Human Bio PDF - Human Biology (Katholieke Universiteit Leuven)

lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Human bio Human Biology (Katholieke Universiteit Leuven) Scannen om te openen op Studocu Studocu wordt niet gesponsord of ondersteund door een hogeschool of universiteit Gedownload d...

lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Human bio Human Biology (Katholieke Universiteit Leuven) Scannen om te openen op Studocu Studocu wordt niet gesponsord of ondersteund door een hogeschool of universiteit Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Human Biology Inleiding  Chapter 2  Chapter 3 Chapter 2 Atoms: - Smallest units of an element -Physical & chemical properties - Made out of Protons, electrons & Neutrons -Circle around nucleus = electron shell Isotopes: Same atomic number but different atomic mass (P+ same, N different) Radioisotopes: useful in dating old objects, imaging body organs and tissues through X-rays & killing cancer cells Radiation can be harmful by damaging cells & DNA and/or causing cancer Bond together to form molecules  Ionic o Donate or take on electrons o Ions: charged particles  Covalent o Share them electrons  Hydrogen o WEAK Properties of water: o Thermal stability o High heat of evaporation 100 degrees o Frozen = less dense o Solvent for polar molecules o Cohesive and adhesive o Cohesion: water molecules clinging together o Adhesion: ability to cling to other polar surfaces Acids & bases o Acids: substances that dissociate and release hydrogen ions (H+) o Bases: substances that take up hydrogen ions or release hydroxide ions (-OH) o pH: H+ ion concentration o pH = 0 -> 10^0 H+ o pH = 14 -> 10^-14 H+ o In blood: buffers o Prevent pH changes Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 o H 2 C O3 +¿+C O3 → H 2 C O3  H¿  When H+ is added −¿+H 2 0  −¿+ H 2 C O3 → HC O ¿3 O H¿  When OH- is added Macromolecules: Organic molecules: contain C & H Carbohydrates: o Subunits: monosaccharides o Made of C, H & O o Ratio H & O = 2:1 o Short and long term energy storage o Monosaccharide: o 1 carbon ring vb. Glucose C6 H 12 O6 o Disaccharide: o 2 carbon rings vb. Maltose (2 x Glucose) C12 H 22 O 11 o Complex carbohydrates: o Polysaccharides:  Many carbon rings  Glycogen  Storage form in animals  Many branches  Starch  Storage form in plants  Straight with some branched  Cellulose  In plants  = fiber  Unable to digest Lipids o Don’t dissolve in water o Used as energy molecules o Found in cell membranes o Found as fats & oils, phospholipids and steroids o Fats  Usually animal origin  Solid at room T  Function Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Long-term energy storage  Insulation against heat loss  Cushion for organs  Emulsifiers can cause fats to dissolve into water  Contain polar and nonpolar end  Fats are sometimes called triglyceride   Fatty acids  Saturated (Butter) o No double bonds  Unsaturated o Cis (Oils)  Same side o Trans (hydrogenated oils)  Opposite side  In a good 2000 calorie diet you would need about 65g fats o Oils  Usually plant origin  Liquid at room T o Phospholipids  Similar in structure to triglyceride  but one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group or grouping containing both phosphate & nitrogen  Are primary components of cellular membranes with  Polar head  Nonpolar tails o Steroids  4 fused carbon rings  Vb.  Cholesterol o LDL = ‘bad’ cholesterol  Lipoprotein that is full of triglyceride and cholesterol o HDL = ‘good’ cholesterol  Basically empty o Are both proteins and not cholesterol, only called like that  Sex hormones o Testosterone o Estrogen Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Proteins o Subunits: Amino acids o o Functions: o Support o Enzymes o Transport o Defense o Hormones o Motion o Denature: undergo a change in shape that causes loss of function o Can happen because of pH or T o Levels of protein structure o Primary:  Sequence of amino acids o Secondary:  Alpha helix/ Beta sheet o Tertiary  Final shape of polypeptide  Sometimes with disulfide bonds o Quaternary (only some)  2 or more associated polypeptides Nucleic acids o Subunits: Nucleotide o Functions in the cell to make proteins o Include: o RNA o DNA o Shape: o DNA: Double-stranded o RNA: Single-stranded o Bases: o In DNA:  Double-ringed purines: Adenine & Guanine  Single-ringed pyrimidines: Cytosine & Thymine  Pairs: A-T & G-C o In RNA:  Thymine is replaced by Uracil o Sugar: o In DNA: deoxyribose o In RNA: ribose o RNA in humans o mRNA: messenger RNA o tRNA: Transfer RNA o rRNA: Ribosomal RNA Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 o ATP: o Energy carrier o Adenosine triphosphate o o ADP: o Adenosine Diphosphate + molecule of inorganic phosphate Chapter 3 How cells are organized  Prokaryotic cells o Thought to be the first cells to evolve o Lack a nucleus o Represented by  Bacteria  Archaea  Eukaryotic cells o Have a nucleus that houses DNA o Have membrane-bound organelles  Both have a plasma membrane and cytoplasm Plasma membrane and how substances cross it Fluid-mosaic model Is a working description of membrane structure. The proteins form a shifting pattern within the fluid phospholipid bilayer. Cholesterol provides support to the membrane. Function Isolates the interior of the cell from the external envirroment and is selective permeable. Movements across the plasma membrane  Diffusion o Is the random movement of molecules from higher concentration to a lower concentration  Osmosis o Diffusion of water Isotonic solutions: have equal amounts of solute inside and outside of the cell, thus do not affect the cell Hypotonic solutions: Have less solute than the inside of the cell and lead to lysis (Bursting) Hypertonic solutions: Have more solute then the inside of the cell and lead to crenation (shriveling)  Facilitated transport Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 o Transport of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration via a protein carrier  Active transport o Movement of molecules from a lower to higher concentration o Using ATP as energy o Requires a protein carrier  Endocytosis and exocytosis o Endocytosis:  Transports molecules or cells into the cell  Via invagination of the plasma membrane to form a vesicle o Exocytosis:  Transports molecules outside the cell  Via the fusion of a vesicle with the plasma membrane o Phagocytosis  Endocytosis of pathogens by some white blood cells The nucleus and endomembrane system Chapter 4 What is a tissue? A collection of cells of the same type that perform a common function There are 4 major tissue types in the body  Connective Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Muscular  Nervous  Epithelial 1. connective tissue  Binds & supports parts of the body  Has specialized cells, ground substance and protein fibers o Ground substance: noncellular and ranges from solid to fluid o Ground substance & protein fibers make up the matrix of tissue together  3 main types of connective tissue o Fibrous o Supportive o Fluid Fibrous connective tissue  2 types: dense & loose, both contain fibroblast cells with a matrix of collagen and elastic fibers  Loose fibrous tissue is found supporting epithelium and many internal organs  Adipose tissue: a special loose fibrous tissue where fat is stored Supportive connective tissue Cartilage Cells are in chambers called lacunae Matrix is solid but flexible There are 3 types of cartilage, distinguished by the types of fibers Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 1. Hyaline cartilage: Fine collagen fibers a. In Nose, ends of long bones and fetal skeleton 2. Elastic cartilage: More elastic fibers than cartilage fibers a. In Outer ear 3. Fibrocartilage: Strong collagen fibers a. Disks between vertebrae Bone Cells are in chambers called lacunae Solid and rigid