Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology 11th Edition PDF

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  180° 160°W 140°W 120°W 100°W...

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  180° 160°W 140°W 120°W 100°W 80°W 60°W 40°W 20°W 0 80°N GREENLAND (KALAALLIT NUNAAT) (Den.) Caribou Eskimo ARCTIC CIRCLE ALASKA (U.S.) Netsilik Eskimo ICELAND 60°N UNITED CANADA KINGDOM IRELAND Northwest Coast Peoples Cree Gros Ventre F Huron S Crow Sioux Iroquois UNITED STATES Seneca 40°N Shoshone Delaware Yana PORTUGAL SPAIN Mohave Cheyenne AZORE IS. Walapai Navajo Hopi Zuni Kiowa Osage Cherokee Atlantic (Port.) O Apache Comanche Ocean CC CANARY IS. RO (Sp.) O M TROPIC OF CANCER BAHAMAS MEXICO Haitians 20°N Hawaiians Maya CUBA DOMINICAN REP. HAITI MALI HAWAII Aztec ANTIGUA & BARBUDA CAPE VERDE IS. MAURITANIA (U.S.) BELIZE HONDURAS JAMAICA PUERTO RICO (U.S.) GUADELOUPE (Fr.) Yor DOMINICA GUATEMALA Garifuna NETHERLANDS MARTINIQUE (Fr.) ANTILLES (Neth.) GAMBIA SENEGAL NICARAGUA BARBADOS BURKINA EL SALVADOR GRENADA FASO GUINEA BISSAU GUINEA Pacific TRINIDAD & TOBAGO GHA NA COSTA RICA IVORY VENEZUELA SIERRA LEONE COAST Ocean SURINAME GU YA N PANAMA FRENCH GUIANA LIBERIA COLOMBIA (Fr.) Saramaka EQUATORIAL A 0° EQUATOR Yanomamö Ashanti GALAPAGOS IS. ECUADOR (Ecuador) Jivaro Campa BRAZIL Kayapo WESTERN Samoans SAMOA Inca Tukano Atlantic AMERICAN FRENCH PERU SAMOA (U.S.) SOCIETY IS. (Fr.) POLYNESIA Tahitians (Fr.) BOLIVIA Ocean TONGA TAHITI (Fr.) 20°S Tongans PA R A TROPIC OF CAPRICORN G Easter Islanders UA PITCAIRN IS. CHILE Y (U.K.) EASTER ISLAND (Chile) URUGUAY ARGENTINA 40°S 0 500 1000 1500 miles FALKLAND IS. (U.K.) 0 1000 2000 km Equatorial Scale 60°S ANTARCTIC CIRCLE 80°S 180° 160°W 140°W 120°W 100°W 80°W 60°W 40°W 20°W 0 Locations of peoples discussed in Humanity Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 11 EDITION HUMANITY AN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY James Peoples Ohio Wesleyan University Garrick Bailey University of Tulsa Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States CHAPTER 11 Gender in Comparative Perspective i Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural © 2018, 2015 Cengage Learning Anthropology, Eleventh Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright James Peoples and Garrick Bailey herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, Product Director: Marta Lee-Perriard except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Product Manager: Elizabeth Beiting-Lipps Content Developer: Chrystie Hopkins, Unless otherwise noted all content is © Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203  BRIEF CONTENTS 1 The Study of Humanity 1 Part I Humanity, Culture, and Language 20 2 Culture 20 3 Culture and Language 45 4 Cultural Diversity and Globalization 66 Part II Theories and Methods of Cultural Anthropology 91 5 The Development of Anthropological Thought 91 6 Methods of Investigation 117 Part III The Diversity of Culture 134 7 Culture and Nature: Interacting with the Environment 134 8 Exchange in Economic Systems 166 9 Marriages and Families 189 10 Kinship and Descent 217 11 Gender in Comparative Perspective 240 12 The Organization of Political Life 269 13 Social Inequality and Stratification 291 14 Religion and Worldview 312 15 Art and the Aesthetic 342 Part IV Anthropology in the Global Community 362 16 Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict 362 17 World Problems and the Practice of Anthropology 385 iii Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 CONTENTS Preface x Cultural Anthropology Today 10 About the Authors xv Anthropological Perspectives on Cultures 12 Holistic Perspective 12 1 The Study of Humanity 1 Comparative Perspective 13 Relativistic Perspective 14 Subfields of Anthropology 2 Biological/Physical Anthropology 3 Some Lessons of Anthropology 17 Archaeology 6 Concept Review Primary Interests of the Four Cultural Anthropology 7 Subfields of Anthropology 3 Anthropological Linguistics 8 Global Challenges and Opportunities Applications of Anthropology 9 The Process of Globalization 12 Applied Anthropology 9 Summary 18 Careers in Anthropology 10 Part I Humanity, Culture, and Language 2 Culture 20 Origins of Culture 37 Culture and Human Life 38 Introducing Culture 21 Cultural Knowledge and Individual Defining Culture 23 Behavior 39 Shared 23 Is Behavior Culturally Determined? 39 Socially Learned 25 Why Does Behavior Vary? 39 Knowledge 28 Patterns of Behavior 29 Biology and Cultural Differences 40 Cultural Knowledge 30 Cultural Universals 42 Norms 30 Global Challenges and Opportunities Values 31 Is Everyone Becoming a Westerner? 26 Symbols 32 Concept Review Components of Cultural Classifications and Constructions of Reality 33 Knowledge 30 Worldviews 36 Summary 44 iv Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  3 Culture and Language 45 4 Cultural Diversity Language and Humanity 46 and Globalization 66 The Power of Language 47 Cultural Change and Diversity 67 Discreteness 47 The World Before Globalization 69 Productivity 48 Globalization 71 Arbitrariness 48 Displacement 48 Early European Expansion 74 Multimedia Potential 49 The Americas 74 Africa 75 How Language Works 50 Asia 75 Sound Systems 51 Early Consequences of Cultural Contact 76 Words and Meanings 51 The Industrial Revolution 79 Germanics, Romantics, and Native English 53 Europe and the Americas 79 Communication and Social Behavior 54 Asia 80 Nonverbal Communication 54 Africa 80 Speech and Social Context 55 Oceania 80 The Language of Power 59 Cultural Consequences of European Expansion 81 Language and Culture 60 Language as a Reflection of Culture 60 The Global Economy 85 Language, Perceptions, and Worldview 62 Concept Review Sources of Cultural Concept Review Five Properties of Language 49 Change 68 Global Challenges and Opportunities Global Challenges and Opportunities Globalization and Language 56 The New African Peoples of the Americas 82 Summary 64 Summary 89 Part Ii Theories and Methods of Cultural Anthropology 5 The Development of Anthropological Thought Today 105 Scientific Approaches 105 Anthropological Thought 91 Humanistic Approaches 108 The Emergence of Anthropology 92 Either, Or, or Both? 113 Nineteenth-Century Unilineal Evolutionism 94 Why Can’t All Those Anthropologists A Science of Culture? 96 Agree? 