HumBeOrg FINALS Reviewer PDF

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana CHAPTER 10: Managing Conflict misinformed, interpret information differently, or disagree about which...

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana CHAPTER 10: Managing Conflict misinformed, interpret information differently, or disagree about which and Negotiating data is relevant. The Nature of Conflict Task interdependence - when one person or unit is dependent on Conflict – a disagreement through another for resources or information, which two or more parties perceive the potential for conflict increases. a threat to their interests, needs, or Organizational structure - conflict concerns (either horizontal or vertical) can Dysfunctional conflict – destructive result from structural or process conflict focused on emotions and features of the organization. differences between the two parties Constructive conflict – adaptive, positive conflict (also called Types of Conflict functional conflict). - Balances the interests of both Task conflict – a disagreement about parties to maximize mutual gains the task or goals. and the attainment of mutual Process conflict – conflict about how goals. to accomplish a task, who is - Contains elements of creativity responsible for what, and how things and adaptation. should be delegated. - Can lead to identification of new Relationship conflict – conflict due to alternatives and idea incompatibility or differences between individuals or groups Conflict of interest – conflict due to Different Sources of Conflict in Firms incompatible needs or competition Differing task goals - disagreements over perceived or actual resource over what is to be accomplished. constraints. Differing process goals - Values conflict – conflict arising from disagreements over how to perceived or actual incompatibilities accomplish tasks or goals. in belief systems. Interpersonal differences - Information conflict – conflict that differences in motivation, aspirations, occurs when people lack necessary or personality. information, are misinformed, Resource constraints - incompatible interpret information differently, or needs or competition over disagree about which information is perceived or actual resource relevant. constraints. Structural conflict – results from Change - the uncertainty of change structural or process features of the often creates conflict and changes organization. the relative importance of different Vertical conflict – occurs across organizational groups. different hierarchical levels of the Differing values - perceived or actual organization. incompatibilities in beliefs about Conflict escalation what is good or bad, right or wrong, - It begins when one party uses or fair or unfair. aggressive tactics against the Poor communication - when people other. lack necessary information, are - The more conflict escalates, the harder it is to back down. 1|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana - Results in dysfunctional conflict Glass’ Nine-Stage Model of Conflict Escalation De-Escalating Conflict Certain actions can be used to de- escalate conflict. There are other actions that should be avoided. Do ✓ Be an empathetic listener ✓ Focus your attention on the other person ✓ Use delay tactics to create time to diffuse emotions ✓ Control your body language—relax, uncross legs and arms, and make eye contact ✓ Remind both parties that a win-win solution can be found ✓ Stay focused on issues, not emotions Avoid ✓ Communicating hostility verbally or through body language De-Escalating Conflict ✓ Rejecting all requests from the start React equivalently to the other ✓ Challenging, threatening, or daring party; don’t overreact. ✓ Raising your voice Underreaction can de-escalate ✓ Blaming either party or saying conflict. anything that would cause the Set personal behavior limits at the parties to lose face start. ✓ Minimizing the situation or the Managers can model de-escalation conflict and set/enforce limits on escalating behaviors (e.g., threats, violence) 2|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Interpersonal Conflict Management Strategies Collaborating – conflict management style reflecting a desire to give both parties what they want. Compromising – conflict management style in which each side sacrifices something in order to end the conflict. Competing – pursuing one’s own interest at the expense of the other party. Conflict Management Skills Accommodating – a cooperative Best conflict resolution behaviors: conflict management style. ✓ Listening actively Avoiding – ignoring the conflict or ✓ Questioning denying that it exists ✓ Communicating nonverbally ✓ Mediating Skills include open- Figure 10.1 Interpersonal Conflict mindedness, staying Management Styles nonjudgmental and There are five general interpersonal calm, demonstrating conflict management styles. These empathy and sensitivity, differ in terms of your concerns for remaining neutral, others versus your concerns for respecting yourself. confidentiality, and showing flexibility and resiliency. Create constructive conflict. Best Conflict Resolution Behaviors: Perspective taking: Try to put yourself in the other person’s position and understand that person’s point of view. Focusing on interests rather than Figure 10.2 The Conflict Process positions: Interests could include The conflict process includes several better serving clients or increasing elements that define the direction the clarity of work expectations. By and magnitude of the conflict. focusing on the outcome, the root Disagreements, emotions, and cause of the conflict is more likely to escalation all play important roles be addressed. and suggest optimal conflict Creating solutions: Brainstorm with management strategies. the other person or group, ask questions, and try to create solutions to the problem. 