Human Geo Notes 2025 PDF

Human Geo – Notes 2025 Jan 8th Regions: Formal (uniform) regions (e.g., Quebec as a region) // Functional (nodal) regions (e.g., schooling district) // Vernacular (perceptual) regions (e.g., Bible belt) Landscape – Cultural landscapes vary Loca...

Human Geo – Notes 2025 Jan 8th Regions: Formal (uniform) regions (e.g., Quebec as a region) // Functional (nodal) regions (e.g., schooling district) // Vernacular (perceptual) regions (e.g., Bible belt) Landscape – Cultural landscapes vary Location: a specific space → Absolute location: constant between observers (Latitude and Longitude) // Relative location: varies with the observer (e.g., Sherbrooke is 150 km away from Montreal) // Nominal locations: Acquire identity and position through commonly known names Jan 13th Space → Absolute space, relative space Scales → International, National, Municipal, Household, Body, etc. Place → a specific location // sense of place – Places evoking communal or personal attachment are said to have --, sacred places – Highly valued places may be--, placelessness – Homogenous or standardized places may produce a feeling of – Distance: the space between two entities // Standardized units: absolute distance // Relative distance varies with experience: Time, Cost(economic), Psychological: state of mind Spatial interaction: a measure of the relationship between locations and across space (through movement or communication) Overcoming the friction of distance: travel, communication, technology Movement: Of people (migration) // of ideas (diffusion) Relocation diffusion; Expansion Diffusion → contagious, hierarchical Geographies mnemonic: Places (sense of) / Landscapes/Locations / Aspects of Distance / Connectivity/Flows(diffusion) / Ecologies (Socio) / Scale + Spaces Geo + Graphie: Literally “writing” the earth Other tools: Geomatics Remote sensing, Computer-Assisted Cartography, etc. Humans and the environment A holistic perspective: “Everything is related to everything else” Socio-Ecology: Term used to emphasize that humans and society are part of nature; environmental issues are typically social issues and vice-versa I=PAT equation // Impact = Population x Affluence x Technology (uneven) development and industrialization // Migration // Worldviews and nature / religion & spirituality // Governance at various levels // Sustainability of cities // Agricultral systems The Anthropocene: A new era in which human activity is the dominant influence on the physical environment, including the climate // Argument that this separates us from the Holocene age (post- glacial period that began 12000 years ago) // Scientists suggest the start date of is: July 16 1945 Human’s activities are threating our continued survival Our role as part of an ecosystem Jan 15th Human Impacts on Vegetation: Deforestation // Emerged with advances in agriculture; Escalated with colonization, industrialization Agriculture // Has resulted in ecosystem simplification Tropical rain forest removal // These forests are home to over 50% of all species, Release of stored carbon Desertification // Causes include climate change, overgrazing, salinization of immigrated lands, and more; Kenyan Green Belt Movement saw success through working with local communities, especially women; Great Green Wall launched in 2007 Biodiversity loss // Long histories of domesticating and moving animals; Human activities have led to the loss of 68% of animal populations since 1970; Biodiversity plummeted by two-thirds between 1970 and 2018 Land and Soil // Excavation of resources affects ecosystems, changes hydrological flows, leaves toxic wastes; Approximately 40% of agricultural land is seriously degraded Air // Smoke pollution from industries and transportation (…which varies between and within countries); Ozone layer issue an example of a relatively effective response by scientists and governments Water // Overuse: Agriculture consumes 73% of global supplies; Uneven distribution: Average US citizen consumes 70x more water than the average citizen of Ghana; Pollution: Especially due to waste and industrial processes Environmental Concern Economic goals often conflict with environmental sustainability; Some argue that we should call this era the Capitalocene rather than the Anthropocene The Greenhouse Effect // The atmosphere increases surface temperatures by trapping some outgoing radiation; Human activities add to the greenhouse by contributing Co2 Ch4 etc. Consequences of climate change (+1.5 degrees in 2024): Disruptions to polar ecosystems + Rising Sea Levels + Increasingly severe storms + Food System disruptions Climate Justice = Notion that those who have contributed the least to climate change are disproportionately confronted with its worst consequences