner tails **VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY** - **VALIDITY** - It refers to the degree to which the measurement procedure measures the variable that it claims to measure (strength and usefulness). - **Face validity** - Is the simplest and least scientific form of validity and it is demonstrated when the face value or superficial appearance of a measurement measures what it is supposed to measure. - **Content Validity -** It is concerned with the extent to which the test is representative of a defined body of content consisting of topics and processes - Content validation is not done by statistical analysis but by the inspection of items. A panel of experts can review the test items - **Construct underrepresentation -** [ ] Failure to capture important components of a construct - **Construct-irrelevant variance -** Happens when scores are influenced by factors irrelevant to the construct - **Quantification of Content Validity -** Lawshe (1975) proposed a structured and systematic way of establishing the content validity of a test - **Criterion Validity -** It involves the relationship or correlation between the test scores and scores on some measurement representing an identical criterion. - **Predictive Validity -** It is demonstrated when scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior (criterion) according to a theory. - **Concurrent Validity -** It is established when the scores of a measure (predictor) is correlated with the scores of a different measure (criterion) taken at the same time. - **Construct Validity -** It requires that the scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable/construct itself. - **Convergent Validity** - It involves comparing two different methods to measure the same construct and it is demonstrated by a strong relationship between the scores obtained from the two methods - **Divergent Validity -** This refers to the demonstration of the uniqueness of that test - **RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY** - Reliability and validity are partially related and partially independent. - Reliability is a prerequisite for validity, meaning a measurement cannot be valid unless it is reliable. - **RELIABILITY** - Refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when re-examined with the same test on different occasions, or with different sets of equivalent items, or under other variable examining condition. - **CLASSICAL TEST SCORE THEORY** - This assumes that each person has a true score that would be obtained if there were no errors in measurement. - **Measurement error -** The difference between the observed score and the true score results. - **Standard error of measurement -** The standard deviation of the distribution of errors for each repeated application of the same test on an individual. - **Domain Sampling Model -** There is a problem in the use of limited number of items to represent a larger and more complicated construct. - **SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERROR** - **Item selection -** One source of measurement error is the instrument itself. A test developer must settle upon a finite number of items from a potentially infinite pool of test question. - **Test Administration -** General environmental conditions may exert an untoward influence on the accuracy of measurement, such as uncomfortable room temperature, dim lighting, and excessive noise. - **Test Scoring -** Whenever psychological test uses a format other than machine-scored multiple-choice items, some degree of judgment is required to assign points to answers. - **FORMS OF RELIABILITY** - **Test-Retest Reliability (Time Sampling Reliability) -** It is established by comparing the scores obtained from two successive measurements of the same individuals and calculating a correlation between the two sets of scores. - **Error variance -** Corresponds to the random fluctuations of performance from one test session to the other. - **Limitations of Test-Retest Reliability:** - **Carryover effect -** Occurs when the first testing session influences the results of the second session and this can affect the test-retest reliability of a psychological measure. - **Practice effect -** A type of carryover effect wherein the scores on the second test administration are higher than they were on the first. - **Parallel Forms Reliability (Item Sampling Reliability or Alternate Forms Reliability) -** It compares two equivalent forms of a test that measure the same attribute to make sure that the items indeed assess a specific characteristic. - **Inter-rater Reliability -** It is the degree of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors. - This uses the **kappa statistic** in order to assess the level of agreement among several raters using nominal scales. - **Split-Half Reliability -** This model of reliability measures the internal consistency of the test which is the degree to which each test item measures the same construct. It is simply the intercorrelations among the items. - **Cronbach's coefficient alpha -** A statistics which allows the test developer to confirm that a test has substantial reliability in case the two halves of a test have unequal variances. - **Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR~20~) Formula -** The statistics used for calculating the reliability of a test in which the items are dichotomous or scored as 0 or 1. - **WHICH TYPE OF RELIABILITY IS APPROPRIATE?