HSF 2 Test 1(2).pdf

HSF TEST 1 Special Senses 1. Describe the structure and function of accessory eye structures, eye layers, the lens, and humors of the eye. 2. Outline the causes and consequences of cataracts and glaucoma. 3. Trace the pathway of light through the eye to the retina, and explain how light is focused f...

HSF TEST 1 Special Senses 1. Describe the structure and function of accessory eye structures, eye layers, the lens, and humors of the eye. 2. Outline the causes and consequences of cataracts and glaucoma. 3. Trace the pathway of light through the eye to the retina, and explain how light is focused for distant and close vision. 4. Outline the causes and consequences of astigmatism, myopia, hyperopia, and presbyopia. 5. Describe the events that convert light into a neural signal. 6. Compare and contrast the roles of rods and cones in vision. 7. Compare and contrast light and dark adaptation. 8. Trace the visual pathway to the visual cortex, and briefly describe the steps in visual processing. 9. Describe the location, structure, and afferent pathways of smell receptors, and explain how these receptors are activated. 10. Describe the location, structure, and afferent pathways of taste receptors, and explain how these receptors are activated. 11. Describe the structure and general function of the outer, middle, and internal ears. 12. Describe the sound conduction pathway to the fluids of the internal ear. 13. Describe sound transduction. 14. Describe the pathway of impulses traveling from the cochlea to the auditory cortex. 15. Explain how we are able to differentiate pitch and loudness, and to localize the source of sounds. 16. Explain how the balance organs of the semicircular canals and the vestibule help maintain equilibrium. 17. List possible causes and symptoms of otitis media, deafness, and Ménière’s syndrome. Special Senses answers 1. Accessory eye structures include eyelids, eyelashes, and lacrimal apparatus, while eye layers consist of the sclera, choroid, and retina. The lens focuses light, and humors (aqueous and vitreous) maintain eye shape. 2. Cataracts result from lens clouding, impacting vision. Glaucoma involves increased intraocular pressure, potentially causing optic nerve damage. 3. Light enters through the cornea, passes through the aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor, and reaches the retina. Accommodation adjusts lens shape for near and distant vision. 4. Astigmatism results from uneven corneal curvature, myopia from elongated eyeball, hyperopia from shortened eyeball, and presbyopia from aging lens. 5. Light stimulates photoreceptor cells in the retina, triggering a neural signal. 6. Rods function in low light, providing black and white vision, while cones operate in bright light, enabling color vision. 7. Light adaptation adjusts eyes to bright conditions, while dark adaptation enhances vision in low light. 8. Visual information travels from the retina to the optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic tract, and finally to the visual cortex for processing. 9. Smell receptors are located in the olfactory epithelium, activated by odor molecules, with afferent pathways to the olfactory bulb. 10. Taste receptors, located on taste buds, are activated by chemicals in food, with afferent pathways to the gustatory cortex. 11. Outer ear includes the pinna, middle ear consists of the tympanic membrane and ossicles, while the inner ear houses the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals. 12. Sound travels through the external auditory canal, vibrates the tympanic membrane, and moves the ossicles to transmit sound to the internal ear fluids. 13. Sound transduction involves the bending of hair cells in the cochlea, triggering nerve impulses. 14. Auditory impulses travel through the cochlear nerve, vestibulocochlear nerve, and auditory pathways to the auditory cortex. 15. Differentiation of pitch and loudness is related to specific hair cell stimulation, while sound localization relies on comparing signals from both ears. 16. Semicircular canals and vestibule of the inner ear contribute to equilibrium maintenance by detecting head movements and position. 17. Otitis media results from middle ear inflammation, deafness can be caused by various factors, and Ménière’s syndrome involves inner ear fluid imbalance, leading to vertigo and hearing loss. Endocrine system 1. Indicate important differences between hormonal and neural controls of body functioning. 2. List the major endocrine organs, and describe their body locations. 3. Distinguish between hormones, paracrines, and autocrines. 4. Describe how hormones are classified chemically. 5. Describe the two major mechanisms by which hormones bring about their effects on their target tissues 6. Explain how hormone release is regulated. 