114 Anthropological Thought in the Early Twentieth Global Challenges and Opportunities Century 97 Global Anthropology 103 Historical Particularism in the United States Concept Review Main Contrasts (1900–1940s) 97 Between Scientific and Humanistic British Functionalism (1920s–1960s) 100 Approaches 113 The Fieldwork Tradition 101 Summary 115 Mid–Twentieth Century: Rebirth of Evolutionism 104 contents v Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 6 Methods of Investigation 117 Cross-Cultural Comparisons 128 Controlled Comparisons 130 Ethnographic Methods 118 Global Challenges and Opportunities Ethnographic Fieldwork 118 The Changing Relationship Between Problems and Issues in Field Research 120 Anthropologists and Indigenous Peoples 122 Fieldwork as a Rite of Passage 125 Concept Review Methods of Ethnohistory 126 Investigation 132 Comparative Methods 128 Summary 132 Part Iii The Diversity of Culture 7 Culture and Nature: Interacting 8 Exchange in Economic with the Environment 134 Systems 166 Understanding Interactions with Nature 135 Economic Systems 167 Hunting and Gathering 137 Reciprocity 169 Foraging and Culture 138 Generalized Reciprocity 169 What Happened to Hunters and Gatherers? 141 Balanced Reciprocity 170 Domestication of Plants and Animals 143 Negative Reciprocity 172 Origins of Domestication: Wheres and Whens 144 Reciprocity and Social Distance 173 Advantages and Costs of Cultivation 146 Redistribution 173 Horticulture 147 Market 175 Varieties of Horticulture 148 Money 175 Cultural Consequences of Horticulture 149 Market Exchange 177 Intensive Agriculture 150 Market Economies and Capitalism 177 Varieties of Intensive Agriculture 151 Productivity 181 Cultural Consequences of Intensive Agriculture 151 Globalization and Markets 182 Pastoralism 153 Concept Review Three Forms of Exchange in Economic Systems 169 Nature and Culture in Preindustrial Times 156 Global Challenges and Opportunities Industrialism 157 Globalization of Indigenous Products 184 Energy and Society 158 Summary 188 Consequences of Industrialism 158 Globalization of Industrialism 159 9 Marriages and Families 189 Globalization and the Environment 161 Some Definitions 190 Concept Review Major Forms of Preindustrial Adaptations and Their Cultural Incest Taboos 192 Consequences 157 Marriage 195 Global Challenges and Opportunities Defining Marriage 195 Who Should Pay to Reduce Global Warming? 162 Functions of Marriage 197 Summary 164 Two Unusual Forms 198 vi contents Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  Variations in Marriage Beliefs Who’s an Aunt? Varieties and Practices 199 of Kinship Terminology 234 Marriage Rules 199 Why Do Terminologies Differ? 236 How Many Spouses? 200 Where’s Our Backbone? 238 Polygyny 201 Global Challenges and Opportunities Polyandry 205 Patrilineality and Globalization in China 222 Marriage Alliances 206 Concept Review Forms of Descent Marital Exchanges 207 and Kinship 231 Bridewealth 207 Summary 239 Brideservice 208 Dowry 208 11 Gender in Comparative Same-Sex Marriage and the Culture Wars 209 Perspective 240 Postmarital Residence Patterns 211 Sex and Gender 241 Influences on Residence Patterns 212 Cultural Construction of Gender 242 Residence and Households 213 The Hua of Papua New Guinea 243 Kinship Diagrams 213 North American Constructions 244 Family and Household Forms 214 Multiple Gender Identities 245 Matrifocal Households 214 Native American Two Spirits 245 Extended Households 214 Hijra of Hindu India 248 Changes in Gender Identity Attitudes Concept Review Terms for Kinship and Language 249 Groups 191 The Gendered Division of Labor 250 Global Challenges and Opportunities Marriage and Family in Global Society: Understanding Major Patterns 251 The Case of Japan 202 Understanding Variability 256 Summary 216 Gender Stratification 258 Is Gender Stratification Universal? 259 10 Kinship and Descent 217 Influences on Gender Stratification 262 Gender Stratification in Modern Societies 267 Introducing Kinship 218 Concept Review Female and Male Differences Why Study Kinship? 218 Affecting Division of Labor 253 Cultural Variations in Kinship 219 Global Challenges and Opportunities Unilineal Descent 220 Bridal Photos in Taiwan: Globalization Unilineal Descent Groups 224 and Localization 264 Descent Groups in Action 226 Summary 267 Nonunilineal Descent 229 Bilateral Kinship 229 12 The Organization Cognatic Descent 230 of Political Life 269 Influences on Kinship Systems 231 Forms of Political Organization 270 Cultural Construction of Kinship 233 Bands 271 Logic of Cultural Constructions 233 Tribes 273 contents vii Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203  Chiefdoms 275 14 Religion and Worldview 312 States 276 Inca Empire 277 Defining Religion 313 Beliefs About Supernatural Powers 313 Social Control and Law 281 Myths and Worldviews 314 Social Control 282 Rituals and Symbols 315 Law 282 Theories of Religion 316 Legal Systems 283 Intellectual or Cognitive Approaches 317 Self-Help Systems 283 Psychological Approaches 318 Court Systems 286 Sociological Approaches 320 Concept Review Political Organizations 271 Will Religion Disappear? 322 Global Challenges and Opportunities Supernatural Explanations Multinational Corporations Versus National of Misfortune 323 Governments 278 Sorcery 324 Concept review Legal systems 283 Witchcraft 324 Summary 289 Interpretations of Sorcery and Witchcraft 325 13 Social Inequality Varieties of Religious Organization 327 and Stratification 291 Individualistic Organizations 328 Shamanistic Organizations 329 Equalities and Inequalities 292 Communal Organizations 331 Three Systems 293 Ecclesiastical Organizations 333 Egalitarian Societies 294 Revitalization Movements 336 Ranked Societies 295 Melanesian Cargo Cults 336 Stratified Societies 296 Native American Movements 337 Castes in Traditional India 297 Fate of Revitalization Movements 340 Class in the United States 300 Concept Review Varieties of Religious Maintaining Inequality 303 Organization 328 Ideologies 304 Global Challenges and Opportunities American Secular Ideologies 305 Religious Diversity in the United States 338 Theories of Inequality 307 Summary 341 Functionalist Theory 307 Conflict Theory 308 15 Art and the Aesthetic 342 Who Benefits? 