Confronting causes of climate change: Fossil Fuel use, Fertilizer use, increased animal husbandry, Deforestation Energy Transitions: Renewable energy // Challenge: replace reliance on fossil fuel resources with renewable resources Need to consider: Life cycle processes associated with alternatives; Geographic context; Social, economic, and political factors Hydro: low-cost once built; projects can have substantial local impacts Solar: cost decreasing; seasonal considerations, but widely applicable; demands for land Wind: variable in terms of energy output; demands for land; controversies have existed Other options: Geothermal, tidal, biofuel (but not great) Energy conservation!! Jan 20th Catastrophist: believe that population increases and continuing environmental deterioration are leading to a nightmarish future Cornucopians: believe that advances in science and technology, along with cultural adaptation, will enable humans to survive Globalization: A complex combination of economic, political, and cultural changes that have accelerated markedly since about 1980, increasing the interconnectedness of people and places // Increases the quantity and speed of goods, information, and people moving across national boundaries Local still matters Distance continuing to affect everyday life // People still value their culture and desire some regional autonomy. Geography as a discipline in distance Principle of Least Effort: Considered a guiding principle in human activities, Location decisions minimize the effort required to overcome the FRICTION OF DISTANCE, Distance can be measured by various criteria, e.g., physical, time, cost, cognitive, social Time-Space convergence: A decrease in the friction of distance between locations, Result of improvements in transportation and communication technologies // Examples: The time it takes to circumnavigate the globe, the speed of communications (from telegraphs to the Internet and cell phones) Transportation: Changes have often occurred at a revolutionary pace, as opposed to an evolutionary pace, Systemic change a result of (1) advances in technology, and (2) social and political factors Water Transportation: Relatively inexpensive, can be slow (and dangerous / seasonal), Suez (1869) and Panama (1914) Canals resulted in dramatic changes – Nicaraguan Canal project has been discussed, especially since 2013 (but its on hold), significant environmental and social considerations Rail Transportation: Also, a relatively cheap form of transportation, Significant developments in Australia, China and Europe, with additional projects happening in Eastern Africa Road Transportation: Roads typically less expensive to build than railways, but bridges are more complicated Air Transportation: Most expensive form of transportation, favoured for small-bulk, high-value products, consequences include GHG emissions Containerization: Standardized containers developed in the 1950s have increased efficiency, enabling Multimodal transport (this cuts down on the amount of time needed to move cargo around), Nine of the ten busiest container ports in the world are in East Asia TRADE Takes place if the difference between the cost of production in one area and the market price in another will at least cover the cost of movement Factors that enable / inhibit trade between places (apart from distance): Resource base (materials needed / in surplus), labour force size and quality, available capital Regional Integration: “Free” trade is arguably a myth! World Trade Organization (WTO) fostering trade between states, regional trade blocs have been on the rise in recent decades (ex. NAFTA, EU, ASEAN) Transnational Corporations: TNCs take advantage of differing place-based attributes, contribute significantly to the INTERNATIONAL DVISION OF LABOUR (the spatial separation of high-wage, high-skill and low-wage, low-skill employment), Different labour costs have played a significant role in the location decisions of TNCs, Trend is for corporations to headquarter in MDCs and carry out production in LDCs (MDC= more developed countries, LDC= Less developed countries) FDI: Direct investment by a government or TNC in another country (e.g., in the form of a manufacturing plant) Overcoming distance: communication Mass communications media, Information and communication technologies (ICTs) The digital divide: Worldwide gaps still exist regarding access to information technology and the Internet, Finland: Internet access as basic human right Dimensions of the digital divide: Global, urban-rural, socio-economic The Rise of social media: Platform use varies based on demographics and geography, is being used by business groups, grassroots activists, and more, Concerns: Effects on people’s levels of empathy and mental