matrix is made of collagen and calcium salts There are 2 types of bones, distinguished by types of fibers 1. Compact: Made of repeating circular units called osteons which contain the hard matrix, living cells and blood vessels a. In Shafts of long bones 2. Spongy: An open latticework with irregular spaces a. In ends of long bones Fluid connective tissue Blood Made of a fluid matrix called Plasma and cellular components that are called formed elements  Formed elements: 1. Red blood cells (erythrocytes)  Cells that carry oxygen 2. White blood cells (leukocytes)  Cells that fight infection 3. Planets (thrombocytes)  Pieces of cells that clot blood Lymph Matrix is a fluid called lymph, white blood cells congregate in lymph nodes 2. Muscle tissue Allows for movement in the body, is made of muscle fibers/cells and protein fibers called actin & myosin Types of muscle tissue in humans:  Skeletal o Appearance: long, cylindrical, multiple nuclei, straited fibers o Location: Attached to bone for movement o Nature: voluntary movement  Smooth o Appearance: spindle-shaped cell with one nucleus, lacks striations o Location: walls of hollow organs and vessels o Nature: involuntary movement Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Cardiac o Appearance: Branched cells with a single nucleus, striations with darker striations called intercalated disks between cells o Location: Heart o Nature: Involuntary movement 3. Nervous tissue Allows for communication between cells through sensory input, integration of date and motor output Made of 2 major cell types: Neurons & neuroglia Neurons  Made of dendrites, a cell body and an axon o Dendrites carry information towards the cell body o Axons carry information away from the cell body Neuroglia  Are a collection of cells that support and nourish neurons  Outnumber neurons 9:1  Examples: oligodendrocytes, astrocytes and microglia 4. Epithelial tissue 4.5 Epithelial tissue Protects  Cells that forms a tight, continuous layer  Lines body cavities, covers body surfaces, found in glands  Anchored by a basement membranous and free on the other side  Named after their shape  There is transitional epithelium that changes in appearance in response to tension Names of epithelial tissue  Simple o One layer -> simple o Pseudostratified -> appears to have more layers but is actually one o Stratified -> different layers and kinds  Shape of cell o Cuboidal -> cube o Columnar -> column shaped o Squamous -> flattend The integumentary system  Includes the skin and accessory organs such as hair, nails and glands  Skin has two main regions: o Epidermis o Dermis  Under the skin there is a subcutaneous layer between the dermis and internal structures where fat is stored Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Important for maintaining homeostasis Functions  Protects the body from physical trauma, invasion by pathogens and water loss  Helps regulate body temperature  Allows us to be aware of our surroundings through sensory receptors  Synthesizes chemicals such as melanin and vitamin D The epidermis  Thin, outermost layer of the skin  Made of epithelial tissue  Cells in the uppermost layers are DEAD and become filled with keratin, thus acting as a waterproof barrier  Langerhans cells are a type of white blood cells that help fight pathogens  Melanocytes produce melanin that lend to skin color and protection from UV light  Some cells convert cholesterol to vitamin D The dermis  Thick, inner layer of the skin  Made of dense fibrous connective tissue  Contains elastic collagen fibers  Contains blood vessels, many sensory receptors and glands Skin cancer  Basal cell carcinoma is the most common yet least deadly form of skin cancer  Melanoma is the most deadly form of skin cancer but is the least common Accessory organs of the skin  They include: o Nails  Are derived from the epidermis and offer a protective covering o Hair  Hair follicles are derived from the dermis, but hair grows from epidermal cells o Glands Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Oil glands (sebaceous gland) are associated with hair and produce sebum that lubricates the hair and skin and retards bacterial growth  Sweat glands are derived from the dermis and help to regulate body temperature What are body cavities  Ventral cavity o Thoracic o Abdominal o Pelvic  Dorsal cavity o Cranial o Vertebral Membranes that line the cavities  Mucous membranes o Line the digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive systems  Serous membranes o Line the lungs, hearth and abdominal cavity and cover the internal organs; named after their location  Pleura: lungs  Peritoneum: abdominal cavity and organs  Pericardium: heath  Synovial membranes Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 o Line cavities of freely moveable joints  Meninges o Cover the brain and spinal cord Homeostasis  Ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment of the body  The nervous and endocrine systems are key in maintaining homeostasis  Changes from the normal tolerance limits result in illness or even death All systems are important in maintaining homeostasis Maintained by 2 mechanism  Negative feedback o The output of the system resolves or corrects the original stimulus  Primary mechanism for maintaining homeostasis  Output of the systems dampens the original stimulus  Has 2 components  Sensor  Control  Positive feedback o Brings about an increasing change in the same direction as the original stimulus  Mechanism for increasing the change of the internal environment in one direction  Vb. Secretion of oxytocin during birth to increase uterine contractions  Can be harmful vb. When a fever is too high and continues to rise Chapter 5 cardio vascular system Is The heart, blood vessels and blood Functions:  Transport: oxygen, carbon dioxide and other waste products, nutrients and hormones  Protection: cells of the immune system help to protect the body from infection  Regulation: homeostasis of T, pH balance, water and electrolyte levels CT: connective tissue SM: smooth muscles E: Endothelium  Arteries carry blood away from the heart Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Walls have 3 layers  o Outer connective tissue o Thick smooth muscle layer o Thin inner epithelium  Arterioles are small arteries that regulate blood  Diameter increase (vaso-relaxation) or decrease (vaso-constriction)  Capillaries are the smallest of the blood vessels and the structure is adapted for the exchange of materials in the cells o Walls: single layer of epithelium cells with a basement membrane  Capillary beds: (network of many capillaries) are present everywhere but only some are open at a given time  Precapillary sphincter Control witch ones are open  When closed/ constricted the beds are closed and blood flowes through arteriovenous shunt  Veins carry blood toward the heart o Have 3 layers  outer connective tissue (thinner than in arteries)  Smooth muscle layer ( less than in arteries)  Thin inner epithelium o Veins that carry blood against gravity have valves to keep blood flowing toward the heart o 70% of the blood is in the veins  Venules are small veins that receive blood from the capillaries Heart Anatomy of the heart  Large, muscular organ consisting og mostly cardiac tissue: Myocardium (acts as a unit) o Mostly cardiac muscle tissue o Straited cells with single nucleus, Packed with mitochondria -> high ATP o The muscle fibers are branched o Fibers are tightly jointed to neighboring fibers by intercalated disks  Include cell junctions like gap junctions and desmosomes Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Cell junctions for simultaneous contraction o Pores for ions -> spreading of electrical signal  (action potential)  Desmosomes prevent overstretching o include arrangement of protein