310 The Pervasiveness of Art 345 Concept Review Systems of Equality Forms of Artistic Expression 345 and Inequality 293 Body Arts 346 Global Challenges and Opportunities Visual Arts 349 Globalization and Inequality in China 298 Performance Arts 352 Summary 311 Art and Culture 355 Secular and Religious Art 355 viii contents Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. 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WCN 02-200-203  Art and Gender 357 Global Challenges and Opportunities Social Functions of Art 357 The Market Economy and Traditional Visual Arts 358 Concept Review Forms of Artistic Expression 345 Summary 361 Part Iv Anthropology in the Global Community 16 Ethnicity and Ethnic Medical Anthropology 386 Scientific Medicine Conflict 362 and Traditional Healing 387 Ethnic Groups 364 Population Growth 389 Situational Nature of Ethnic Identity 364 Anthropological Perspectives Attributes of Ethnic Groups 365 on Population Growth 389 Fluidity of Ethnic Groups 367 Costs and Benefits of Children in LDCs 390 Types of Ethnic Groups 368 World Hunger 392 Civilizations 369 Scarcity or Inequality? 392 The Problem of Stateless Nationalities 370 Is Technology Transfer the Answer? 394 Conflict in Northern Ireland Agricultural Alternatives 396 and in Israel and Palestine 370 Anthropologists as Advocates 397 Conflict Between Ethnic Nationalities and Polit- Indigenous Peoples Today 398 ical Boundaries 371 Vanishing Knowledge 403 Responses to Ethnic Conflict 376 Medicines We Have Learned 404 Homogenization 377 Adaptive Wisdom 404 Segregation 379 Cultural Alternatives 406 Accommodation 379 Global Challenges and Opportunities Results 380 The Question of Development 407 Consequences of Globalization 383 Summary 408 Concept Review Levels of Ethnic Identity 369 Global Challenges and Opportunities Glossary 410 The Global Economy, Migration, and Notes 417 Transnational Communities 372 Bibliography 426 Concept Review Responses to Ethnic Differences 381 People and Cultures Index 438 Summary 384 Subject Index 443 17 World Problems and the Practice of Anthropology 385 Applied Anthropology 386 Health and Health Care 386 contents ix Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Preface P erhaps it is presumptuous to title any textbook Humanity. The authors chose this title back in 1985, when we began working on the first edition. We thought Humanity captures the distinctive feature of anthropology—that it studies all the world’s peoples, Finally, we want students and other newcomers to anthropology to grasp the full significance of the old- est anthropological lesson of all: that their own values, beliefs, and actions are a product of their upbringing in a particular human group rather than universal among including those who lived in the prehistoric past, the all peoples. If understood properly and applied seri- historic past, and the present day, as well as peoples ously, this principle leads individuals to question un- who live in every world region. conscious assumptions and to view themselves as well As a scholarly discipline, anthropology is very broad as other peoples through the complicated lens of cul- in its scope and interests. Several generations of an- tural relativism. thropologists have discovered a vast amount of infor- Globalization has become an increasingly impor- mation about the human species. Paleoanthropologists tant theme throughout the last several editions. Each are currently uncovering fossils and unwinding genetic of the 17 chapters includes a feature on globalization, relationships that show how and when the human spe- choosing a topic that is relevant for the chapter’s con- cies originated and evolved into modern Homo sapiens. tent. Features in various chapters deal with issues Archaeologists are still digging into information about such as how globalization affects cultural diversity, how prehistoric peoples lived their lives. language survival, global warming, family and mar- Another subfield, cultural anthropology, is the main riage practices, inequality among nations, religious subject of this book. Research done by cultural an- diversity in the United States, production and sale of thropologists (fieldwork) often involves years of study art, and cultural and religious fundamentalism. Some while living among some human community. Cultural discussions are primarily case studies, whereas others anthropology describes and explains or interprets the present anthropological insights into the process or fascinating cultural variability of the world’s peoples. In the results of globalization. Most chapters contain ma- this text, we try to convey to students the life-enriching terial that is relevant for modern North America, such and the educational value of discovering this variability. as climate change, recent changes in family life and In the process, we hope students and other readers marriage practices, gender inequality, and religious will experience a change in their attitudes about other accommodation. cultures, about their own lives and nations, and about humanity in general. We also hope the book leads readers to think about New to the Eleventh Edition their own identities as individuals, as members of a To those instructors who are previous users of particular society with its traditions and ways of think- Humanity, the following summarizes the major changes ing and acting, and as participants in an increasingly in the eleventh edition. worldwide human community. To achieve this last Chapter 1 still introduces the four subdisciplines goal, we discuss anthropological insights into some and discusses the importance of anthropological per- current problems, such as ethnic conflicts, national spectives, methods, and factual knowledge about cul- and global inequalities, hunger, religious intolerance, tural diversity. We have included new information on and the survival of indigenous cultures and languages. human evolution. While retaining coverage of applied As we describe the diversity in humanity’s cultures, we anthropology, we’ve updated the section on careers. We suggest the implications of such diversity for contem- emphasize recent changes in anthropological interests porary people and societies. and in research in modern societies and globalization. x Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 To illustrate the complexity of the relativistic perspec- provides information referred to extensively later in tive, we