3|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Expressing emotions: Talk honestly person, and trying to get revenge with the other person and express are unprofessional and disrespectful your thoughts and feelings. behaviors and will not promote Reaching out: Reach out to the conflict resolution. other party, make the first move, and Meeting separately with the people try to make amends. in conflict: Because the sole goal of Documenting: Document areas of each employee involved in a agreement and disagreement to conflict is to convince you of the ensure common understanding and merits of their own case, the parties clear communication. are likely to become more Smoothing: Playing down the committed to their positions rather differences between the two sides than committed to resolving the while emphasizing common interests. conflict if you talk to each party in Asking the parties involved in a private. conflict to identify three or four specific actions they would like the other party to take: An example of Negotiating Skills this would be saying, “I would like Negotiation – process in which two you to send me the report by noon or more parties make offers, on Wednesday so that I can meet counteroffers, and concessions in my deadline of 10 a.m. Friday.” order to reach an agreement. Distributive negotiation – any gain to one party is offset by an equivalent Worst Conflict Resolution Behaviors loss to the other party Avoiding the conflict: Avoiding or Integrative negotiation – a win–win ignoring the conflict, hoping it will negotiation in which the agreement pass, is rarely successful. involves no loss to either party Winning at all costs: Arguing 1. Separate relationship issues (or vigorously for your own opinion, “people problems”) from refusing to consider changing your substantive issues. position, and trying to win regardless 2. Focus on interests, not of the interpersonal costs are positions—negotiate about approaches that do not make for the things people need, not speedy or satisfying conflict the things they say they want. resolution. 3. Look for new solutions to the Displaying anger: Expressing anger, problem that will allow both raising your voice, and using harsh, sides to win. angry words will make the other 4. Insist on outside, objective person defensive and will slow down fairness criteria. or prevent any resolution of the conflict. Demeaning the other party: Effective Negotiation Laughing at the other person, Evaluate all sides and consider their ridiculing the other’s ideas, and using goals. sarcasm are both disrespectful and Avoid seeing the situation as an not conducive to resolving conflict. either/or proposition. Retaliating: Obstructing the other person, retaliating against the other 4|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Make sure each side knows the Arbitration – a third party who has other’s interests and perception of the authority to impose a settlement the issues. on the parties. Identify what you can and cannot Ombudsman – someone who part with. investigates complaints and Identify and use sources of leverage. mediates fair settlements between Show the other side that you aggrieved parties. understand their position. Suppress your emotions. Know your BATNA: “best alternative Chapter 11: Traditional Leadership to a negotiated agreement.” Know when to walk away. Approaches The Meaning of Leadership Cultural Issues in Negotiations Leadership is both a process and a property. Different national cultures have Leadership as a process – the different preferred negotiation styles. use of noncoercive influence Being treated disrespectfully to direct and coordinate the because of differing cultural norms activities of group members to can jeopardize negotiations. meet a goal. Intercultural negotiation requires Leadership as a property – the preparation and paying attention to: set of characteristics Issues beyond what is being attributed to those perceived negotiated. to use influence successfully The appropriateness of Influence – the ability to affect different negotiation tactics the perceptions, beliefs, The emphasis to put on attitudes, motivation, and/or developing relationships. behavior of others How to respond to deadlines Where the negotiation should Kotter’s Distinctions between Management be held. and Leadership Alternative Dispute Resolution Alternative dispute resolution – involving a third party in a negotiation to overcome a stalemate. Conciliation – a third party builds a positive relationship between the parties and directs them toward a satisfactory settlement. Mediation – an impartial third party (the mediator) facilitates a discussion using persuasion and logic, suggesting alternatives, and establishing each side’s priorities. 5|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Trait Approaches to Leadership - Ohio State leadership studies – defined leader consideration Trait approach and initiating structure Attempted to identify stable behaviors as independent and enduring character traits dimensions of leadership that differentiate effective Consideration behavior leaders from non-leaders. – involves being Identifying leadership traits. concerned with Developing methods for subordinates’ feelings measuring leadership traits. and respecting Using methods to identify and subordinates’ ideas. select leaders. Initiating structure Currently accepted limited set of behavior – involves leadership traits: clearly defining leader– Emotional intelligence subordinate roles so that Drive subordinates know what Motivation is expected of them. Honesty and integrity Self-confidence Figure 11.1 Early Behavioral Approaches to Cognitive ability Leadership Knowledge of the business Two of the first behavioral Charisma approaches to leadership were the Behavioral Approaches to Leadership Michigan and Ohio State studies Behavioral approach – tried to identify behaviors that differentiated effective leaders from non-leaders. - Michigan leadership studies – defined job-centered and employee centered leadership as opposite ends of a single leadership dimension Job-centered leader The Leadership Grid (originally Managerial behavior – involves Grid) paying close attention Identifies five leadership styles to the work of reflecting different combinations of subordinates, explaining concern for people and concern for work procedures, and production. demonstrating a strong Provides a means for evaluating interest in performance. leadership styles and then training Employee-centered managers to move toward an ideal leader behavior – style of behavior. involves attempting to In its most current version: build effective work The horizontal axis represents groups with high concern for production. performance goals Vertical axis represents concern for people 6|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana approaches to leadership. The Figure 11.2 The Leadership Grid continuum identifies seven levels of leadership, which range between the The