fibers o anchors to hold cells together  Surrounded by a fibrous sac: pericardium o Protection o Anchor o Prevents heart overflowing with blood  Pericardial cavity: space between heart and pericardium o Filled with lubricant: pericardial fluid  2 sides, right & left, separated by a Septum  4 chambers: 2 atria and 2 ventricles  2 sets of valves: Semilunar valves & atrioventricular valves ( AV valves ) o Valves produce the ‘lub’ and ‘dub’ sounds of the heartbeat o AV valves are supported by a strong, fibrous strings: chordae tendineae o AV valve on the left side: bicuspid valve o AV valve on the right side: tricuspid valve o Semilunar valves: named after attached ventricle  Aortic semilunar valve  Pulmonary semilunar valve Cardiac cycle  Rhythmic pumping of heart to induce blood flow  Systole: contraction event  Diastole: relaxation event  Electrical signals lead to mechanical events (Contraction of myocardial contractile cells) Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Electrical signals initiate contractions: Cardiac pacemaker cells 1. Spontaneously generate and send out electrical impulses => Spontaneous depolarization 2. Receive and respond to electrical impulses from CNS (cardiac pacemaker cells) 3. Transfer electrical impulses from cell to cell Internal control: Spontaneous depolarization of pacemaker cells (visible in ECG) External control: cardiac center in the brain ( medulla oblongata ) Hormones (adrenaline, noradrenaline) Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Features of the cardiovascular system Blood pressure ensures blood flow  Heart pumps blood with contractile force  Pressure against the vessel well o Stroke volume/vascular resistance is dependent of:  Blood viscosity  Vessel diameter  Vessel length Regulation of blood pressure Constant arterial pressure is achieved by:  Regulation of heart rate (chronotropy)  Force of contraction (inotropy)  Regulation of diameter of arterioles Blood pressure ensures blood flow  Arteries: Pulsatile BP and flow, maintain high pressure and steady flow  Capillaries: Increase of area, massive drop in velocity to enable exchange with tissue  Veins: Reduction of area, increase of flow speed Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 If blood flow is so in the veins, why does the blood flow increase  Skeletal muscle contraction  Breathing (respiratory pump)  Valves Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 2 Major cardio vascular pathways  Pulmonary circuit: the right side of the heart that brings blood from the body to the heart and the lungs  Systemic circuit: the left side of the heart that brings blood to the entire body to deliver nutrients and rid it of wastes  (Coronary circuit: Blood supply to the heart (muscles)) Other systems  Hepatic portal system o Brings amino acid and glucose rich blood from the digestive tract to the liver o Liver:  Detox center  Metabolic gland Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Exchange in capillaries: Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Cardiovascular Disorders Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the most common cause of death in the western world  31% of deaths are due to CVD (mostly heart attacks and strokes)  Blood vessels and or heart Disorders of the blood vessels  Hypertension (high blood pressure) o Blood moves through vessels at a higher pressure than normal  Many risk factors: age, life style, genetics  Narrowing of diameter of arterioles  Reduced flexibility of arterioles o Is a Silent killer because there are few symptoms o Consequences  Increase work load for heart and arteries  Damage to arterial endothelium (less flexible)  Plaque formation (narrowing), thrombosis  Thickening of heart muscles (less flexible, less effective) o Can lead to:  Stroke  Vision loss  Heart failure  Heart attack  Erectile dysfunction  Kidney disease/failure  Atherosclerosis o Is a buildup of plaque in blood vessels (fat, cholesterol, calcium, etc.) Plaque: fat and cholesterol crystals o Plaque that is stationary is called a thrombus o Plaque that is detached and can move to distant sites is called an embolus o Associated with a stroke, heart attack and an aneurysm o Atherosclerosis in the heart  Coronary heart disease (CHD)  Narrowing and hardening of coronary arteries o Reduction in coronary blood flow and oxygenation o Silent or with angina (pain)  Triggers o If blood flow is cut-off:  Heart attack/myocardial infarction o Atherosclerotic plaque in coronary arteries  Coronary bypass surgery  Grafted vessels (e.g. saphenous vein)  Balloon angioplasty  Placing of stent  Stroke o Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Usually occurs when a cranial artery is blocked or bursts  Part of the brain dies due to a lack of oxygen  Symptoms may include:  Numbness of hands or face  Difficulty speaking  Inability to see in one eye  Can be on one side only  Heart attack o Also known as a myocardial infarction (MI)  Part of the heart dies due to lack of oxygen o Symptoms can vary but the most common ones are:  Chest pain or discomfort (center/left chest)  Pressure, squeezing, fullness, pain, indigestion  Upper body discomfort  Pain in arms, back, shoulder, neck, jaw  Shortness of breath  During rest and activity  (Tiredness, nausea, cold sweat, dizziness) o Sudden or over longer periods of time o If left untreated  Heart failure  death  Aneurysm o Is a ballooning of a blood vessel o Atherosclerosis & hypertension can weaken a vessel and cause ballooning o Most commonly affected area is the abdominal artery or the arteries leading to the brain o Treatment:  Medication to lower blood pressure  Surgery, stents Disorders of the heart  Heart failure o Heart cannot pump enough blood to meet the body’s need  Heart does not fill properly during diastole  Heart does not contract forcefully enough o Symptoms:  Shortness of breath, trouble breathing  Fatigue  Fluid build build-up:  Swelling ankles  Feet  Legs  Etc. o Treatment:  Medication to lower BP or reduce blood volume  Surgery (LVAD: left ventricle assist device) Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Heart transplant  Arrhythmia o Abnormal heart rhythm/rate  Medication  Pacemaker Chapter 6 Blood:  Composition: o Plasma o Blood cells o Proteins o Is a fluid connective tissue  Function: o Homeostasis o Defense o Transport  Formed elements o Red blood cells = erythrocytes o White blood cells = leukocytes o Platelets = thrombocytes  Plasma o 91% water & 9% salts (ions) and organic molecules o Plasma proteins are the most abundant organic molecules  Albumins: most abundant + important with osmotic pressure ( don’t leave formation)  Globulins: important in transport  Alfa-, Beta-, Gamma- globulin  Fibrinogens: formation blood clothes OVERVIEW SLIDE IMPORTANT Structure of red blood cells Four highly folded polypeptide chains  Hemoglobin o Binds with oxygen  Max 4 O 2  Specific shape of the polypeptide molecule (RBC) is important o Gives red color o Import with energy metabolism  Single file in capillary Production of red blood cells o Erythropoietin (EPO) increase RBC production o Live for 120 days Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 o Old RBC are destroyed / recycled by liver and spleen o Made in the red bone marrow Negative feedback system of EPO  Kidneys (EPO production)  Bone marrow (reacts to EPO -> makes red blood cells)  Number red cells  O2 set point Disorders involving RBC’s  Jaundice o Problems with elimination of heme (accumulation of bilirubin)  Neonatal jaundice  Large breakdown by baby’s -> yellow  Liver failure  Anemia o Low number of RBC and/or hemoglobin  Genetic: sickle-cell: prone to rupture  RBC life expectancy is about 90 days instead of 120  Dietary: B12 (pernicious anemia) or folate deficiency; low iron (iron- deficiency anemia)  Blood Loss: accident  Hemolysis: hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)- a condition with incompatible blood types (Rh factor incompatible!)  -> rupturing of blood cells (hemolysis) White blood cells  From stem cells in red bone marrow  Large blood cells with Nucleus  Regulated by colony-stimulating factors (CSF)  In tissue, blood, interstitial fluid and lymph  Important for immune system  Some live for only days, others almost forever (months/years) Types of WBC Granular leukocytes: Have noticeable granules Agranular leukocytes: Sparse, fine granules Not very noticeable Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Disorders involving WBC’s  Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) o Stem cells of WBC lack an enzyme adenosine deaminase  B & T lymphocytes do not develop o Genetic mutations prevents formation of lymphocytes o Treatment  Bone marrow transplantation  Gene therapy to replace malfunctioning gene  Leukemia: o Group of cancers affecting white blood cells  Proliferate without control o Therapy:  Chemotherapy  Radiation  Bone Marrow transplant (stem cell transplantation)  Infectious mononucleosis: o “kissing disease” Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects lymphocytes, spreads with saliva o Member of herpes virus family o One of the most common human viruses o Results in:  Fatigue  Sore throat  Swollen lymph nodes Platelets Called thrombocytes  Results from megakaryocytes in red bone marrow  About 200 billion are made every day  Help with forming blood clotting/ coagulation o Also with the proteins prothrombin & fibrinogen  Prevents blood loss o Hemostasis = inhibition of blood loss Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Homeostasis and blood clot formation Coagulation Disorders  Hemophilia (bleeding disorder) o Deficiency of one or more clotting proteins  Hemophilia A- Lack factor VIII  Today, can be made by genetic engineering to supplement hemophiliacs  Hemophilia B -Lack factor IX  Recessive x-link mutation o For sons: 50% chance of hemophilia o For daughters: 50% carrier B+¿ B−¿ o Carrier: 1 ¿ allele and 1 allele H H¿ o ‘the royal disease’  Thrombosis (obstructive clotting) o Obstruction of blood vessels by a blood clot (thrombus)  Embolism o Lodging of an embolus (blood clot) inside a blood vessel, blocking it  Some medication interfere with homeostasis o Aspirin o Warfarin (RAT POTION) Blood types Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Blood transfusion: administration of blood directly in blood stream Success depends on matching blood types o A, B, AB and O o Negative and positive Rh  Antigen: o A foreign (non-self) substance, often polysaccharide or a protein, that stimulates immune response  Antibody: o A protein made in response to an antigen in the body which binds specifically to that antigen Determining Blood types Presence and/or absence of 2 blood antigens, A & B on the surface of RBC Type of antibodies present Vb. Type A blood. RBC have type A surface antigens, plasma has anti-B antibodies B is reverse of A AB has both antigens on RBC surface O has both Antibodies in plasma Compatibility for blood transfusion is dependent on the antibodies of both parties  Rh factors: surface marker on RBC  Rh (D) factor positive or negative  Exposure to Rh+ blood can trigger antibody production in Rh- people o Disorder:  In pregnancy: Hemolytic disease of the newborn  Rh- mother, Rh+ father  Rh+ blood leaks from baby to mother, mothers immune system quickly produces antibodies against fetus RBC o = During next pregnancy  Fetus is attacked Preventing hemolytic disease of the newborn:  Rh (D) negative women are given an injection of anti-Rh antibodies no later than 72h after giving birth to an Rh+ baby  Antibodies attack fetal red blood cells before immune system can make antibodies  Will be repeated if necessary in later pregnancies Chapter 7 Lymphatic and immune system Functions of lymphatic system  Fluid transport: lymphatic capillaries absorb excess tissue fluid back to bloodstream  Lipid transport: Lymphatic capillaries (Lacteals) in the small intestine absorb fats associated with proteins Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Immune defense: production, maintenance, distribution of lymphocytes  Helps in defense against pathogens Components  Lymphatic vessels o One-way valve that carries fluid called LTMPH o Made of capillaries, vessels and ducts o Functions:  Return tissue fluids to the bloodstream (water, solutes and cell products)  Transport lipids from digestive system to circulation (lacteals)  Pick-up bacteria for destruction in lymph nodes o Larger vessels are similar to structure of veins ( also valves ) Primary Lymphatic organs  Red Bone Marrow (myeloid tissue) o Stem cell production o Selected bones  Fener  Humerus  Pelvic bone  Sternum (blauw, borstbeen)  Vertebrae o Also produce white blood cells  Neutrophils  Eosinophils  Basophils  Lymphocytes  B cells (B lymphocytes) o Mature in bone marrow o Any B cell that harms body cells is removed in the bone marrow before it can do damage  T cells (T lymphocytes) o Mature in the thymus  Monocytes  Thymus o Above the heart o Bi-lobed o Largest in children and shrinks o Functions:  Produces thymic hormones like thymosin  Aids in maturation of T lymphocytes  May also have other functions in immunity  Immature lymphocytes migrate from red bone marrow here to mature  Only about 5% of these cells ever leave the Thymus  Critical role in functioning T cells as a response to specific pathogens Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Secondary Lymphatic Organs  Lymph nodes o Small, bean-shaped structures o Filled with  B cells  T cells  Macrophages o Common in  Neck  Armpit  Groin region o Filtering lymph to identify and fight infections o Lymphatic nodules:  Concentration of lymphoid tissue, not surrounded by a capsule  Vb. Tonsils  First to encounter pathogens that enter by nose & mouth o Peyer patches:  Located in intestine wall and tissue within the appendix  Encounter pathogens that enter the body by the intestinal tract  Spleen o Large organ (similar to lymph nodes) o Filtering blood: removal of RBC, recycling iron o White pulp: antibody producing B lymphocytes o Red pulp: monocytes and macrophages Innate immune defenses  First line o Barriers: physical and chemical  Skin, mucous membranes, perspiration, saliva and tears  Second line: o Protective proteins: complement proteins & interferons  Complement (system)  Group of blood plasma proteins  Complement certain immune responses o Involved in the inflammatory response by binding to mast cells  Causing them to release histamine o Attract phagocytes to pathogens by binding them o Form a membrane attack complex that makes holes in some bacteria and viruses  Causing them to burst  Interferons: communication molecules  Proteins produced by virus-infected cells Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 o Get sent out to warn neighboring healthy cells  Infected cells: apoptosis  = controlled cell death  Uninfected cells: destroy viral RNA and reduce protein synthesis  Are active immune cells o Phagocytes and natural killer cells o Phagocytosis  Captures bacterium  Surrounds bacterium  Becomes enclosed in vesicle  Fuses with lysosome  Lysosomal enzymes digest bacterium  Waste and debris are discarded o Inflammatory response (see picture below)  Symptoms  Red  Warm  Swollen  Hurt  Loss of function  Histamine: chemical mediator  Opens up blood vessels (vasodilation) o Heat -> fever -> increase metabolic processes o Redness -> increased oxygen and nutrients  Cytokines: chemical mediator  Chemo-attraction: o Neutrophils o Monocytes o Lymphocytes  Migration to injured area  Margination (WBC cling to capillary wall)  Diapedesis (WBC through capillary wall)  Phagocytosis  Pus may