health, corporate ownership Jan 22 Three globalization Theses Hyperglobalist: The world is ‘Flat’ (Friedman) Improved communications and free movement of capital Global economy now a level playing field Globalization is intensifying Skeptic: Globalization is in Retreat (Saul) Significance of local and national identities Negative externalities of global processes: esp. inequality Globalization has been declining since the late 1990s Transformationalist: World 3.0 (Ghemawat) Extent and influence of globalization is exaggerated Supports argument with statistics re. trade, international business Economic globalization; Extra points Dispersal of manufacturing processes and distribution across boundaries Trade encouraged by international institutions (IMF, World Bank, WTO) Most recently: Virtually immediate movement of capital Close-knit regional trade organizations established Political changes to communist states have had economic repercussions Cultural Globalization Increasing cultural homogeneity Possible benefits of integration vs. concerns about loss of culture Cultural differences nevertheless persist, with some groups resisting global cultural trends Political Globalization UN an example of international political cooperation Yet recent decades have seen the emergence of new states (compared to regional integration) Political globalization can be challenged by desires for regional or ethnic / national control Key Questions: Is Globalization… Reducing poverty? Promoting democracy, rights, and freedoms? Fostering pluralism and mutual respect? Proponents of alternative globalization argue that the world should be connected in ways that encourage: Solidarity and social / international justice Cross-cultural understanding Environmental sustainability Jan 27th Logical Fallacies Anecdotal – the use of isolated examples that rely on personal testimonies to support or refute an argument (e.g., my grandfather was a heavy smoker most of his life, but he lived to be 90 years old. Therefore, smoking is not harmful to people. // Self-driving cars are too dangerous to be used on public roads. Just last week I read about a case where a self-driving car caused a fatal crash. Retrospective determinism – argues that because something happened, it was inevitable. (e.g., When he declared himself dictator of the Roman Republic, Julius Caesar was bound to be assassinated. // Of course you failed the test! You went out for drinks and stayed up late last night. Population Geography Demography is the science that studies: Population size and composition Processes influencing population composition Population and health geography examine related spatial dimensions As of November 2022, we officially passed 8 billion people. Why be concerned about population geographies? Carrying capacity – The maximum population that can be supported by a given set of resources and a given level of technology Concerns about well-being (e.g., hunger) Economic and cultural Thomas Malthus (1766-1834): Malthusian Theory = Population will eventually outstrip the food supply Food production increases at an arithmetic rate (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) Population increases at a geometric rate (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.) Why was he wrong? Advances in food production / Changes in birth rate / Migration Why are Malthusian ideas still common? Concerns about population pressures and limited resources Concerns about poverty and high birth rates Population (and overpopulation) – How concerned should we be about population numbers? I=PAT (Impact = Population x Affluence x Technology) Feeding the world? Consider (1) limitations to ‘food aid’ approach, and (2) broader challenges associated with bad governance. Population dynamics Demographic equation: P1 = P0 + B – D + I – E (Births, deaths, immigrants, emigrants) Fertility Crude Birth Rate (CBR) Total Fertility Rate (TFR) Replacement-level fertility Mortality Crude Death Rate (CDR) RNI (rate of natural increase; %) Fertility – Mortality rates Factors affecting fertility - Biological (age, nutritional well-being, diet) - Economic (1. Cost-benefit decision 2. Affected by economic structure and social needs) - Cultural (1. Marriage age and rates, changing correlation to birth 2. Contraceptive use 3. Views on abortion) Pro-natalist policies Theological reasons Social or political reasons (Dominant ethnic group fears relative decline // Economic strategy: raise workforce market size) Examples include Estonia, Japan, Canada Anti-natalist policies Fears that carrying capacity could be exceeded Examples include India and China  Jan 29th Political Demography We are approaching a ‘global baby bust’ // Key questions: How will global political labour economies be