add a new example of a Jarawa custom while the book. retaining the example of female genital mutilation. In Chapter 8 (exchange) we include a new introduc- The topical structure and themes of Chapter 2 tory vignette on the origin of credit cards to enhance (culture) are intact. We continue to integrate terms student interest in the general topic. In covering reci- like cultural identity, subcultures, roles, and social procity, redistribution, and market exchange forms, we learning into an extended discussion of culture, with provide examples of each in the United States, using a the goal of demonstrating that the concept of culture new example of the Affordable Care Act to illustrate is more complicated than most people realize. New political arguments over redistribution. We move on to material appears in the section titled “The Origins of describe capitalist economies, distinguishing between Culture.” neoliberal/laissez-faire and social welfare capitalism Chapter 3 (language) retains coverage of the dis- and their strengths and weaknesses. We have also tinctive characteristics of language, structural linguis- added new material on global markets in the Global tics, English’s incorporation of Native American words, Challenges and Opportunities feature. sociolinguistics, and the relationship between culture In Chapter 9 (marriage and family), this edition in- and language. Recent material appears about the use cludes the standard textbook topical structure: family of language to acquire and enhance power, using ex- forms, incest taboos, problems of defining marriage, amples from political speech in the American 2016 marriage forms and their implications, marital trans- presidential campaign. The section titled “Language, actions, postmarital residence patterns, and household Perceptions, and Worldview” now has a new and pro- forms. We have deleted the discussion of the avuncu- vocative argument about how verb forms might affect local residence pattern to make room for an extensive savings rates in countries with similar socioeconomic revision of the section “Same-Sex Marriage and the conditions. We again emphasize relationships among Culture Wars,” which includes recent court decisions culture, language, thought, and behavior over the tech- and reactions to them. We argue that anthropology’s nical aspects of linguistics. relativistic and comparative perspective offer signifi- Chapter 4 (cultural diversity and globalization) pro- cant contributions to these topics. vides the historical and cultural context for later chap- Chapter 10 (kinship) also is standard, covering ters that discuss diversity among the world’s peoples. forms of descent and kinship, influences on these We have updated sections, added a new Concept forms, and kinship terminologies, with examples of Review, and expanded the coverage of the globalization each topic. We give terminological systems as exam- of academic training. ples of cultural constructions introduced in Chapter 2. Chapter 5 (theory) continues its focus on two main The chapter concludes by discussing the implications areas: (1) historical contacts between the West and of cultural diversity for recent and future changes in Others that gave rise to anthropology, and (2) dis- marriage, family, and kinship forms and relationships. tinctions between contemporary approaches, which The topics for Chapter 11 (gender) are unchanged we categorize (broadly) as scientific and humanistic. from the last two editions. We have added new infor- Where appropriate, we apply this distinction to ma- mation about how recognition of the complexity of gen- terial in other chapters by stating the interpretations or der identity affects language, going beyond the obvious explanations each broad approach would offer. LGBTQIA to include new child naming practices. The Chapter 6 (methods) distinguishes between the ethnographic examples remain, but we have condensed methods and goals of the main ways anthropologists some to reduce the length. Again, we suggest the rele- learn about humanity: fieldwork and comparisons. vance of anthropological evidence about diversity and Generally ethnographic fieldwork is the primary anthropological theorizing to modern life. method used to describe a given people, in time and In Chapter 12 (political life), portions of the Global space, whereas comparative methods are an essential Challenges and Opportunities feature have been ex- part of efforts to explain or generalize. panded to include shell companies and tax haven coun- In Chapter 7 (culture and environment) we updated tries; our discussion includes an examination of how some factual material, including dates for the begin- these situations have allowed companies to increase nings and spread of agriculture and information about their global economic power. the 2015 Paris Accords on climate change. We have Chapter 13 (inequality and stratification) begins rewritten sections to clarify their meaning and wider with a new vignette about the contrasting ideas of implications. Like Chapters 2, 4, and 5, this chapter Bernie Sanders and Donald Trump about economic pref ace xi Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 inequality. After describing contrasts between egali- Several pedagogical aids are intended to help stu- tarian, ranked, and stratified (including caste) societ- dents understand and retain the material they have ies, the chapter moves into stratification in the United just read. Each chapter begins with a set of five to eight States. We update numerical data on the distribution Learning Objectives that focus on the key concepts, of income and wealth in the United States, including ideas, and themes of the chapter. The learning objec- numbers that bring home the extent to which eco- tives are tied to the end-of-chapter Summary. We nomic inequalities have increased since 1980. The hope this helps students come away with a solid under- distinction between religious and secular ideologies is standing of the main points of each chapter. applied to ideas and beliefs in the United States and the We continue to include at least one Concept West. After discussing the strengths and weaknesses Review in the chapters to condense ideas and make of the functionalist and conflict theories, we attempt sharp distinctions in just a few words. A