Role of Muslims in Geography PDF

The Role of Muslims in the field of Geography Hum 4125 1. Religious and Astrological Motivations for Geographic Studies  The institution of the Hajj, the orientation of Mosques towards Mecca, and the need to determine the Ka’...

The Role of Muslims in the field of Geography Hum 4125 1. Religious and Astrological Motivations for Geographic Studies  The institution of the Hajj, the orientation of Mosques towards Mecca, and the need to determine the Ka’bah’s direction for prayer encouraged Muslims to pursue Geography.  Astrology, requiring the determination of latitudes and longitudes worldwide, further influenced geographic knowledge. 2. Expansion and Influence of Muslim Trade  Muslim traders had traveled extensively—reaching China by sea and land, the island of Zanzibar and far coasts of Africa, and penetrating Russia on the north.  Their westward expansion was only stopped by the Atlantic Ocean, referred to as the ‘Sea of Darkness.’  Reports from returning merchants sparked popular interest in distant lands and foreign cultures. 3. Early Travel Narratives and Geographic Knowledge  Sulaiman the Merchant’s journeys to the Far East, recorded in 851, provide the first Arabic descriptions of China and India, noting the use of fingerprints by the Chinese as signatures.  These and similar narratives inspired the stories surrounding Sindbad the Sailor.  Ibn Fadlan, sent in 921 by Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir to the king of the Bulgars, recorded an early reliable account of Russia along the Volga River. 4. Translation and Adaptation of Classical Geographic Works  Ptolemy’s Geography, containing places located by latitude and longitude, was translated into Arabic and used as a model for later works.  Inspired by Ptolemy, al-Khwarizmi created Suratul Ardh (Image of the Earth), which included a map created by him and 69 other scholars under the direction of al-Mamun— the first Islamic map of the heavens and the world.  Al-Mas’udi consulted this map while writing geographical histories. 5. Emergence of Systematic Muslim Geographers  Al-Istarkhi (950) produced Masalik wal Mamalik, complete with colored maps for each country.  Ibn-Hawqal, at al-Istarkhi’s request, traveled as far as Spain to revise and later rewrite this geographical work.  Al-Maqdisi of Jerusalem, known for his original contributions, documented 20 years of travel in Ahsanut Taqsim fi Ma’rifatil Aqalim (The Best Classification of the Knowledge of Regions), covering all Muslim lands except Spain, Sijistan, and India. 6. Yaqut’s Comprehensive Contributions  Yaqut’s Mujamul Buldan, an encyclopedia in which place names are arranged alphabetically, contains a wealth of geographical knowledge, historical, ethnographic, and natural science information.  Yaqut is regarded as the greatest of the Eastern Muslim Geographers due to his extensive and systematic work. Al-Ma’mun as the Patron of Muslim Sciences Hum 4125 Al-Ma’mun was the most distinguished figure of the House of Abbas, if not of the whole Islamic world. He was a skilled and brave soldier as well as a good administrator. In his twenty years of reign as the Islamic Caliph of the Abbasid Dynasty, the intellectual movement in all directions of thought had flourished immensely, leaving a lasting impact up to this day. Intellectual advancements were not restricted to only one particular domain. Numerous branches such as Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine, Philosophy etc. had flourished under his leadership. Al-Ma’mun was devoted to knowledge. He realized the importance of education and culture in the upbringing of a civilization, for which he opened numerous schools and colleges in all directions. He gave freedom of conscience and religion. He made no discrimination based on creed or race and encouraged cooperation among diverse groups. As an advisory body for the Caliph, Al-Ma’mun established a Council of State composing of representatives from all communities including Muslims, Jews, Christians and others which also lessened the religious autocracy. The Mu’tazilites:  Al-Ma’mun had embraced the doctrine of Mu’tazila regarding subjects like free will and predestination.  