Leadership Grid is a method of extremes of boss-centered and evaluating leadership styles. The subordinate-centered leadership. overall objective of an organization using the Grid is to train its managers using organizational development techniques so that they are simultaneously more concerned for both people and production (9,9 style on the Grid). Task versus Relationship Motivation LPC theory of leadership Suggests that a leader’s effectiveness depends on the situation. Tries to reconcile and explain leader personality and situation complexity. Assumes a task or relationship focus for leaders. Uses least-preferred coworker (LPC) – scale presumed to measure a leader’s motivation High LPC leaders are more concerned with interpersonal Situational Leadership Models relationships. Situational models Low LPC leaders are more concerned with task-relevant Differ from traits models and behavior problems. models. Assume that appropriate leader behavior varies from one situation to Situational Favorableness another situation. Seek to identify how key situational Three factors measure situational factors interact to determine favorableness to help determine appropriate leader behavior. proper leadership focus: Leader–member relations The leadership continuum model (high importance) - Reflect the Proposed by Tannenbaum and Schmidt quality of personal Laid the foundation for research in this relationship, level of trust. field Task structure (moderate importance) - Favors more Figure 11.3 Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Leadership structured tasks Continuum Leader position power (low importance) - Power inherent The Tannenbaum and Schmidt in leader’s role itself. leadership continuum was an important precursor to modern situational 7|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Table 11.2 The LPC Theory of Leadership Figure 11.4 The Path–Goal Theory of Leadership The path-goal theory of leadership specifies four kinds of leader behavior: directive, supportive, participative, and achievement- oriented. Leaders are advised to vary their behaviors in response to Basic Premises and Leader Behaviors such situational factors as personal characteristics of subordinates and Path–goal theory of leadership environmental characteristics. suggests that effective leaders clarify the paths (behaviors) that will lead to desired rewards (goals). Argues that subordinates are motivated by their leader to the extent that the leader’s behaviors influence their expectancies. Identifies types of leader behaviors: ✓ Directive Vroom’s Decision Tree Approach ✓ Supportive Attempts to prescribe how much ✓ Participative participation subordinates should be ✓ Achievement-oriented allowed in making decisions Basic premises: Situational characteristics Situational Factors determine the degree to Personal characteristics of subordinates which subordinates should be encouraged to participate in Locus of control decision making. Perceived ability Managers can choose Environmental characteristics that cause between two decision trees. uncertainty Managers can adopt the endpoint decision styles. Task structure The formal authority system The primary work group Levels of Subordinate Participation Leader behavior will motivate subordinates if Decide: The manager makes the it helps them cope with environmental decision alone and then announces uncertainty or “sells” it to the group. Delegate: The manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then develop a solution. 8|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Consult (individually): The manager Figure 11.6 Vroom’s Development-Driven presents the program to group Decision Tree members individually, obtains their This matrix is to be used when the suggestions, and then makes the leader is more interested in decision. developing employees than in Consult (group): The manager making the decision quickly. Just as presents the problem to group with the time-driven tree shown in members at a meeting, gets their Figure 11.5, the leader assesses up to suggestions, and then makes the seven situational factors. These decision. factors, in turn, funnel the leader to a Facilitate: The manager presents the recommended process for making problem to the group at a meeting, the decision. defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as members make the decision. Figure 11.5 Vroom’s Time-Driven Decision Tree This matrix is recommended for situations in which time is the highest importance in making a decision. Start at the left with a specific decision problem in mind. The Chapter 14: Organizational column headings denote situational factors present (or not) in that Structure and Design problem. Progress by selecting High Organizational Design and Structure or Low (H or L) for each relevant situational factor. Proceed down Organizational design from the funnel, judging only those the process of selecting and situational factors for which a managing aspects of organizational judgment is called for, until you structure and culture to enable the reach the recommended process. organization to achieve its goals. Organizational structure the formal system of task, power, and reporting relationships. Influences employee behavior by enabling or restricting communication, teamwork, and cooperation as well as intergroup relationships. Organizational chart diagram of the chain of command and reporting relationships in a company. 9|Page  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Figure 14.1 Organizational Chart— Narrow Span of Control An organizational chart illustrates the chain of command and reporting relationships in a company. If the Organizational Structures span of control in an organization is relatively narrow, as shown here, the Centralized organization organization tends to have more Power and decision-making levels. That is, it is relatively “tall.” authority concentrated at higher levels. Clear lines of communication and responsibility. Decision implementation tends to be straightforward. Decentralized organization Lower levels have more autonomy and authority for making decisions. Flatter structures, less need for middle management. Characteristics of Organizational Structure Promotes product innovation Division of labor: the extent to which and faster decision making. employees specialize or generalize Best for nonroutine tasks in a Span of control: the number of complex environment