** - **Parallel Forms Reliability -** Tests that has two forms - **Test-Retest Reliability -** Tests that are designed to be administered to an individual more than once - **Cronbach's coefficient alpha -** Tests with factorial purity - **Split-Half Reliability - Tests with items carefully ordered according to difficulty** - **Inter-Rater Reliability -** Tests which involve some degree of subjective scoring - **KR~20~ -** Tests which involve dichotomous items or forced choice items **STANDARD SCORES** - **FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION** - A technique for systematically displaying scores on a variable or a measure to reflect how frequently each value was obtained. - **PERCENTILE RANKS** - The percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are the same or lower than it. - **Percentiles -** Indicate the particular score below which a defined percentage of scores fall. - **STANDARD SCORES** - Raw score that has been converted from one scale to another scale - **Z - SCORES** - Results from the conversion of a raw score into a number indicating how many SD units the raw score is below or above the mean of the distribution - Requires that we know the value of the variance to compute the standard error - **T - SCORES** - This is basically the same as Z scores except that the mean in McCall's system is 50 rather than 0 and the standard deviation is 10 rather than one. - **T - SCORE AND Z - SCORE: WHEN TO USE** - The general rule of thumb for *when* to use a t score is when your sample: - Has a sample size below 30 - Has an unknown population standard deviation - **QUARTILES AND DECILES** - **Quartiles -** Divides the frequency distribution into 4 equal parts: Q~1~, Q~2~, Q~3~ and Q~4~. - **Deciles -** Divides the frequency distribution into 10 equal parts: D~1~ to D~10~. - **STANINE SYSTEM** - A system which converts any set of scores into a transformed scale, which ranges from 1 to 9. It has a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of approximately 2. **Clinical Interviewing and Psychiatric History** - **CLINICAL INTERVIEWING** - Critical and commonly used assessment procedure in mental health practice that involves a personal exchange between clinician and client designed to gather information needed for diagnosis and treatment - **INTERVIEW** - Is a method for gathering data or information about an individual. - This information is then used to describe the individual make future predictions, or both. - **Reciprocal Nature of Interviewing** - **Social Facilitation** - We tend to act like the models around us. If the interviewer is tense, anxious, defensive, and aloof, then the interviewee tends to respond in kind - **Principles of Effective Interviewing** - **The Proper Attitudes -** Attitudes related to good interviewing skills include warmth, genuineness, acceptance, understanding, openness, honesty, and fairness. - **Responses to Avoid -** Judgmental or evaluative statements are particularly likely to inhibit the interviewee. - **Effective Responses -** One major principle of effective interviewing is keeping the interaction flowing - **Responses to Keep the Interaction Flowing -** The interviewer as a rule lets the interviewee respond without interruption; that is, the interviewer remains quiet and listens. - **ACTIVE LISTENING** - Is a communication skill that involves going beyond simply hearing the words that another person speaks - **TYPES OF INTERVIEWS** - **Evaluation Interview -** A confrontation is a statement that points out a discrepancy or inconsistency. Though confrontation is usually most appropriate in therapeutic interviews, all experienced interviewers should have this technique at their disposal. - **Case History Interview -** The purpose of obtaining a case history is to understand individuals' backgrounds so that one can accurately interpret individual test scores. - **Mental Status Examination -** The mental status examination is used primarily to diagnose psychosis, brain damage, and other major mental health problems. **PILLARS OF ASSESSMENT** - **PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT** - It uses a variety of methods in order to evaluate, measure, and document the client's strengths, weaknesses and adaptive capabilities - **Four Pillars of Assessment** - Norms (Reference test) - Interviews - Behavioral Observations - Informal Assessment Procedures - **NORM-REFERENCED TESTS** - Measures that are standardized on a clearly defined group, termed the norm group. - It describes client's functioning in