form  Area cleared of debris  Histamine  Capillaries leak fluid o … Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Specific- third line of defense / adaptive immune system  Specific pathogens when nonspecific defenses fails  Helps against cancer  Depends on actions of lymphocytes o B and T cells  B cells produce plasma cells and memory cells  Plasma cells produce specific antibodies  Memory cells are ready to produce antibodies in the future  T cells regulate immune response; produce various types of T cells  Cytotoxin T (Tc) cells kill virus-infected and cancer cells  Helper T (Th) cells regulate immunity  Memory T (Tc & Th) cells are ready to kill in the future o Antibodies  Antigen detection o Antigens  = markers of NON-SELF  Substance that mobilizes immune system  Proteins, polysaccharides  Markers of SELF  Major Histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins  (re: blood type markers)  Clonal selection model Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 o B cells: produce specific ‘detection antennae’ during maturation  = BCR: B-cell receptor 1. Antigen recognition  AG binds to specific BCR 2. B cell activation + cloning  Plasma cells: AB production  Memory cells: retain AG formation 3. Cytokines stimulate cloning = Clonal expansion  More plasma cells  More B-memory cells Structure of antibodies: Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  T cell mediated immunity o T cell-mediated immunity against virus- infected cells and cancer cells o Produced in bone marrow o Mature in thymus o T cell activation upon presentation of antigen o Antigen-Presenting cells (APC) o MHC: Major Histocompatibility Complex = marker of self o APC activates T cell @ TCR => clonal expansion and maturation  Helper T cells  Secrete cytokines that control/activate immune response  Memory Th cells  Cytotoxin Tc cells activate o Immune defense activation by surface proteins changing in infected cells, cancer cells and APC  Cytotoxic T cells  Have vacuoles containing granzymes and perforins  Perforins punch holes in target cells  Granzymes cause cell to undergo apoptosis Acquired immunity  = the ability to combat diseases and cancer o Can be brought about naturally through an infection or artificially through medical intervention  2 types of immunity o Active immunity  = body makes antibodies against a particular antigen  Natural infection or through immunization involving vaccines  Primary immune response: o First encounter with antigen -> recognition + clonal expansion of B & T cells; production of memory cells o Lag time for AB production  Secondary immune response o Recognition and clonal expansion o Fast and increased AB production (thanks to memory cells)  Long lasting immunity  Depends on memory B & T cells Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 o Passive immunity  = An individual is given antibodies against a particular antigen  Short-lived immunity o Can happen naturally as antibodies are passed across the placenta or during breastfeeding o Can happen artificially through an injection of antibodies Hypersensitivity reactions  Allergies o Hyper-reaction of the immune system to an allergen  Vb. Dust mites, hay fever, food allergies,… o Hypersensitivity reaction, excessive inflammatory response mediated by IgE (located on mast cells)  Localized: only affect exposed area  Systemic: affect several organ systems  Histamine release causes o Bronchoconstriction o Vasodilation o Capillary permeability  IgE as gate-keeper  IgE evolved as defense against parasites o Allergic reactions in skin, gut & lungs  Very early recognition of foreign material (gate-keeper)  General potentiation of immune response  Physiological reaction to rid body of foreign material o Sneezing, coughing, mucus production (runny nose)  Anaphylactic shock o Severe systemic allergic reaction  By food, insect bites/slings, medication o Fast onset and life threatening  Massive release of inflammatory mediators (histamine)  Symptoms: swelling, itching, difficulty breathing, vomiting circulatory collapse, low blood pressure o Emergency: Epinephrine injection (Counters shock) Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Tissue rejection o Organ transplantation: donor organs  MHC foreign (antigens) o Tissue rejection can occur when cytotoxin T cells respond to tissue that isn’t recognized as ‘self’ o Can be controlled by giving patients immunosuppressive drugs and by transplanting organs that have the same/ very similar MHC proteins o Currently:  Trying to grow organs in the lab that can be transplanted with less rejection  Immune system disorders (Auto-immune diseases) o Autoimmune disease  Defective recognition of ‘self’  Vb.  Multiple sclerosis, myasthenia & rheumatoid arthritis  Neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus o Least understood yet most prevalent manifestation of lupus o Immunodeficiency disease  A disease where the immune system is compromised  Vb.  AIDS & SCID Chapter 8 Microbes  Microbes are very abundant o Microbiome: 10x more bacterial cells than own cells  We use microbes to make foods and drugs  Are important as decomposers to recycle nutrients  Some cause diseases o = pathogens  Include o Bacteria o Viruses o Prions o Other organisms such as fungi, multicellular parasites  Are much smaller than eukaryotic cells Bacteria  Single-celled prokaryotic organisms  Almost all have a cell wall  DNA in a single chromosome o No nucleus  Three common shapes o Coccus (sphere shaped) Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 o Bacillus (rod-shaped) o Spirillum (curved, sometimes spiral-shaped)  Have ribosomes  Some have accessory rings of DNA o = Plasmids  Almost all have a cell wall o Contains unique amino disaccharides  Some have a Capsule around the cell wall o Is a gel like coating o Allows bacteria to stick to surfaces and prevent white blood cells from taking them in  Typically reproduce by Binary fission o Results in 2 identical cells  Some have Flagella o Tail like appendages o Allowing them to move  Some have Fimbriae o Stiff fibers o Allow them to adhere to surfaces such as host cells  Some have a Pilus o Elongated hollow appendage o Used to transfer DNA  Like genes to be resistant to antibiotics  Process is called conjugation Viruses  Small, nonliving obligate parasites  Reproduce in living host  Are acellular o Not composed of cells  Have an outer protein coat o = Capsid o With nucleic acid inside (DNA or RNA) o Some also contain enzymes to help reproduce  Some have an envelope  Are specific to which cell type they will attach to and enter  Relies on host’s enzymes and ribosomes for its own reproduction Prions  Are infectious misfolded protein particles  Cause degenerative disease of the nervous system o Vb.  Bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE, ‘mad cow disease’)  Creutzfeld-Jacob disease (CJD)  Normal proteins change their shape and lose their function (protein folding)  Can cause other proteins to fold o -> spreading of disease Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Infectious diseases  Epidemic: More cases of the disease than expected in a certain area for a certain period  Outbreak: The epidemic is confined to a local area  Pandemic: a global apidemic Determination of Heath Risk  Transmissibility o How easily it is passed on  Mode of transmission o Respiratory o Fecal-oral o Body fluids  Virulence o How much damage is caused by the infection Hiv  History of HIV o Origins:  in Africa  originally found in nonhuman primates  may have mutated o Exact date of first human cases is still being investigated o First documented death in the us was in 1969 o HIV was found to be the cause of AIDS in 1983-1984  Immune deficiency o AIDS  = Acquired immune deficiency syndrome  Infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (hiv)  Retrovirus  RNA  HIV targets specific immune cells Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Retrovirus attaches to CD4 receptors of T helper cell  Transmission: body fluids  Blood  Semen  Breast milk  Vaginal secretions  Structure of HIV o Two single strands of RNA o Enveloped with spikes (Gp 120) o Carries 3 enzymes  Reverse transcriptase  Integrase  Protease  Phases of HIV Infection o Category A, Acute phase  Asymptomatic  Highly infectious  CD4 count above 500 cells/ mm3 o Category B, Chronic phase  Has one or more symptoms related to an impaired immune system  CD4 count between 200-499 cells / mm3 o Category C, AIDS  Has one or more of the opportunistic infections that eventually cause death  CD4 count below 200 cells/ mm3 Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Transmission and prevention of HIV o Transmission:  Sexual contact  Dirty needles  Blood transfusion  To baby from mother o Heterosexual sex is most common mode of transmission o HIV isn’t passed through casual contact o Prevention:  Abstinence  Sex with uninfected partner  Proper & consistent use of condoms  HIV testing and treatment o Test detects antibodies, not the virus itself o Most people develop antibodies within 2-8 weeks of infection but it can take 3-6 months o Treatments  Drug therapy:  Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)  Uses combination of drugs to inhibit HIP replication  Vaccines:  50 different preventive vaccines  30 therapeutic vaccines  AIDS vaccines o Difficulties in vaccine development  No vaccine has ever proven to be 100% effective at blocking a virus from entry into cells  HIV viruses are genetically different locally and globally  Vaccines may only provide Short-term protection from infection  Concerns that the vaccine may increase the chances of getting the disease or even cause the disease  HIV inserts its genetic material into human cells and hides it from the immune system  There is no ideal animal model for testing besides humans themselves Antibiotics  Molecules produced by microorganisms to fight other microorganisms (bacteria)  Penicillin (Alexander Fleming 1928)  Interfere with o Protein synthesis o Cell wall synthesis o Damaging cell wall structure o Metabolism Antibiotic resistance Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Penicillin was introduced in 1943 o Four years later, resistant bacteria were noted  Antibiotic use does not cause humans to become resistant to the drugs o Pathogens become resistant  Resistant strains of the TB bacterium and Staphylococcus aureus are of particular concern o Nosocomial infections  The best way to fight Antibiotic resistance is by using antibiotics wisely Chapter 9 Main steps in the digestive process  Ingestion o Intake of food via the mouth  Digestion o Mechanically or chemically breaking down foods into their subunits  Movement o Food must be moved along the GI tract in order to fulfill all functions o Normally by contraction of smooth muscles  = peristalsis  Absorption o Movement of nutrients across the GI tract wall into bloodstream to cells  Elimination o Removal of indigestible molecules  Through anus = Defecation Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Layers of the gastrointestinal tract  Lumen o Central, hollow area  Mucosa o Inner mucous membrane layer o Have glands that produce enzymes o Disorder:  Diverticulosis  Portions of the mucosa form pouches in the other layers  Food can collect here  When the pouches become infected or inflamed o =Diverticulosis  Often in large intestine (more specific: descending colon)  Submucosa o Broad band of loose connective tissue that contains  Nerves  Blood  Lymphatic vessels  Peyer patches:  Lymph nodules that protect us from diseases  Muscularis o Two layers of smooth muscle  Serosa o Outermost layer of tissue o Part of the peritoneum o Secretes a lubricating fluid The mouth  Contains teeth o Mechanical breakdown of food  Tongue o Covered in taste buds o Helps with mechanical breakdown of food o Movement of food  Hard palate o Contains several bones  Soft palate o Consists of muscle o Ends in uvula  Uvula o Finger shaped end of the soft palate  Tonsils o At the back of the mouth Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 o Lymphatic tissues; important in fighting diseases  Tongue forms a bolus (mass of chewed food) and moves it towards the pharynx Three pairs of salivary glands  Secrete saliva to the mouth by ducts o Saliva contains salivary amylase  Chemical digestion  Cleaving carbohydrates into smaller pieces o Also helps to moisten food, making it easy to chew  Mucin o Mucus like protein o Holding food particles for easy swallowing  Bicarbonate ( HCO 3 ) o Maintains the pH of the mouth 6,5-7,5  Lysozyme o Inhibits bacterial growth Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Peristalsis  Pushes food through esophagus  Continues in stomach and intestines  In Steps o In front of bolus: smooth muscle relaxes  Smooth muscle that encircle tubes and act as valves  = Sphincters o Behind bolus: muscles contract  Peristaltic wave of contraction o In stomach:  Mixing contents o In esophagus and intestines  Pushes contents forward The stomach  Functions: o Stores food o Start digestion of proteins o Control movement of chyme into small intestine  Layers of the stomach o Muscularis  3 layers of muscles  Allows it to stretch  Helps with mechanical digestion o Mucosa  Has deep folds  =rugae  Has gastric pits  Lead into gastric glands o Secrete gastric juice  Inside the stomach o Gastric juice contains  Pepsin  Breaks down proteins  HCl  Gives stomach a pH of 2 o Kills bacteria o Activates pepsin  Mucus  Has a bacterium ‘Helicobacter pylori’  Can cause gastric ulcers o Empties chyme into small intestine after 2-6 hours Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 The small intestine  Small diameter, very long tube (ong. 6m) o Large surface area for absorption  Functions o Digestion  Neutralizes acid from stomach  Adds digestive enzymes and bile  Breaks proteins, carbohydrates and lipids into absorbable materials o Absorption  95% of nutrients absorbed are absorbed here  Anatomy of the small intestine o Mucosa of small intestine  Modified for absorption  Contains fingerlike projections  = Villi  Has an outer layer of columnar epithelial o Each cell has thousands of microscopic extensions  =Microvilli  Also known as the brush border  Contains enzymes  = brush border enzymes  Contain o Blood capillaries  Sugars  Monosaccharides  Amino acids o Lymphatic capillaries  = a lacteal  Single glycerol molecules (= monoglycerides)  Fatty acids Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Nutrients into bloodstream  water soluble  broken down into smaller units  Active transport across mucosa Nutrients into lacteal  Lipophilic  Emulsified into small droplets  Diffuses across mucosa  Cholesterol emulsifies! Important enzymes in digestive tract Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Lactose intolerance Brush border enzyme Lactase is not present -> can’t digest lactose Accessory organs  Pancreas o Behind the stomach o Functions  Secretes enzymes into small intestine  Trypsin o Digests proteins  Lipase o Digests fats  Pancreatic amylase o Digests carbohydrates  Secretes bicarbonate into small intestine to neutralize stomach acids  Secretes insulin into blood to keep blood sugar levels under control  Liver o Largest gland in the body o 100 000 lobules  Serve as structural and functional units o Hepatic portal vein  Brings blood to liver from Gastrointestinal tract capillary bed o Capillaries from lobules filter blood  Detoxifies blood  Removes toxic substances o Functions  Metabolizes proteins, carbohydrates and fats  Synthesizes urea from amino acids  Stores glucose as glycogen  Removes iron, vitamins, A, D, E, K, and