Glossary to apply them to modern industrial society. We up- again is included at the end of the book. Key Terms in dated numerical data in the Global Challenges and bold are defined immediately at the bottom of the page Opportunities feature on China. where students first encounter them in the chapter. In Chapter 14 (religion), in the “Sociological Anthropology is a highly visual discipline, and Approaches” section, we added Richard Sosis’s idea that Humanity holds to the highest standards in providing costly rituals function to demonstrate commitment to photographs, figures, and maps to illustrate the text. group values and norms, noting its consistency with the Maps on the inside front cover show the location of evolutionary psychology general theory (discussed in peoples and cultures mentioned in the book. Chapter 5) For each theoretical approach we note that There are two indexes, one a traditional subject in- religion creates as many cognitive, psychological, social dex and the other a list of peoples and cultures men- problems as it allegedly alleviates. There is an entirely tioned in the book. new section titled “Will Religion Disappear?” The section “Varieties of Religious Organization” now discusses the complexities of attempting to classify the great variety of Resources humanity’s religions into only a few forms or categories. Student Resources The introductory discussion of art has been rewrit- CourseMate. The CourseMate for Peoples and Bailey’s ten in Chapter 15 (art), otherwise the chapter is basically Humanity, eleventh edition, brings course concepts to the same with the exception of the Global Challenges life with interactive learning, study, and exam prepara- and Opportunities feature. This new box addresses the tion tools that support the printed textbook. Access an question of how increased integration into the global integrated MindTap e-book, glossary, quizzes, videos, economy and less expensive machine-made goods are and more in the CourseMate for Humanity, eleventh changing the artistic visual traditions associated with edition. Go to CengageBrain.com to register or pur- handmade items. chase access. Additions to Chapter 16 (ethnicity) include new and updated information on ethnic conflicts in the Instructor Resources modern world. Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank. This Chapter 17 (world problems and the practice of online supplement offers learning objectives, chapter anthropology) continues to discuss anthropological outlines and summaries, key terms, suggested sup- insights on health and health care, population growth, plementary lectures, discussion questions, and more. and world hunger. We have also updated the seemingly The instructor’s manual also includes updated refer- unending struggles of people like the San, Dongria ences to relevant news articles, films, and videos for Kondh, and Kayapo to protect their lands. each chapter. The test bank provides approximately 40 multiple-choice, 15 true/false, and 5 essay ques- tions per chapter. Special Features Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero. The boxed features called A Closer Look are eliminated A flexible, online system, Cognero allows you to au- in this edition, in the interest of space and continuity. thor, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Each chapter still contains a feature on globalization, Cengage Learning solutions. Cognero also offers you titled Global Challenges and Opportunities, a label the ability to create multiple tests in an instant and de- that reflects the focus of most of their content. A photo liver them from your LMS, your classroom, or wher- accompanies each feature. ever you want! xii Preface Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  Online PowerPoint Slides. These vibrant, fourth, delivers an excellent introduction to the field of Microsoft PowerPoint lecture slides for each chapter anthropology and the contributions it makes to under- will assist you with your lecture by providing concept standing the world around us. coverage using images, figures, and tables directly from Human–Environment Interactions: New the textbook. Directions in Human Ecology. This module by Kathy CourseReader: Anthropology. CourseReader: Galvin begins with a brief discussion of the history Anthropology is a fully customizable online reader that and core concepts of the field of human ecology and provides access to hundreds of readings and audio and the study of how humans interact with the natural en- video selections from multiple disciplines. This easy- vironment. It then looks in-depth at how the environ- to-use solution allows you to select exactly the content ment influences cultural practices (environmental de- you need for your courses and is loaded with conve- terminism), as well as how aspects of culture, in turn, nient pedagogical features like highlighting, printing, affect the environment. Human behavioral ecology is note taking, and audio downloads. You have the free- presented within the context of natural selection and dom to assign individualized content at an affordable how ecological factors influence the development of price. The CourseReader: Anthropology is the perfect cultural and behavioral traits, and how people subsist complement to any class. in different environments. The module concludes with The Wadsworth Anthropology Video Library a discussion of resilience and global change as a result Volumes I–IV. Enhance your lectures with new video of human–environment interactions. This module, in clips from the BBC Motion Gallery and CBS News. chapter-like print format, can be packaged for free with Addressing topics from the four fields, these videos are the text. divided into short segments, perfect for introducing Medical Anthropology in Applied Perspective key concepts with footage sourced from some of the Module. This freestanding module is actually a com- most remarkable collections in the world. plete text chapter, featuring the same quality of peda- AIDS in Africa DVD. Expand your students’ global gogy and written content in Cengage’s cultural anthro- perspective of HIV/AIDS with this award-winning doc- pology texts. See your sales representative for informa- umentary series focused on controlling HIV/AIDS in tion on bundling the module with this text. southern