reference to his/her peer groups - **INTERVIEWS** - **"Conversation with a purpose"** - Allows the examiner to ask questions that were not indicated in the standardized tests - **Specific Techniques in Interviewing** - Formulate appropriate opening statements - Use appropriate language and intonation - Avoid leading questions - Ask for specific example of client\'s behavior when he or she is feelings a certain way - Use reflective statements - Avoid critical statements - Formulate hypothetical questions - Fantasy techniques - Three wishes technique - Desert Island technique - Handle resistance and anxiety by giving support and reassurance - **Specific Techniques in Interviewing for Children** - Concrete referents - Picture-question technique (PQT) - Drawing pictures of the event - Drawing pictures of people - Story Completion technique - Use props, crayons, clay and other toys to help a young child talk. Toys may be used to act the event itself. - **MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION** - **Appearance -** Gait, posture, clothes, grooming - **Behavior -** Mannerisms, gestures, psychomotor activity, expression, eye contact, ability to follow commands - **Attitude -** Cooperative, hostile, aloof, evasive - **Level of Consciousness -** Vigilant, alert, drowsy, lethargic - **Orientation -** "What is your full name?" - **Speech and Language -** Quantity, rate, volume, fluency and rhythm - **Mood -** "How are you feeling?" - **Affect -** Appropriateness to situation, fluctuation, range (broad or constructed) - **Thought processes -** Flow and coherence of thoughts in response to general questioning - **Thought Content -** "What do you think about when you are sad or angry?" - **Suicidality and Homocidality -** "Do you ever feel that life isn't worth living?" - **Insight and judgment -** "What brings you here today?" - **Attention -** Digit span, spelling backwards and calculations - **Memory -** Recent, remote, immediate memory - **Intellectual -** Information and vocabulary, abstraction - **BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS** - Obtain valuable information through observing the client during formal assessment and/or natural surroundings - *There are times when observed behavior may differ from that reported by informants or client* - **Waiting Room Behavior** - What is the client doing? - Facial expression and Body posture - Signs of distress - Interaction with parent/relative/informant - **Waiting Room Behavior (If client is a child)** - Is the parent and child talking to each other? - Does the child cling to the parent? - Parent's body posture and facial expression - **DURING THE ASSESSMENT** - Be discreet when you are recording observations and scoring responses - If unusual behavior is observed, note when and where the behavior occurs and what happened afterwards - **WHAT TO CONSIDER: OBSERVING CLIENT DURING ASSESSMENT** - Personal Appearance - Attitude Towards Examiner - Attitude Towards Testing Situation - Attention - Is the client easily distracted? What kind of stimulus seems to distract him/her? - Affect - Happy, sad, fearful, flat - Body Language - Language - Vision and Hearing - Motor Skills - Gross motor skills - Fine motor skills - **SELF-MONITORING ASSESSMENT** - The client observes and records specific overt and covert aspects of his or her behavior, the circumstances associated with the behavior over a period of time. - **INFORMAL ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES** - **Medical Records -** Provides information about past and current health history, developmental history and medication history - **School Records -** Allows comparison of past and current school performance and behaviors - **Referral Letter and Reports from Therapists/Doctors -** Problems seen by the referring party, progress notes, and previous impression - **Personal Documents -** Diaries, poems, musical compositions, drawings - **Social Work Reports -** Provides information about client's biological family, foster family and involvement in juvenile justice system - **Written Language Samples -** Useful in evaluating the breadth of client's writing skills - **Informal Assessment of Reading Ability -** Helps in evaluating the factors that may be contributing to reading difficulties - **Role Playing -** Allows observation of the client's behavior in a simulated situation **TEST DEVELOPMENT** - **TEST DEVELOPMENT** - **Test Development -** An umbrella term for all that goes into the process of creating a test - **Test Conceptualization -**Brainstorming of ideas about what kind of test a developer wants to publish - **Pilot Work/Pilot Study/Pilot Research** - Preliminary research surrounding the creation of a prototype of the test - Attempts to determine how best to measure a targeted construct - **Test Construction -** Stage in the process that entails writing test items, revisions, formatting, setting scoring rules - **Scaling -** Process of setting rules for assigning numbers in measurement - **Unidimensional and Multi-Dimensional Approach** - **Unidimensional -** Only one dimension is presumed to underlie the ratings - **Multidimensional -** More than one dimension - **SCALING** - **Rating Scale -** Grouping of words, statements, or symbols on which judgments of the strength of a particular trait are indicated by the test taker - **Summative Scale -** Final score is obtained by summing the ratings across all the items - **Likert Scale -** Scale attitudes, usually reliable; - **Thurstone Scale -** Involves the collection of a variety of different statements about a phenomenon which are ranked by an expert panel in order to develop the questionnaire - **Method of Paired Comparisons -** Produces ordinal data by presenting with pairs of two stimuli which they are asked to compare - **Comparative Scaling -** Entails judgments of a stimulus in comparison with every other stimulus on the scale - **Categorical Scaling -** Stimuli are placed into one of two or more alternative categories that differ quantitatively with respect to some continuum - **Guttman Scale -** Yields ordinal-level measures - **TEST CONSTRUCTION** - **Item Pool -** Reservoir or well from which the items will or will not be drawn for the final version of the test - **Item Banks -** Relatively large and easily accessible collection of test questions - **Item Format - F**orm, plan, structure, arrangement, and layout of individual test items - **Selected-Response Format -** Require test takers to select response from a set of alternative responses - **Computerized Adaptive Testing -** Refers to an interactive, computer administered test-taking process wherein items presented to the test taker are based in part on the test taker's performance on previous items - **Floor Effects (Test Takers Have Low Scores) -** Occurs when there is some lower limit on a survey or questionnaire and a large percentage of respondents score near this lower limit - **Ceiling Effects (Test Takers Have High Scores) -** Occurs when there is some upper limit on a survey or questionnaire and a large percentage of respondents score near this upper limit - **Cumulative Scoring -** The higher score one achieved on the test, the higher the test taker is on the ability that the test purports to measure - **Class Scoring/Category Scoring -** Test taker responses earn credit toward placement in a particular class or category with other test takers who pattern of responses is presumably similar in some way - **Ipsative Scoring -** Comparing a test taker's score on one scale within a test to another scale within that same test - **Semantic Differential Rating Technique -** Measures an individual\'s unique, perceived meaning of an object, a word, or an individual; usually essay type, open-ended format - **ITEM FORMAT** - **Multiple-Choice Format -** Has three elements: stem (question), a correct option, and several incorrect alternatives (distractors or foils) - **Matching Item -** Test taker is presented with two columns: Premises and Responses - **Binary Choice** - **True-False Item -** Usually takes the form of a sentence that requires the test taker to indicate whether the statement is or is not a fact - **Constructed-Response Format -** Requires test takers to supply or to create the correct answer, not merely selecting it. - **Completion Item** - Requires the examinee to provide a word or phrase that completes a sentence - **Short-answer item** - Should be written clearly enough that the test taker can respond succinctly, with short answer - **Essay Item** - Respond by writing a composition - **TEST TRYOUT** - The test should be tried out on people who are similar in critical respects to the people for whom the test was designed - **ITEM ANALYSIS** - **Item Difficulty -** Defined by the number of people who get a particular item correct - **Item-Difficulty Index -** Calculating the proportion of the total number of test takers who answered the item correctly - **Item-Reliability Index -** Provides an indication of the internal consistency of a test - The higher this index, the greater the test's internal consistency - **Item-Validity Index -** Designed to provide an indication of the degree to which a test is measure what it purports to measure - The higher this index, the greater the test's criterion-related validity - **Item-Discrimination Index -** Measure of item discrimination - **Extreme Group Method -** Compares people who have done well with those who have done poorly - **Discrimination Index -** Difference between these proportion - **Point-Biserial Method -** Correlation between a dichotomous variable and continuous variable - **Item-Characteristic Curve -** Graphic representation of item difficulty and discrimination - **Guessing -** One that eluded any universally accepted solutions - **Qualitative Methods -** Techniques of data generation and analysis that rely primarily on verbal rather than statistical procedures - **Qualitative Item Analysis -** Various nonstatistical procedures