Among the Muslims scholars, the orthodox belief about the Quran was that The Quran is the uncreated word of God.  Al-Ma’mun published an edict in 212 AH, by which the Mu’tazilite doctrine was declared the state religion, and the orthodox faith was condemned.  Al-Ma’mun ordered all his subjects to honor Ali (r) as the Best Creature of God after the Prophet (PBUH) and forbade the praise of Mu’awiya.  In 218 AH / 833 AD, an edict was published for all Muslim scholars to renounce the orthodox faith. Most scholars allied with the Caliph except a few who stood firm such as Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal, founder of the Hanbali School of Thought.  Ahmad bin Hanbal was imprisoned. Two successive Caliphs after Al-Ma’mun maintained the edict and ultimately, Ahmad bin Hanbal was flogged at their hands. Al-Ma’mun as the Patron of Muslim Sciences  Al-Ma’mun’s reign was highly significant in the intellectual history of Islam.  His reign was the revival of learning in both the East and the West.  His court was filled with men of science and letters, poets, physicians and philosophers despite being in the age of philologist and collector of traditions Al-Bukhari and of historian Al-Waqidi.  Christians were invited at his court for their expertise in both Arabic and the language & literature of Greece.  Al-Ma’mun completed the works of translations initiated by his grandfather, Al-Mansur.  He established the Bayt Al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom), the Grand Library of Baghdad. Al-Ma’mun as the Patron of Muslim Sciences Hum 4125 Translation Movement  The Muslims had translated every branch of knowledge from Greek, Sanskrit or Pahlavi (Middle Persian) mostly in Aramaic, before assimilating it or establishing the Bayt al- Hikmah.  Soon the translations started in Arabic.  Al-Ma’mun asked for books and extant materials from all countries.  Al-Ma’mun is said to have asked the Byzantine Emperor to send the savant Leo to Baghdad in exchange for five tons of gold.  Under the guidance of Al-Ma’mun, Sanskrit books, Persian Books, Greek Mathematics and Philosophy, Science of Euclid and Ptolemy were translated into Arabic.  Costa, son of Luke was appointed to translate Greek and Syrian books.  Yahya bin Harun was appointed to translate Persian books.  Duban the Brahman was appointed to translate Sanskrit books. According to W. Muir, “It was through the labours of these learned men that the nations of Europe, then shrouded in the darkness of the Middle Ages, became again acquainted with their own proper but forgotten patrimony of Grecian science and philosophy.”  The Persian language received a higher significance at the hands of Al-Ma’mun.  Poet Abbas, founder of modern Persian poetry and Al-Kindi, employed at the Bayt al- Hikmah and a translator of Greek works, flourished during this period.  The Age of Translation was soon succeeded by a period of original thinking and research.  Muslims sent the translation, along with their own contributions, to Europe which shaped the development of Chemistry, Medicine and Mathematics there.  The researches of Aristotle, Galen and Ptolemy would have been lost to the world, if the Muslims had not kept them preserved by translation. Establishing observatories An observatory was established in the plains of Tadmor during Al-Ma’mun’s reign, for the study of Astronomy and Geometry. It contributed to the advancements in astronomical observations. Philosophical Reunion  Al-Ma’mun was deeply interested in philosophical discussions.  The servants and scholars used to attend his chambers regularly to engage in philosophical discussions.  Al-Ma’mun sat apart every Tuesday fully for the purpose of philosophical discussions. Al-Ma’mun as the Patron of Muslim Sciences Hum 4125  Historians consider Al-Ma’mun’s reign as the most glorious epoch of Saracenic history and call it the ‘Augustan Age of Islam’. Intellectual Awakening of Muslims Influence of Persio-Hellenic culture helped the Muslims to play an important role in the intellectual firmament of the world. According to P.K. Hitti, “The awakening was due in large measure to foreign influence, partly Indo- Persian and Syrian, but mainly Hellenic and was marked by translation into Arabic from Persian, Sanskrit, Syriac and Greek.”