Africa. Films focus on caregivers in the faith community; how young people share messages of hope through song and dance; the relationship of HIV/AIDS Acknowledgments to gender, poverty, stigma, education, and justice; and Since the first edition was published in 1988, Humanity the story of two HIV-positive women helping others. (the book, not the species) has benefited enormously Classic Readings in Cultural Anthropology, from reviewers. Some reviewers are long-term users of Fourth Edition. Practical and insightful, Classic the text, whereas others have not adopted it for their Readings in Cultural Anthropology, fourth edition, is a classes. Of course, we have never been able to incor- concise and accessible reader that presents a core se- porate all their suggestions for improvement, or the lection of historical and contemporary works that have book would be twice as long as it is. But, over the last been instrumental in shaping anthropological thought 25 years, we have added, subtracted, updated, re- and research over the past decades. Carefully edited thought, and reorganized most of the book based on by Dr. Gary Ferraro, the fourth edition includes classic reviewers’ comments. We thank all of them. readings from the disciplines of cultural anthropology For the eleventh edition, both authors thank the re- and linguistics. Readings are organized around eight viewers listed here (their identities were unknown to us topics that closely mirror most introductory textbooks until publication): and are selected from scholarly works on the basis of Frank Araujo, American River College their enduring themes and contributions to the disci- Leslie Berry, De Anza College pline. These selections allow students to further explore Heidi Bludau, Monmouth University anthropological perspectives on such key topics as cul- Deborah Boehm, University of Nevada, Reno ture, language and communication, ecology and eco- Sheilah Clarke Ekong, Univesity of Missouri, nomics, marriage and family, gender, politics and so- St. Louis cial control, supernatural beliefs, and issues of culture Michael Dietz, College of DuPage change. The book also addresses pressing topics such Anna Dixon, University of South Florida, as globalization, ethnic violence, environmental issues, St. Petersburg and more. Classic Readings in Cultural Anthropology, Phyllisa Eisentraut, Santa Barbara City College pref ace xiii Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  Becky Floyd, Cypress College Scott Vandehey, Linfield College Henri Gooren, Oakland University Mary Vermillion, Saint Louis University Jean Hatcherson, Western Connecticut State Stephen Wiley, Normandale Community College University Andrew Workinger, University of Tennessee, Rachel Hoerman, University of Hawaii Manoa Chattanooga Bennett Judkins, Southern Adventist University Stephen Zolvinski, Indian University Northwest Ruurdje Laarhoven, Hawaii Pacific University Although we were unable to make all the changes Paul Langenwalter, Biola University these scholars suggested, many of their comments are Vienna Lewin, North Central University incorporated into the text. Their comments that the Aurolyn Luykx, University of Texas at El Paso book needs to be more explicit about the relevance of Paul McDowell, Santa Barbara City College anthropology in today’s world were especially influential. Krista Moreland, Bakersfield College Both authors have benefited from the suggestions Kevin Pittle, Biola University of colleagues and friends. Jim again thanks Thomas Maureen Salsitz, California State University, Love (Linfield College) for help with the text on energy Fullerton; Cypress College; Orange Coast in Chapter 7 and to Stacia Bensyl (Missouri Western College State University) for assistance with Chapter 11. Suzanne Spencer-Wood, Oakland University Garrick thanks James Faris for his assistance on Erin Stiles, University of Nevada, Reno Nuba body painting, and Robert Canfield for help- Cindi Sturtzsreetharan, California State University, ing to clarify some points on the Pushtun and Sacramento Afghanistan. xiv Preface Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 ABOUT THE AUTHORS James (Jim) Peoples is currently Professor Garrick Bailey received his BA in history from and Chairperson of Sociology/Anthropology and the University of Oklahoma and his MA and PhD Director of East Asian Studies at Ohio Wesleyan in anthropology from the University of Oregon. University in Delaware, Ohio. Peoples has taught His research interests include ethnohistory, world at the University of California– Davis and the systems theory, and ethnicity and conflict, with University of Tulsa in Oklahoma, among other a primary focus on the native peoples of North colleges and universities. He received a BA from America. His publications include Navajo: The the University of California–Santa Cruz and a PhD Reservation Years (with Roberta Bailey); Changes in from the University of California–Davis. His main Osage Social Organization 1673–1906; The Osage and research interests are human ecology, cultures of the the Invisible World; and Traditions of the Osage and Pacific Islands, and cultures of East Asia. His first Art of the Osage (with Dan Swan, John Nunley, and book, Island in Trust (1985), describes his fieldwork Sean Standingbear). He also was editor of Indians in on the island of Kosrae in the Federated States of Contemporary Society, Volume 2 of the Handbook of Micronesia. His latest project is a coauthored book North American Indians, Smithsonian Institution. describing the prehistory, history, and contemporary Bailey has been a Senior Fellow in Anthropology culture of Kosrae Island in Micronesia, to which at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and he most recently returned in July and August a Weatherhead Resident Scholar at the School of 2013. Since joining the faculty of Ohio Wesleyan American Research in Santa Fe. Actively engaged University in 1988, he has taught courses on in contemporary Native American issues, he has East Asia, the Pacific, human ecology, cultural served as a member of the Indian Health Advisory anthropology, the anthropology of religion, world Committee, Department of Health, Education, and hunger, the prehistory of North America, and Native Welfare; of the Glen Canyon Environmental Review Americans of the