designed to explore how individual test items work - **TEST REVISION** - Characterize each item according to its strength and weaknesses - **Cross-Validation -** Revalidation of a test on a sample of test takers other than those on who test performance was originally found to be a valid predictor of some criterion - Often results to validity shrinkage - **Validity Shrinkage -** Decrease in item validities that inevitably occurs after cross-validation - **Co-validation -** Conducted on two or more test using the same sample of test takers - **Co-norming -** Creation of norms or the revision of existing norms - **Anchor Protocol -** Test protocol scored by highly authoritative scorer that is designed as a model for scoring and a mechanism for resolving scoring discrepancies - **Scoring Drift -** Discrepancy between scoring in an anchor protocol and the scoring of another protocol - **Differential Item Functioning -** Item functions differently in one group of test takers known to have the same level of the underlying trait **THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE AND TESTS** - **MODERN DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE** - Intelligence is simply defined as an individual's general intellectual functioning or general mental ability used for adaptive purposes. - **VARIABLES OF ONTELLIGENCE** - **Age Differentiation -** Refers to the simple fact that one can differentiate older children from younger children - **General Mental Ability -** Total product of the various separate and distinct elements of intelligence - **Interactionism -** Refers to the complex concept by which heredity and environment are presumed to interact and influence the development of intelligence - **THREE APPROACHES IN STUDYING HUMAN INTELLIGENCE** - **Psychometric Approach -** This involves the use of test and the evaluation of its properties in assessing and understanding the mental ability of humans - **Information-Processing Approach -** This involves the examination of the process involved in how we learn and solve problems - **Cognitive Approach -** This involves the examination of behaviors, thought processes and physiological responses involved in intelligence - **THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE** - **Factory-Analytic Theories -** Focus on identifying the ability or groups of abilities deemed to constitute intelligence - **Information-Processing Theories -** Identifying specific mental processes that constitute intelligence. - **Factor Analysis -** Group of statistical techniques designed to determine the existence of underlying relationships between sets of variables - **SPEARMAN'S MODEL OF GENERAL MENTAL ABILITY** - According to Charles Spearman, intelligence consists of one general factor (*g*) plus a large number of specific factors (*s)* such as numerical reasoning, vocabulary and mechanical skills. - **Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence** - **G Factor** - General intelligence - **S Factor** - Specific intelligence - **Group Factors -** Neither as general as g nor as specific as s - **THURSTONE GROUP FACTOR THEORY** - **Louis Leon Thurstone -** Conceived of intelligence as being composed of seven "primary abilities" - **Verbal Comprehension -** Ability to understand ideas expressed in word form - **Word Fluency -** Ability to speak and write fluently - **Numerical Ability -** Ability to perform basic mathematic processes accurately and rapidly - **Spatial Visualization/Ability -** Ability to visualize and form relationship in three dimensions - **Associative Memory -** Ability to recognize and recall information such as numbers, letters, and words. - **Perceptual Speed -** Ability to perceive things quickly such as visual details and similarities and differences among pictured objects - **Reasoning -** Ability to derived rules and solve problems inductively - **CATTELL'S GF-GC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE** - **Raymond Cattell -** Theorized that there are two basic types of intelligence: fluid and crystallized - **Fluid Intelligence (GF) -** Refers to abilities which allow us to reason, think and acquire new knowledge. - **Crystallized Intelligence (GC)** - Refers to knowledge and understanding that we have acquired. - **THE CATTELL-HORN-CARROLL THEORY OF COGNITIVE ABILITIES** - **Horn -** Added Visual Processing, Auditory Processing, Quantitative Processing, Speed of Processing, facility with reading, and writing, short-term memory, and long-term memory storage and retrieval - **Vulnerable Abilities -** Decline with age and tend not to return to preinjury levels following brain damage - **Maintained Abilities -** Tend not to decline with age and may return to preinjury levels following brain damage - **Cattell-Horn-Carroll Model of Cognitive Abilities -** A psychometric taxonomy designed to explain how and why individuals differ in cognitive ability. It provides a common frame of reference and nomenclature to organize cognitive ability