B 12 from the blood and stores them  Detoxifies blood  Synthesizes blood clotting factors, albumin  Destroys old RBC  Helps regulate cholesterol levels  Some cholesterol is converted to bile salts  Can regenerate o Makes approximately 1L bile a day  -> stored in Gallbladder  To be secreted in small intestine  Bile salts:  Helps digest/adsorb fats  Helps excrete toxic waste products  Gallbladder o Stores shit Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Endocrine and nervous system: regulate digestion Gastrin: enters bloodstream -> secretory activity of gastric glands increases Stimulated by proteins Secretin & CCK: Stimulate the pancreas to secrete digestive juice and the gallbladder to release bile The large intestine  Begins in Cecum  Then the Colon o Ascending colon o Transverse colon o Descending colon o Sigmoid colon  Ends in Rectum  Functions o Absorb water to prevent dehydration o Absorb vitamins (B complex & K)  produced by intestinal flora o Form & rid body of feces Classes of Nutrients = components of food that are needed to perform physiological body functions  Nutrients include: o Carbohydrates  = Sugar (simple) / polysaccharides (complex)  Important energy source  Grains, beans, tubers, nuts, fruits Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Glycemic index:  food effect on person’s blood glucose level  Harmful  Obesity  Insulin resistance (type 2 diabetes)  Cravings for sweets (sugar dependence) o Proteins  Digested into 20 different amino acids  Used to produce cellular proteins  Essential amino acids  8 that must be obtained by diet  Complete proteins that have all essential amino acids  Usually from meat/dairy  Non-animal sources:  Legumes, seeds, nuts o Lipids  Essential for every living cell  cell membrane, steroid hormone  Mechanical protection  Cushions, insulation  Storage for lipophilic vitamins  Source of energy  Saturated lipids  2 H for every C  Solid at room temperature  Meat, dairy products, palm kernel oil  Tend to raise LDL (‘bad’) cholesterol  Unsaturated lipids  Missing 1 or more H atoms  Liquid at room temperature  Tend to lower LDL  Plant sources o Olive, safflower, corn, canola oils  Linked with reduced heart disease  Essential fatty acids o Linoleic acid o Linolenic acid o Safflower/ corn oil  Harmful  CVD o Often result of arteries blocked by plaque made of cholesterol & saturated fats  Cholesterol assembled in liver and released in blood stream  Cholesterol can’t dissolve in blood o Lipoproteins Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Saturated fats and trans-fat increase LDL o Minerals  Body contains more than 5g of each major mineral  Contains less than 5g of each trace mineral  Major minerals  Make up components of cells, body fluids and tissue  Minor minerals  Components of larger molecules  A varied and complete diet, usually provides necessary minerals  Calcium  Needed to make o Bone o Nerve conduction o Muscle contraction  1,000 mg/day early in life  1,300 mg/day after menopausal age  Calcium + Vit D -> needed to prevent bone loss o =osteoporosis  Sodium  Needed to regulate water balance  500 mg/day  Can increase hypertension when you have it o vitamin  organic compounds, used for metabolism and body doesn’t make a high enough quantity  Often coenzymes  Total 13 vitamins in 2 groups  Fat soluble o Vitamin D  Deficiency: Rickets Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Water soluble o Vitamin C  Deficiency: Scorbutus, scurvy  Ascorbic acid, essential for collagen synthesis deficiency  Causes: Lethargy, reduced RBC, gum disease, poor wound healing o Vitamin B1  Deficiency: beriberi  Thiamine required for ATP synthesis deficiency  Alcohol abuse (Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome)  Weight loss, emotional disturbances, impaired sensory perception o Vitamin B12  Deficiency  Neuropsychiatric symptoms (mania, psychosis)  Sensory & motor deficiency: spinal cord degeneration, seizures, dementia  Nerve damage o Antioxidants  = Chemicals that decrease rate of oxidation/ transfer of e-  Vit A, C, E  Common in fruits and vegetables Disorders Of colon and rectum  Diarrhea o Increased peristalsis and failure to reabsorb water o Due to either an infection or nervous stimulation Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Constipation o Feces are dry and hard o May be controlled with water and fiber  Hemorrhoids o Enlarged and inflamed blood vessels of the anus due to:  Chronic constipation  Pregnancy  Aging  Anal intercourse  Diverticulosis o Pouches of mucosa from weak spots in the muscularis layer  Can become infected  Often in the descending colon  Polyps and cancer o Small growths found in the epithelial lining that can be benign or cancerous Of the Gastrointestinal tract  Lactose intolerance o Lactase deficiency o Due to genetics (lactase persistence) o Congenital lactase deficiency (with babies) o Symptoms  Diarrhea  Gas  Abdominal cramps  Gluten intolerance o Celiac disease:  Immune system destroys villi  -> Malabsorption  Genetic, triggers (stress, surgery, pregnancy, infection)  Common! (1/150) Of the accessory organs  Liver o Inflammation of the liver  Hepatitis  Generally caused by viruses or toxic substances o A: transmitted by contaminated Food/Water o B & C: transmitted by contaminated blood/ body fluids  Cirrhosis  Loss of liver function through scarring  Alcoholism, hepatitis, fatty liver disease Feeding and Eating disorders (DSM-V)  Abnormal eating habits that damage individuals health  Serious but treatable mental illness (2-4)  Develop in adolescents Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Affect all kinds of people  Symptoms can very over time  4 types o Obesity  Long-term excess of caloric intake relative to energy expenditure  Defined as abnormal or excessive fat that presents a risk to health  Crude estimate is BMI  BMI higher than 30  Risk factors  Diabetes  Cardiovascular diseases  Cancer o Anorexia nervosa  Weight loss combined with distorted body image  Excessive dieting, intense fear of gaining weight  10 x increase risk of dying o Bulimia nervosa  Binge eating followed by purging (vomiting and/or laxative use) o Binge eating disorder  Recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food, lack of control  Severe, life-threatening, treatable Chapter 10 Cellular respiration: production of ATP Overview of the respiratory system Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Upper respiratory tract Nasal cavity  Functions o Filters  Hairs that filter small particles  Mucous membrane  Secreted mucus traps dust o Moistens  Under the mucous layer is the submucous layer  Contains a lot of capillaries  Also warms hair o Warms air o Smell/odor receptors  In narrow upper recesses of the nasal cavities o Ciliated cells o Act as odor receptors  Connected with sinuses Pharynx  Functions o Connection between nasal and oral cavities to larynx o Lymphoid tissue  3 parts o Nasopharynx o Oropharynx o Laryngopharynx  Tonsils o Form protective ring at the junction of oral cavity and pharynx o Contain lymphocytes Larynx  Functions o Passageway for air o Voice box o Cartilaginous structure o Epiglottis closing to prevent food from entering  Triangular box with as apex the adam’s apple  Vocal cords o Mucosal folds supported by elastic ligaments o Slit between the vocal cords = Glottis Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  When food is swallowed o Larynx is moved upwards against epiglottis Lower respiratory tract  Trachea o =Windpipe o Made from  Connective tissue  Smooth muscle  Reinforced by C-shaped cartilaginous rings o Anterior to the esophagus o Inside:  Mucous membrane  Lines the inside  Outer layer of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium  Goblet cells  Produce mucus  Traps debris in air o Contracts when coughing  