southwestern United States. Committee, National Research Council; and of the Since 2010, Peoples has been Secretary of the Japan Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Studies Association. When not teaching, writing, or Act (NAGPRA) Review Committee, Department of attending meetings, he enjoys fly fishing, traveling, the Interior. Bailey has taught anthropology at the and gardening. University of Tulsa since 1968. xv Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Michael Doolittle/The Image Works 1 The Study of Humanity ▴ Subfields of Anthropology Cultural Anthropology Today Cultural anthropology is the discipline that studies human Biological/Physical Anthropology Anthropological Perspectives cultural diversity, usually by Archaeology on Cultures visiting people where they live Cultural Anthropology Holistic Perspective and interacting with them Anthropological Linguistics Comparative Perspective firsthand. Applications of Anthropology Relativistic Perspective Applied Anthropology Some Lessons of Anthropology Careers in Anthropology 1 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1 LIST the four major subfields of anthropology and describe their primary interests. 2 DISCUSS how anthropology differs from other disciplines that also study humans. 3 EXPLAIN some of the practical uses of anthropology in solving human problems. 4 DISCUSS how cultural anthropology has changed in the last four decades. 5 UNDER STAND the meaning and importance of the holistic, comparative, and relativistic perspectives. 6 DESCRIBE the wider lessons one can learn from studying anthropology. W hat makes humans different from other animals? What is human nature, or is there even such a thing? How and why do the peoples of the world differ, both biologically and culturally? Have affluent people in industrialized, prohibit eating. In brief, anthropologists of one kind or another are likely to investigate almost everything about human beings: our biological evolution, cuisines, values, art styles, behaviors, languages, religions, and so forth. urbanized nations sacrificed something important in Anthropologists, then, study many different their quest for what many consider the good life? What dimensions of humanity. The broad scope of are the implications of living in a world whose diverse anthropology is perhaps the one feature that most peoples have recently become connected by global distinguishes it from other fields that also study humans, corporations and international communications? These such as psychology and history. Anthropologists are are just a few questions investigated by anthropology, interested in all human beings, whether living or the academic discipline that studies all of humanity. dead, Asian or African or European. No people are too Almost everything about human beings interests isolated to escape the anthropologist’s notice. We also anthropologists. We want to know when, where, and are interested in many different aspects of humans, how humanity originated and how we evolved into including their genetic makeup, family lives, political what we are today. Anthropologists try to explain systems, relations with nature, and beliefs about the the many differences among the world’s cultures, dead. No dimension of humankind, from skin color such as why people in one culture believe they get to dance traditions, falls outside the interests of sick because the souls of witches devour their livers, anthropology. whereas people in another think that illness can result from tarantulas flinging tiny magical darts into their bodies. We want to know why most Argentinians Subfields of Anthropology and Australians like beef, which devout Hindus and Obviously, no single anthropologist can master all Buddhists refuse to eat. We are curious about why these subjects. Therefore, most anthropologists spe- some New Guinea peoples ritually engorge themselves cialize in one of four principal subfields: biological (or with pork—the same animal flesh that some religions physical) anthropology, archaeology, cultural anthro- originating in the Middle East hold to be unclean and pology, and anthropological linguistics. (The Concept Review summarizes the primary interests of each subfield.) A fifth area, applied anthropology, uses an- thropological methods and insights to help solve re- al-world problems. Because cultural anthropology is anthropology Academic discipline that studies the primary subject of this book, here we briefly sum- humanity from a broad biological and cultural marize the other subfields and describe some of their perspective. major findings. 2 CHAPTER 1 The Study of Humanity Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  Concept Review Primary Interests of the Four Subfields of Anthropology Physical/Biological Comparisons of human anatomy and behavior with other primate species; physical (genetic) variation among human populations; biological evolution of Homo sapiens Archaeology Excavation of material remains in prehistoric sites to reconstruct early human ways of life; study of remains in historic sites to learn more about literate peoples Cultural Differences and similarities in contemporary and historically recent cultures; causes and conse­ quences of sociocultural change; impacts of globalization and contacts on the world’s peoples Anthropological Relationships between language and culture; role of language and speaking in social life of various Linguistics peoples; how language might shape perceptions and thoughts Biological/Physical Anthropology behavior of monkeys and apes, the physical (including genetic) variations between different human popula- Biological (also called physical) anthropology is tions, and the biological evolution of the human species. closely related to the biological sciences in its goals and Within biological anthropology, researchers in methods. It focuses on subjects such as the anatomy and primatology study the evolution, anatomy, adapta- tion, and social behavior of primates, the taxonomic order to which humans belong. Research on group- living monkeys and apes has added significantly to the understanding of many aspects of human behavior, including tool use, sexuality, parenting, cooperation, male–female differences, and aggression. Field studies of African chimpanzees and gorillas, the two