research - **THREE-STRATUM THEORY OF COGNITIVE ABILITIES** - **Top stratum level -** General Intelligence - **The second stratum is composed of eight abilities -** fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, general memory and learning, broad visual perception, broad auditory perception, broad retrieval capacity, broad cognitive speediness, and processing/decision speed - **STERNBERG'S TRIACHIC THEORY** - **Robert Sternberg -** Defined intelligence as \"mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one\'s life" - **Componential Intelligence -**Ability to think abstractly, process information effectively - **Experiential Intelligence -**Ability to formulate new ideas, to combine seemingly unrelated facts or information - **Contextual Intelligence -** Ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions and to shape the environmental so as to maximize one's strengths and compensate for one's weaknesses - **GARDER'S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY** - **Howard Gardner -** Developed a theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, musical, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal - **Interpersonal Intelligence -** Ability to understand other people - **Intrapersonal -** Capacity to form an accurate, veridical model of oneself and to be able to use that model to operate effectively in life - **Emotional Intelligence -** Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Intelligence - **EDWARD THORNDIKE MULTI-FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE** - **E.L Thorndike -** Intelligence can be conceived in terms of three clusters of ability: social intelligence, concrete intelligence, and abstract intelligence - One's ability to learn is determined by the number and speed of the bonds that can be marshaled - **INFORMATION-PROCESSING VIEW** - **Aleksandr Luria -** Two basic types of information-processing styles, simultaneous and successive, have been distinguished - **Simultaneous (Parallel) -** Information is integrated all at one time - **Successive (Sequential) -** Each bit of information - **PASS model -** Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive - **Planning -** Refers to strategy development for problem solving - **Attention -** Refers to receptivity to information - **Simultaneous (Parallel) -**Information is integrated all at one time - **Successive (Sequential) -** Each bit of information - **MEASURING INTELLIGENCE** - **The Early Binet Scales -** It was created by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon. - The 1905 Binet-Simon Scale was established for the strict purpose of identifying mentally disabled children in the Paris school system - **Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale -** Lewis Terman of Stanford University revised the Binet-Simon Scale in 1916 - **Intelligence Quotient (IQ) -** Which is equivalent to the mental age of a person divided by his/her chronological age and then multiplied by 100. - **The 1937 Scale** - Extended the age range down to the 2-year-old level - Scoring standards and instructions were improved - Standardization sample was markedly improved - **The 1986 Binet Scale -** Incorporates the gf-gc theory of intelligence and the *g* is divided into three group factors - **Crystallized Abilities -**Reflection of learning and the realization of original potential through experience. This is divided into verbal reasoning and quantitative reasoning. - **Fluid-Analytic Abilities -** Representation of original potential or the basic capabilities that a person uses to acquire crystallized abilities. - **Short-Term Memory -** Refers to one's memory during short intervals or the amount of information one can retain briefly after a single, short presentation. - **The 1986 version of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale** - **Basal age -** Refers to the lowest level or point where two consecutive items of approximately equal difficulty are passed. - **Ceiling age -** Refers to the point at which at least three consecutive mistakes are committed. - **Wechsler Tests -** These scales were created by David Wechsler in 1939 who included non-intellective factors in the measurement of intelligence. - **Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale -** 3^rd^ edition (WAIS-III) for 16-89 years of age - **Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children -** 4^th^ edition (WISC-IV) for 6 to 16 years, 11 months old - **Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence -** Revised (WPPSI-R) for 3 to 7 years, 3 months old - **Structure of Wechsler Test** - Verbal Comprehension - Perceptual Organization - Working Memory - Processing Speed - **Point scale -** A system wherein credits or points are assigned to each item. An individual receives a specific amount of credit for each item passed. This allows the administrator to see the score of an individual per subtest. - **Performance scale -** A system which measures the nonverbal intelligence of an