7. Identify factors that influence activation of a target cell by a hormone. 8. List three kinds of interaction of different hormones acting on the same target cell. 9. Describe structural and functional relationships between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. 10. Discuss the structure of the posterior pituitary, and describe the effects of the two hormones it releases. 11. List and describe the chief effects of anterior pituitary hormones. 12. Describe the effects of the two groups of hormones produced by the thyroid gland. 13. Follow the process of thyroxine formation and release. 14. Indicate general functions of parathyroid hormone. 15. List hormones produced by the adrenal gland, and cite their physiological effects 16. Briefly describe the importance of melatonin 17. Compare and contrast the effects of the two major pancreatic hormones. 18. Describe the functional roles of hormones of the testes, ovaries, and placenta. 19. State the location of enteroendocrine cells. 20. Briefly explain the hormonal functions of the heart, kidney, skin, adipose tissue, bone, and thymus. Endocrine system (answers) 1. Hormonal controls involve chemical messengers (hormones) carried by the bloodstream, while neural controls use nerve impulses. 2. Major endocrine organs include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries (in females), and testes (in males). 3. Hormones are long-distance chemical messengers, paracrines act locally, and autocrines affect the same cell that released them. 4. Hormones are classified chemically as amino acid-based or steroid hormones. 5. Hormones exert effects through binding to receptors or by altering membrane permeability. 6. Hormone release is regulated by negative feedback mechanisms, influenced by factors like blood levels or nervous system signals. 7. Factors influencing target cell activation include hormone concentration, receptor number, and affinity. 8. Interactions of different hormones on the same target cell include synergism, antagonism, and permissiveness. 9. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland through releasing and inhibiting hormones, forming the hypothalamic-pituitary axis. 10. The posterior pituitary stores and releases oxytocin and vasopressin, impacting childbirth, breastfeeding, and water balance. 11. Anterior pituitary hormones include growth hormone, prolactin, thyroidstimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone. 12. Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism (T3 and T4), and calcitonin influences calcium homeostasis. 13. Thyroxine (T4) is produced in the thyroid follicles and released into the bloodstream. 14. Parathyroid hormone regulates calcium levels in the blood and bone. 15. Adrenal glands produce hormones such as cortisol, aldosterone, and adrenaline, affecting metabolism, electrolyte balance, and stress response. 16. Melatonin, produced by the pineal gland, regulates the sleep-wake cycle. 17. Insulin lowers blood sugar, while glucagon raises it, illustrating the balance in pancreatic hormone effects. 18. Testes produce testosterone, ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone, and the placenta produces hormones supporting pregnancy. 19. Enteroendocrine cells are found in the digestive tract and release hormones regulating digestion. 20. Various organs produce hormones with roles in cardiovascular function, fluid balance, metabolism, immune response, and bone development. Blood 1. List the functions of blood. 2. Describe the composition and physical characteristics of whole blood. Explain why it is classified as a connective tissue. 3. Discuss the composition and functions of plasma. 4. Describe the structure, function, and production of erythrocytes. 5. Describe the chemical composition of hemoglobin. 6. Give examples of disorders caused by abnormalities of erythrocytes. Explain what goes wrong in each disorder. 7. List the classes, structural characteristics, and functions of leukocytes. 8. Describe how leukocytes are produced. 9. Give examples of leukocyte disorders, and explain what goes wrong in each disorder. 10. Describe the structure and function of platelets 11. Describe the process of hemostasis. List factors that limit clot formation and prevent undesirable clotting. 12. Give examples of hemostatic disorders. Indicate the cause of each condition. 13. Describe the ABO and Rh blood groups. Explain the basis of transfusion reactions. 14. Describe fluids used to replace blood volume and the circumstances for their use. 15. Explain diagnostic importance of blood testing 16. How does hematopoiesis work? Blood (answers) 1. Blood functions include oxygen transport, nutrient delivery, waste removal, immune defense, clotting, and regulation of body temperature and pH. 2. Whole blood is composed of plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets). Classified as connective tissue due to cells suspended in an extracellular matrix (plasma). 