people reporting directly to an Mechanistic and Organic Designs individual Hierarchy: the degree to which Mechanistic organization some employees have formal Rigid, traditional bureaucracy. authority over others Hierarchical communication. Formalization: the extent to which Uniform job descriptions. organizational rules, procedures, and May minimize costs. communications are written down Slow to capitalize on new and closely followed opportunities Centralization: the degree to which Organic organization power and decision-making Flexible, decentralized. authority are concentrated at higher Open communication levels of the organization rather than channels. distributed Focus on adaptability. Faster response to market and competitive changes. Figure 14.2 Organizational Chart— Wide Span May increase job satisfaction of Control and commitment When an organization uses a relatively wider span of control, such as the organization illustrated here, its structure has fewer levels, and it tends to be somewhat “flat.” 10 | P a g e  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Figure 14.3 Nordstrom’s Employee Handbook structure with large managerial span of control. Nordstrom’s has long been a pioneer Continuous production – in retailing. For years, its new machines constantly make the employees received a “handbook” product. Employees monitor consisting of a simple gray card the machines and plan containing 75 words. changes. Tall and thin structure, or possibly an inverted pyramid Table 14.2 What Influences Organizational Structure? Figure 14.4 Mechanistic/Organic Continuum While it is useful to describe mechanistic and organic forms of organizational structure, in reality, all organizations fall somewhere between these two extreme forms. Indeed, as shown here, we can think of mechanistic and organic characteristics as anchoring a Early Organizational Structures continuum. Prebureaucratic structure – smaller organizations with low standardization, total centralization, and mostly one-on-one communication. Bureaucratic structure – organizational structure with formal division of labor, hierarchy, and standardization of work procedures. Bases for grouping employees into Business Strategy subunits: Employee knowledge and skills Business strategy should be matched Business function to organizational structure for best Work process performance. Output Production technology: Client Unit production – producing in Location small batches or making one- of-a-kind custom products. Structures Based on Groupings Flat structure with low Functional structure managerial span of control. Mass production – producing Groups people with the same skills or large volumes of identical who use similar tools or work products. Tall, bureaucratic processes into departments. 11 | P a g e  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana Works well in stable environments. Figure 14.5 Organizational Chart—Matrix Potential for poor coordination and Structure communication A matrix structure is created by Division combining a functional structure with a project or product team A collection of functions organized structure. In a matrix structure, around a particular geographic individuals usually report to more area, product or service, or market. than one boss at the same time— Improves communication. their functional supervisor and a Enables flexibility. project or product team leader Reduces economies of scale Matrix structure Employees report to both a project or product team leader and to a functional manager. Generates complex reporting relationships. Enables quick responses and more effective decision making Team-based structure Virtual Organizations Horizontal or vertical teams define an organization that contracts out part or all of the organization. almost all of its functions except for Best when collaboration and inputs the company name and managing from several functional areas are the coordination among the required. contractors Often uses virtual teams linked Lattice structure by technology. Cross-functional and crosslevel Tends to be complex. subteams are formed and dissolved Formal contracts and legal as necessary to complete specific agreements can help projects and tasks. manage relationships. Typical in consulting organizations. Reduced costs and increased Minimal hierarchy. flexibility create competitive advantage. Network organization Integrating Employees A collection of autonomous units or firms that act as a single larger entity, Segments employees into divisions, using social mechanisms for functional areas, or groups. coordination and control. Direct contact – managers Requires much coordination and from different units informally control. work together to coordinate or to identify and solve shared problems. Liaison role – a manager or team member is held formally accountable for 12 | P a g e  HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS First Semester Finals Reviewer Transcript By: Justin Lloyd Laxamana communicating and Restructuring is stressful and coordinating with other can be demotivating if groups. changes are poorly Task force – a temporary communicated. committee formed to address Employees who survive a specific project or problem. downsizing suffer stress, Cross-functional team – a decreased commitment, and permanent task force created higher turnover intentions. to address specific problems Needs to focus on positioning the or recurring needs. organization for the future and to address the real cause of whatever Communities of Practice the organization wants to change. groups of people whose shared expertise and interest in a joint enterprise informally bind them together. People involved share their knowledge and experiences in open, creative ways. Rarely shown on organizational charts. Often span company boundaries. Cultivated by identifying and bringing the right people together, building trust, and providing an appropriate infrastructure Enabling Knowledge Networks Start with a clear area of business need. Start small. Recruit management involvement. Use technology that supports the community’s needs and that community members are able to use and are comfortable using. Respect and build on informal employee initiatives already underway. Celebrate contributions and build on small successes. Effects of Restructuring on Performance Can improve a struggling firm’s performance. Not a cure-all. 13 | P a g e