individual. This consists of tasks that require a subject to do something rather than merely to answer questions. - **GROUP TEST OF INTELLIGENCE** - **Robert Yerkes -** Led the development of Army Alpha and Army Beta to measure the ability to be a good soldier during WWI - WWII led to development of Army General Classification Test - **School Ability Test -** Alert educators to students who might profit function of data from more extensive assessment with individually administered ability tests - **Measures of Creativity** - **Originality -** The ability to produce something that is innovative or nonobvious - **Fluency -** Ease with which responses are reproduced and is usually measured by the total number of responses produced - **Flexibility -** Variety of ideas presented and the ability to shirt from one approach to another - **Elaboration -** Richness of detail in a verbal explanation or pictorial display - **Convergent Thinking -** Deductive reasoning process that entails recall and consideration of facts as well as a series of logical judgments to narrow down solutions and eventually arrive at one solution - **Divergent Thinking -** Free to move in many different directions, making several solutions possible - **INDIVIDUAL TESTS VS. GROUP TESTS** - **Advantages of Individual Tests:** - Provide information beyond the test score. - Allow the examiner to observe behavior in a standard setting. - Allow individualized interpretation of test scores. - **Advantages of Group Tests[:]** - **Cost-efficient** - **Minimize professional time for administration and scoring** - **Require less examiner skill and training** - **Scoring procedures are more objective and more reliable.** - **Very broad application** - **ACHIEVEMENT VS. APTITUDE TESTS** - **Advantages of Achievement Tests:** - Used to evaluate the effects of a known or controlled set of experiences - **Advantages of Aptitude Tests:** - Used to evaluate the erects of an unknown, uncontrolled set of experience - **EXAMPLES OF GROUP ABILITY TESTS** - **Purdue Non-Language Test (PNLT)** - A test of an individual's abstract reasoning intended for industrial use. - Authors: Joseph Tiffin, Alin Grubner and Kay Inaba of the Occupational Research Center of Purdue University - 15 minutes - **Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM) -** A test of a person's capacity at the time of the test to apprehend meaningless figures presented for his observation, see the relation between them, conceive the nature of the figure completing each system of relations presented, and by doing so, develop a systematic method of reasoning. - Variations: Standard Progressive Matrices, Colored Progressive Matrices, Advanced Progressive Matrices **PERSONALITY TEST** - **PERSONALITY AND PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT** - **Personality -** Individual's unique constellation of psychological traits that is relatively stable over time - **Personality Assessment -** The measurement and evaluation of psychological traits, states, values, interests, attitudes, worldview, acculturation, sense of humor, cognitive and behavioral styles, and/or related individual characteristics - **Personality Traits -** Real physical entities that are bona fide mental structures in each personality (Allport, 1937) - **Trait -** Is a generalized and focalized neuropsychic system with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent forms of adaptive and expressive behavior - **Personality Type -** Constellation of traits that is similar in pattern to one identified category of personality within a taxonomy of personalities - **Friedman & Rosenman: Type A and Type B** - **Type A -** Competitiveness, haste, restlessness, impatience, feelings of being time pressured, and strong need for achievement **and dominance** - **Type B -** Mellow and laid-back - **Profile -** Narrative description, graph, table, or other representation of the extent to which a person has demonstrated certain targeted characteristics as a result of the administration or application of tools of assessment - **Personality Profile -** The targeted characteristics are typically traits, states, or types - **Personality State -** Inferred psychodynamic disposition designed to convey the dynamic quality of id, ego, and superego in perceptual conflict - **Woodworth Personal Data Sheet -** First personality inventory every developed during WWI - **DEVELOPING INSTRUMENTS TO ASSESS PERSONALITY** - **Self-Report -** Process wherein information about the assessment is supplied by the examinee himself - **Self-Concept Measure -** An instrument designed to yield information relevant to how an individual sees him or herself with regard to selected psychological variables - **Self-Concept Differentiation -** The degree to which a person has different self-concepts in different roles - **What is assessed when a personality assessment is conducted?