3. Plasma is a straw-colored liquid containing water, electrolytes, proteins, hormones, and waste products. Functions include nutrient and waste transport, immune response, and clotting support. 4. Erythrocytes (red blood cells) transport oxygen. Biconcave disc shape increases surface area, lacks a nucleus, and produced in the bone marrow. 5. Hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in erythrocytes, consists of four globin protein chains and heme groups containing iron. 6. Disorders like anemia (low RBCs), sickle cell anemia (abnormal hemoglobin), and polycythemia (excess RBCs) affect erythrocytes. 7. Leukocytes (white blood cells) are divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes, with functions including immune response and defense against pathogens. 8. Leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow through hematopoiesis. 9. Leukocyte disorders include leukemia (uncontrolled WBC production) and neutropenia (low neutrophil count), affecting immune function. 10. Platelets aid in clotting by forming a temporary plug at injury sites. 11. Hemostasis involves vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation, and coagulation. Factors limiting clot formation include anticoagulants and fibrinolysis. 12. Hemostatic disorders include hemophilia (clotting factor deficiency) and thrombosis (undesirable clot formation). 13. ABO and Rh blood groups involve antigens on RBCs. Transfusion reactions occur if mismatched blood is transfused. 14. Fluids like saline or plasma expanders replace blood volume in cases of hemorrhage or dehydration. 15. Blood testing aids in diagnosing conditions, measuring blood cell counts, identifying infections, and assessing organ function. 16. Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell formation that occurs primarily in the bone marrow. Here's a simplified overview: Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs): These are undifferentiated cells with the potential to become various blood cell types. They reside in the bone marrow. Multi-potent Progenitor Cells: HSCs give rise to multipotent progenitor cells that can differentiate into either myeloid or lymphoid progenitor cells. Myeloid Progenitor Cells: Differentiate into various myeloid cells, including red blood cells, platelets, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Lymphoid Progenitor Cells: Give rise to lymphocytes, including T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells. Maturation and Circulation: The differentiated cells undergo further maturation, and functional blood cells are released into the bloodstream to perform their specific roles in the immune system (lymphocytes) or in oxygen transport and clotting (myeloid cells). This continuous and regulated process ensures the production of a balanced and functional array of blood cells to maintain homeostasis and respond to the body's needs. Cytokines, growth factors, and other signaling molecules play crucial roles in regulating hematopoiesis at various stages. Extra stuff Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) is a peptide hormone that plays a crucial role in the regulation of the adrenal cortex. Here's an overview: Structure: ACTH is a polypeptide hormone and is part of the proopiomelanocortin (POMC) family of peptides. POMC is a precursor molecule that is enzymatically cleaved to yield various bioactive peptides, including ACTH. Functions: 1. Stimulation of Cortisol Production:ACTH primarily stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce and release cortisol, a glucocorticoid hormone involved in various physiological processes such as metabolism, immune response, and stress regulation. Regulation and Production: 1. Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis: ACTH is regulated by the hypothalamus-pituitaryadrenal axis. The hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release ACT 2. Negative Feedback: Cortisol, the end product of ACTH action, exerts negative feedback on the HPA axis. Elevated cortisol levels signal the hypothalamus and pituitary to reduce the release of CRH and ACTH, respectively, maintaining a delicate balance. 3. Circadian Rhythm and Stress: ACTH secretion follows a circadian rhythm, peaking in the early morning. Additionally, stress can trigger an increased release of ACTH and cortisol. Understanding ACTH's regulation is essential for comprehending its role in responding to stress, maintaining homeostasis, and contributing to the body's adaptation to various physiological challenges.