affected? Will we shift away from views on ‘surplus populations’? How will the politics of fertility mortality, an mobility be affected? Migration = Long-term relocation of an individual group + Movement of residence Contemporary crisis & debates Migrants often risking their lives in their attempts to relocate Tens of thousands trying to cross the Mediterranean annually Political debates regarding migration in the U.S. and beyond Migration debates in Canada 1. Canadian political debates on migration centre on workforce shortages vs. housing availability Types of migration 1. Primitive 2. Forced and impelled 3. Free migration 4. Mass migration 5. “illegal” migration Health geographies Study the distribution and diffusion of disease Infectious and degenerative diseases Nature of epidemics (e.g., Ebola) and pandemics Good news stories worth recognizing Progress on disease elimination, Increased access to cancer drugs in low-income countries, Malaria vaccines now available Feb 3rd Left early check pp for notes Feb 5th Argumentative fallacy – False cause (learned about this in Philosophy) Development terminology – Global south/north, Minority world/Majority world Measuring human development (income, education, health, etc.) World systems theory – The world as an interdependent system of countries linked together through economic and political competition // Division of core, semi-peripheral and peripheral countries Inequality (what’s happening between countries, its impact on people) Inequality today facts: Between 2009 and 2018, the number of billionaires it took to equal the wealth of the world’s poorest 50 percent fell from 380 to 26. The 100 highest-paid CEOs in Canada now make 246 times more than average workers Do we have a poverty problem or a wealth problem? 1. Wealth is often generated at the expense of low-income people (e.g., when surplus profits are driven by low wages) Proposals for reducing inequality include: Creating new top income tax brackets Introducing a wealth tax Closing tax loopholes Increasing corporate taxes Spending significantly on public services Yet some argue that some inequality is fair / an economic necessity The Refugee Crisis Refugees: Individuals forced to move from their homeland UNHCR – Three (other) classes of “persons of concern”: Asylum seekers, Returnees, internally displaced persons (IDPs) Refugee crises Linked to multi-layered geo-political issues Xenophobia not supported by demographic and economic evidence Cultural politics (and geography) influence decisions about how many and which refugees are accepted (End of Week 5, Start of Week 6) Feb 10th Sustainable development goals – There are 17 e.g., zero hunger, no poverty, decent work and economic growth Solutions? What about… > Consequences of Structural Adjustment Programs (loans provided to less developed countries with free-market conditions attached) What about… > historical and recent debts? Developing countries are trapped in a new debt crisis Cultural Geography Culture: A society’s shared way of life, Includes belief systems, norms, and social practices, Can be differentiated according to language, religion, clothing, foods, and more, Is dynamic and changes, yet established cultures can also resist change Overlaps with anthropology in terms of focus, but with added attention to spatial issues Example: Relocation diffusion // Expansion diffusion (Contagious, Hierarchical) Cultural Landscapes Embody meaning and symbolism // Not only referring to religious sites, monuments, etc. Consider where you may experience topophilia or topophobia A world divided by culture? 1. Is culture the ‘greatest human achievement’? 2. Is culture responsible for intense conflicts between peoples? 3. How are spatial dynamics relevant to these debates? Orientalism – Tendency in Western culture to ‘essentialize’ societies of the Middle East, Northern Africa, and Asia // The ‘West’ is seen as developed, rational, superior // Facilitates imperialism ‘Othering’ of social groups, depicting them as different from the perceived norm Influences political discourse Relevant today (Islamophobia) Cultural regions Areas with a degree of homogeneity in cultural characteristics Delimitation considers least four basic points: 1. Criteria for inclusion (i.e., defining characteristic) 2. Time period 3. Spatial scale 4. Boundary lines Vernacular regions How has the capitalist mode of production affected cultural landscapes / regions? Language Cultural diffusion (relocation and expansion diffusion) LINGUA FRANCA: created to facilitate communication between groups PIDGIN: simplified compositions of several languages, to aid communication between groups CREOLE: a pidgin language that becomes a mother tongue for a group (with its own grammatical rules)