** - **Response Style -** Tendency to respond to a test item or interview question in some characteristic manner regardless of the content of the item or the questions - **Impression Management -** Used to describe the attempt to manipulate others' impressions through the selective exposure of some information - **Social Desirable Response -** Present oneself in favorable light - **Acquiescence -** Agree with whatever is presented - **No acquiescence -** Disagree with whatever is presented - **Deviance -** Make unusual or uncommon response - **Extreme -** Make extreme ratings on the scale - **Gambling/Cautiousness -** Guess or not guess when in doubt - **Overly Positive -** Claim extreme virtue through self-presentation in a superlative manner - **Structured and Conducted** - **Locus of Control -** Person's perception about the source of things that happen to him or her (external or internal) - **Frame of Reference -** Defined as the aspects of the focus of exploration such as the time frame, as well as other contextual issues - **Types of Approach** - **Nomothetic Approach -** Characterized by efforts to learn how a limited number of personality traits can be applied to all people - **Idiographic Approach -** Characterized by efforts to learn about each individual's unique constellation of personality traits - **Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) -** Widely used in both clinical and research about personality assessment - **OCEAN -** Designed for use with persons 17 yrs of age and older, self-administered - **Openness -** Openness to experience, active imagination, aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, preference for variety, intellectual curiosity, independence of judgment - **Conscientiousness -** Active process of planning, organizing and following through - **Extraversion -** Taps aspects of sociability - **Agreeableness -** Altruism, sympathy, friendliness, and the belief that others are similarly inclined - **Neuroticism -** Taps the aspects of adjustment and emotional stability - **Criterion -** Standard on which a judgment or decision can be made - **Criterion Group -** Reference group of test takers who share specific characteristics and whose responses to test items serve as a standard according to which items will be included in or discarded from the final version of a scale - **Empirical Criterion Keying -** Process of using criterion groups to develop test items - **FREQUENTLY USED MEASURES OF POSITIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS** - **Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) -** Collaboration of Starke R. Hathaway and John Charnley McKinley - **Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale -**Measures global feelings of self-worth using 10 simple and straightforward statements that examinees rate on a 4-point likert scale - **General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) -** Measure an individual's belief in his or her ability to organize resources and manage situations, to persist in the face of barriers, and to recover from setbacks - **Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) -** Most widely used self-report measure of dispositional optimism, which is defined as an individual's tendency to view the world and the future in positive ways - **PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND CULTURE** - **Acculturation -** Ongoing process by which an individual's thoughts, behaviors, values, worldview, and identity develop in relation to general thinking, behavior, customs, and values of a particular cultural group - **Values -** Which an individual prizes or the ideals an individual believes in - **Instrumental Values -** Principles that help one attain some objective - **Terminal Values -** Guiding principles and a mode of behavior that is an endpoint objective - **Identity -** Set of cognitive and behavioral characteristics by which individuals define themselves as members of a particular group - **Identification -** Process by which an individual assumes a pattern of behavior characteristic of other people, and referred to it as one of the central issues that ethnic minority groups must deal with - **Worldview -** Unique way people interpret and make sense of their perceptions as a consequence of their learning experience, cultural background, and related variables - **OBJECTIVE METHODS** - Characteristically contain short-answer items for which assesses task is to select one response from the two or more provided - **Objective Personality Tests -** Typically contain no one correct answer, but the selection from multiple choice items provides info relevant to something about the test taker - **Self-report -** Subjective - **PROJECTIVE METHODS** - **Projective Hypothesis -** An individual supplies structure to unstructured stimuli in a manner consistent with the individual's own unique pattern of conscious and unconscious needs, fears, desires, impulses, conflicts, and ways of perceiving and responding - **Projective Method -** As a technique of personality assessment in which some jud