Bronchial tree o Resembles trachea in structure o All smaller divisions of trachea until 1mm diameter  The smaller they become  Walls become thinner  Cartilage rings disappear o Lead into an elongated space  = Alveoli  Lungs o Pair of cone-shaped organs o Right lung has 3 lobes o Left lung had 2 lobes  Divided into lobules  Each lobule had a bronchiole serving many alveoli o Follow contours of the thoracic cavity (including diaphragm) o Each lung is enclosed by pleurae Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  2 layers of serous membrane  Produce serous fluid  Parietal pleurae o Adheres to the thoracic cavity  Visceral pleurae o Adheres to the surface of the lung  Stay together because of surface tension  Pleurisy  When these layers get inflamed  Caused by o Viral infection o Tuberculosis o Pneumonia  The Alveoli o 300 million in the lungs o Greatly increase surface area o Enveloped by blood capillaries  Separated by 1 layer of epithelium  Allows gas exchange o Lined with Surfactant  Act as a film to keep it open Two phases of breathing/ventilation  Inspiration o Active process of inhalation that brings air into the lungs  Expiration o Typically passive process of exhalation that expels air from the lungs Boyle’s Law  Ventilation is governed by this law  At a constant Temperature the pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its Volume Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Conscious control  Modify breath to speak and sing  Cardiac coherence  Able to hold breath temporary, but can’t override indefinitely; automatic control -> Medulla oblongata Medulla Oblongata  Autonomous nervous control o Respiratory -> inspiration o Cardiovascular -> heart rate o Vasomotor -Blood pressure o Reflex center -> sneezing, vomiting; swallowing, coughing Breathing control: Chemical control: 2 sets of chemoreceptors Sense drop in pH (increase protons)  Peripheral: Aortic and carotid bodies  Central: Medulla oblongata Incriease in protons due to increase of carbon dioxide levels in blood Exchange of gases in the body  Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged  Exchange is depended by diffusion  Diffuse from higher to lower partial pressure Gas exchange: External respiration: Passive diffusion between lung alveoli and the blood capillaries Carbon dioxide Protons: H+ & HCO3- -> H2CO3 Enzyme: carbonic anhydrase -> H2O + CO2 Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Oxygen Hb + O2 -> HbO2 Internal respiration  Exchange of gases between blood in the capillaries outside of the lungs and the tissue fluid Respiratory problems Upper respiratory tract infections Airborne pathogens, allergens, toxins Common infections of URT  Sinusitis: blockage of sinuses  Tonsillitis: inflammation of the tonsils  Laryngitis: infection of the larynx that leads to loss of voice  Otitis Media: infection of the middle ear Disorders of the lower respiratory system  Infection of the bronchi (bronchitis) or alveoli (pneumonia)  Increase mucus and pus production (part of inflammatory response) Virus/ bacterial infections  Tuberculosis o Mycobacterium tuberculosis, waxy coat provides protection  Infection by inhalation of droplets  Lung scaring  1/3 world population has latent TB (carrier, not ill, no transmitter)  Worlds top infectious killer (1.5M deaths in 2013), high risk of immune- compromised people HIV o Antibiotics for 6-9 months, Multidrug-resistant TB o Oral vaccine  Malignant mesothelioma o Life expectancy: 1-2y after diagnosis o Slow growing cancer o No active treatment o 35-45y latency  Emphysema o Obstruction airway o With smoke -> damage o Reduced surface for gas exchange o Slow  Asthma o Hyperreaction of airway to something from the outside o Often allergic reaction o Hypersensitive Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 o Inflammatory response o Symptoms  Spasmic contraction of muscles in traykia  More mucus & more pus -> more blockage  (Mucoviscidosis) cystic fibrosis o Gene defect results in thick, sticky mucus from exocrine glands (lungs, liver, pancreas)  Genetic mutation  Belgium: 1/20 carrier, ong. 1200 with CF, 1 baby/week born with CF  Patient (20y) ong 2y physical therapy, ong 3h/day therapy  Life expectancy limited: lung transplantation Chapter 16 Glands & hormones Endocrine system: collection of specialized cells, and tissue that secrete hormones  Endocrine glands o Ductless organs that secrete hormones into blood, interstitial fluid, lymph  Exocrine glands o Organs that secrete hormones into ducts that carry these products to other organs or outside the body  Hormones o Chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands o Circulate in the bloodstream o Act on specific cells in the body (target cells) that have appropriate hormone receptor Function of hormones Are chemical signals that promote communication between cells, body parts and individuals Regulatory messenger molecules Activate only specific target cells Only specific cells have receptors for specific hormones Much slower than nervous system Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Distance  Prostaglandins are local hormones that affect neighboring cells and thus not in the bloodstream  Pheromones Are chemical signals that influence the behavior of other individuals 2 modes of action  Action of second messenger system o Peptide hormones bind to a receptor in the plasme membrane causing the formation of cAMP which activates cascade of enzymes o Never inside cell  Activation of transcription o Steroid hormones are lipids that enter a cell and affect gene activity and thus protein synthesis Control of hormonal release  Hormones regulate homeostasis o When the system is out of balance, hormones are released  Feedback regulation of hormone release o Negative feedback  o Positive feedback  Very rare Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624 Endocrine glands  Hypothalamus o Connection/switch between nervous system and brain to endocrine system o Part of the limbic system, as big as an almond  Controls fundamental body functions  T, metabolic rate, thirst, hunger; sexual behavior, reproduction, circadial rhyth, emotional respons  Controls Pituitary gland (Activation or inhibition of ‘master’ gland o Produces 2 hormones (ADH, oxytocin)  Pituitary gland o Posterior pituitary  Neurosecretory cells produce ADH and oxytocin  These hormones move down axons to axon terminals  When appropriate they are secreted from axon terminals into the bloodstream  Also  Stores antidiuretic hormone ADH and oxytocin that are produced by the hypothalamus  Affect kidney tubules  Affect smooth muscles in uterus  Mammary glands o Anterior pituitary  ‘Master’ gland  Produces 6 different hormones  Controlled by hypothalamic-releasing and hypothalamic-inhibiting hormones  Steps:  Neurosecretory cells produce hypothalamic-releasing/inhibiting hormones  These are secreted into a portal system  Stimulates or inhibits production and secretion of an anterior pituitary hormone  Secretes its hormones into bloodstream  Affects:  Mammary glands  Bones, tissues  Ovaries, testes  Thyroid  Adrenal cortex  Thyroid -> see homeostatic control , Calcitonin -> less calcium  Parathyroids -> see homeostatic control , Parathyroid hormone -> more calcium  Adrenal gland + Adrenal cortex  Pancreas o Endocrine (islets of Langerhans): produces and secretes hormones  Insulin: secreted when blood glucose is high; stimulates the uptake of glucose by cells (muscle and liver): beta cells  Glucose -> glycogen -> proteins Glucose -> fat Gedownload door Henry Winter ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42729624  Glucagon: Secreted when blood glucose is low; stimulates the breaksdown of glycogen in the liver: alpha cells  Glycogen -> glucose Fat -> glycerol and fatty acids  Gonads o Testes o Ovaries