apes ge- netically most similar to humans, have been especially fruitful sources of hypotheses and knowledge. In the 1960s, famous British primatologist Jane Goodall was the first to observe toolmaking among African chimpanzees. Chimps intentionally modified sticks to probe holes in termite mounds. When termite soldiers locked their jaws onto the intruding objects, the chimps withdrew the probes and devoured the tasty insects. Goodall observed adult chimps teach- ing their young how to probe for termites, showing that humanity’s closest animal relatives are capable of learning complex behaviors. Some chimpanzee groups wave tree branches in aggressive displays against other groups. Some wad up leaves to use as sponges to soak up drinking water. Working in West Africa, other re- searchers have observed some chimp groups using Steve Bloom Images/Alamy biological (physical) anthropology Major subfield of anthropology that studies the biological dimensions of humans and other primates. One of the most surprising discoveries about the great apes is that they commonly use and even make tools. These two primatology Part of biological anthropology that studies Ugandan chimpanzees are inserting a twig into a termite primates, including monkeys and apes. mound to access insects for food. CHAPTER 1 The Study of Humanity 3 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 heavy round stones as hammers to crack open hard- became harmful. In high latitudes, melanin reduces the shelled nuts. The chimps select stones of the proper penetration of sunlight in the skin, reducing its ability shape and weight, control the force of their blows so to make vitamin D. Thus, dark pigmentation is harmful that the nut does not shatter, and often leave the tools in high latitudes like Europe and Siberia, and over many under nut trees for future use. centuries skin grew lighter (“whiter”) in such regions. Other apes also use tools. Using sticks, African go- Human populations living in high altitudes also have rillas in the wild gauge the depth of water and even lay evolved physiological adaptations. Andean peoples of down tree trunks to cross deep pools. Researchers have South America have relatively large lungs and high levels seen one young female gorilla use stones to smash open of hemoglobin. The blood of Tibetans circulates more a palm nut to get at the oil inside. rapidly than most other people, allowing their muscles These and other observations of chimpanzees and and organs to function more efficiently at elevations gorillas dramatically altered our understanding of over 14,000 feet. Such populations evolved physiologi- human–animal differences. Prior to such studies, mak- cal adaptations to supply oxygen to their tissues. ing tools was widely considered to be one of the things Another aim of physical anthropology is under- humans could do that other animals could not. Now standing when and how the human species evolved that we know that toolmaking is not unique to human- from prehuman, apelike ancestors. Paleoanthropology ity, we look at other reasons for human uniqueness. investigates human biological evolution. Over decades Biological anthropologists also investigate human of searching for fossils and carrying out meticulous variation, studying how and why human populations laboratory studies, paleoanthropologists have recon- vary physically due to genetically inherited differences. structed the evolution of human anatomy: limbs, feet, All humanity belongs to a single species, which taxon- hands, skull, and other physical features. omists call Homo sapiens. One of the most important In the late 1970s, paleoanthropologists began to use findings of anthropology is that the physical/genetic new methods to investigate human evolution. Scientists similarities among the world’s peoples far outweigh in the field of molecular genetics can now sequence the differences. Nonetheless, peoples whose ancestral DNA—the genetic material by which hereditary traits are homelands lie in Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia, the transmitted between generations. By comparing DNA Pacific Islands, and the Americas were once more iso- sequences, geneticists can estimate how closely differ- lated than they are today. During this time, they evolved ent species are related. Studies comparing the genetic differences in overall body and facial form, height, skin sequences of African apes with humans show that hu- color, blood chemistry, and other genetically deter- mans share 97.7 percent of their DNA with gorillas and mined features. Specialists in human variation mea- 98.7 percent with chimpanzees and bonobos. DNA from sure and try to explain the differences and similarities modern humans and DNA sampled from bones of the ex- among the world’s peoples in such physical characteris- tinct human species Neandertal are about 99.5 percent the tics. (We return to “racial” variation in Chapter 2.) same. Similarities in the DNA of two or more species are Often, genetic differences are related to the environ- evidence that they share a common evolutionary ancestor. ment in which a people or their ancestors lived. Consider Also, the more similar the DNA between two or more spe- skin color. When exposed to sunlight, human skin man- cies, the less time has elapsed since their divergence from ufactures vitamin D, a necessary nutrient. The melanin a common ancestor. Thus, anthropologists study DNA se- existing in human skin produces the color our eyes per- quences to estimate how long ago species separated. ceive as dark. High levels of melanin protect darker skin Recent scientific work shows that the DNA of against sun damage, so melanin usually is beneficial in many modern humans resulted from our ancestors’ tropical environments, where sunlight is most intense. interbreeding with now-extinct human species. Most However, as humans migrated into more temperate re- people who are not African or African-derived have a gions tens of thousands of years ago, too much melanin small percentage of DNA from Neandertals. (Why not Africans too? Because Neandertal humans never lived in Africa.) Even more surprising is a 2016 finding that human variation Physical differences among human another extinct human species, called Denisovan, also populations; an interest of physical anthropologists.