HS1003 Condensed notes.docx

Major Theoretical Perspectives 1. Psychoanalytical – Freud, Erikson 2. Learning – Skinner, Bandura, Pavlov 3. Cognitive – Piaget, Information-processing 4. Contextual – Bronfenbrenner, Vygotsky5. Adult specific – Normative-crisis, timing-of-eventsFreud Erikson’s Theory (Neo-Freudian expanded & m...

Major Theoretical Perspectives 1. Psychoanalytical – Freud, Erikson 2. Learning – Skinner, Bandura, Pavlov 3. Cognitive – Piaget, Information-processing 4. Contextual – Bronfenbrenner, Vygotsky5. Adult specific – Normative-crisis, timing-of-eventsFreud Erikson’s Theory (Neo-Freudian expanded & modified theory)Identified 8 stages of development each in the form of a crisis - the personmust resolve to develop a fully functioning personality. Focused on the social and cultural influencesConflicts never fully resolved – may affect later development Development of ‘virtue’Stage 1 Trust vs Mistrust (Birth – 1 year) Infants with infant-caregiver synchrony and secure attachment develop trust and hope - building blocks of social & emotional development. Mistrust occurs when infants are handled harshly.  infants develop abilities (walking, thinking, communication) that lead to lessdependence on parents -> increased autonomyStage 2 Autonomy vs Shame and doubt (1-3 years) Child must balance demands for self control with demands for control fromparents and others (healthy autonomy). If when toddlers make their own choices their autonomy is not supported-> conflict, a pattern of self blame and doubt may develop (-> shy, unsure, overlydemanding, self critical, unable to undertake new activities freely) Purpose: ‘Will’. Capacity to make choices based on realistic knowledge ofwhat is expected and what is possible. Stage 3 Initiative vs. Guilt (preschool years - 3-6 years) Conflict arises between sense of purpose and growing conscience (guilt);Desire to do vs. desire for approval Purpose: Courage to envision and pursue goals without inhibition of guilt orfear of punishment Stage 4 Industry vs Inferiority (6-12 years) Resolution of conflict leads to striving for excellence (achievement motivation) Failure to resolve conflict leads to feelings of inadequacy, poor self esteem Marcia’s identity status model: Stage 5 Identity vs Role Confusion (12-19 years) Establishing identity is the major task in adolescence. Identity formation is an ongoing process, the conflict isn’t resolved - balanced. Stage 6 Intimacy vs. isolation (19-25 years) Identity is necessary for intimacy to develop. The capacity to commit oneself and to abide by the commitments.Virtue is ‘love’Stage 7 Generativity vs Stagnation (25-50 years old) Generative acts (agentic, communal) - link between generativity and well-being. Middle-aged and older adults generally express higher generative commitments compared to young adults, perhaps because the tasks and circumstances young adults face do not encourage them to express generativity. Stage 8 Integrity vs Despair (50+ years) Integrity vs. despair – resolution of conflict produces wisdom - acceptance without major regrets. Some despair inevitable but can be outweighed by integrity.identity  generativity  ego integrity (acceptance of life and acceptance of the approach of death) Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Change a behaviour based on what happens after the voluntary behaviour (positive reinforcement or negative punishment). If the behaviour is reinforced in increases the probability of it occurring again. Importance of reinforcing desirable traits, focuses on the child acquiring individual specific behaviours, rather than whole personality traits. Social Cognitive Learning Theory (Bandura) Behaviors are learned primarily through observing & imitating models + reward and punishment. Imitation - Child is directly repeating or copying the actions of others Modelling - Child learns through indirect reinforcement the behaviours and personality traits of a parent or other model.Learner is active – reciprocalForm standards for judging their actionsDevelopment of self-efficacyLimitations: Narrow focus, unable to explain complex behaviourClassical Conditioning (Pavlov) Change a behaviour based on what happens before the behaviour happens. Use a stimulus to elicit a behaviour.Stimulus + behaviour  stimulus -> behavior. E.g. stroke while feeding; stroke and baby sucklesHelps infants anticipate what will happen as environment becomes more predictable and ordered.Piaget’s Cognitive Stages Cognition and ability to understand develops from maturation and experience (gradually as the child grows) Cognitive development involves: growth of amount of information; different manner of thinking Emphasises importance of object orientated and symbolic play. Sensorimotor Stage 1: early reflexes (0-1 months) Cognitive development begins with reflexes (help more complex skills develop) -> assimilates and accommodatesStage 2: primary circular reactions (1-4 months) After modifying early reflexes, babies begin to build and differentiate action (motor) schemes rapidly. Stage 3: secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) Repetitions motivated by external objects and events -> actions for expected REACTION (means to an end) -> infants combine schemes to produce interesting results. Stage 4: combined secondary circular reactions (8-12 months) Infant intentionally chooses to use scheme as means to an end -> use events to obtain goal Develops OBJECT PERMANANCE. Stage 5: tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months) Infant deliberately varies schemes for producing interesting results -> builds on stage 4. Dealing with new object = trial and error to learn about. Stage 6: first symbols (18-24 months) Transitional period between SENSORIMOTOR and PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGES. Motor schemes previously explored/practiced  symbolically Birth – 2 years Preoperational More dramatic changes: significant cognitive advances, particularly language.Still limitations in thinking: pre-operations – not yet able to perform operations (mental manipulations) 2 – 7 years Concrete operationsAbility to perform operations (mental actions on concrete situations), resolve difficulties with conservation, classify objects, seriation, spatial reasoning.Learn through concrete situations – actively experiment, manipulate, learn (active engagement with environment) 7 – 11 yearsFormal operationsAbstract way of thinking that typifies Adolescence and Adulthood. Hypo-thetico-deductive Reasoning (systematic, scientific approach) Propositional Reasoning (making logical inferences from premises which are presented as true, may not be factually true). Only half of adults achieve formal operational thought. Post formal thinking: a pragmatic approach to ambiguous problems, formal operations used as a problem solving tool11 years – adulthoodInformation-Processing Theory Consider human mind as a symbol-manipulating system. Active learners but not in stages – accumulated knowledge (age-relateddevelopment). E.g. The infant organises sights/sounds and attaches meanings to them.Attachment and responsiveness to sound nurtures and supports the infant’sexploration of the environment. Approaches: Sternberg’s (1994, 1997) triarchic theory of intelligence Examines 3 realms of cognition: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Abilities are not distinctive, not overlapping, may be in pure form: Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems Theory Child is viewed as developing within a complex system of interrelationshipsthat are affected by differing aspects of the surrounding environment andbiological dispositions. Microsystem: home environment of parents, siblingsMesosystem: neighbourhood play area, child care centre Exosystem: systems that affect the child’s experiences in immediate settings such asworkplace environments, community health services, extended family Macrosystem: customs, laws, cultural values of society. Goodness of fit model: describes the interactions between infanttemperament and environmental pressures. Involves creating environments that recognise a child’s temperament whileencouraging positive adaptive behaviours. Success at maintaining high levels of caregiver-infant synchrony related to goodness of fit between their: stress levels, personality characteristics, attitudes, expectations, characteristics of babies, needs of babies.Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory Emphasizes social interaction in developmentZone of Proximal Development (ZPD): activities child can almost perform.Knowledge is relocated as competence develops (ZPD extends) Tasks can be achieved with guidance (scaffolding, 5 main benefits:) Structures support Allows the learner to accomplish a task not otherwise possible Functions as a cognitive tool Used selectively to aid the learner when/where needed Extends the range of the learner Timing of Events: Social Clocks Describe and explain patterns of behaviour Social clock - cultural and generational differences reflect different expectations (on time/off time) Normative-Crisis Erikson – Intamacy vs Isolation Levinson’s Model // seasons of adult lives Model of Social Competence 1. Attend to and encode social cues 2. Interpret cues 3. Construct or retrieve response 4. Evaluate efficacy and likely effect or response 5. Enactment of response Language Development (infants learn very rapidly) 1. Mastering language structures (sound and organisation) 2. Learning how language uses oPhonology: speech sounds, their distribution and pattern. (41 phonemes: sounds distinctive to English) oLexicon/vocabulary (words)First words (learning 5-6 new words a day between 18-24 months)  adult vocab = ~40,000 words oSemantics (meanings) oPragmatics: rules which govern the use of language used to communicate in social situations (appreciation of context, intonation, turn-taking) oSyntax: part of language used to create sentences putting words together – mastering complex grammarMoral Development Prospect theory (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974) Balance between potential risk or gainPerception more important than actualityBiases due to retrievability of instances Moral Development: Kohlberg’s theory:1. Heteronomous morality; ethics of punishment and obedience 2. Instrumental purpose; ethics of exchange 3. Interpersonal normative morality; ethics of peer opinion 4. Social system orientation; conformity to social system; ethics of law and order 5. Social contract orientation; ethics of social contract and individual rights 6. Ethics of self-chosen universal principles Moral Development: Gilligan’s theory: Perceived a Gender bias in Kohlberg’s work 1. Survival orientation – egocentric concern for self, lack of awareness of others 2. Conventional care – lack of distinction between what others want and what is right 3. Integrated care – integration of needs of self, of others, and what’s right. Theories of Biological Aging Senescence – breakdown of the surveillance, repair and replacement process (2 categories of theories:) 1. Programming Theories Rate of Living Theory – the faster an organism metabolises oxygen, the younger it dies Other theories – result of genetically determined developmental timetable, hayflick limit2. Cellular or variable rate theories Focuses on processes that take place in breakdown of cells, tissues, and organs. Wear and tear weakens system, genetic errors lead to cell death and degeneration. Theories of successful ageingActivity Theory: active participation in social roles. Activities affect well-being through self-efficacy, mastery, and control. Disengagement Theory: greater reduction in social involvement and greater preoccupation with self Introspection and reflection Critique: little support -> reduced satisfaction, exclusionContinuity Theory: connection between past and present – balance of continuity and change (internal/external) The stages of coping with death1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance Reflexes Survival Reflexes - either remain permanent or become partly voluntary: Breathing, Swallowing, Eye blink, Pupillary reflex (permanent), Sucking reflex Rooting: head turns to side of cheek being stroked, mouth opens ready to feed. Primitive Reflexes Moro Reflex: (alarm -> startle reflex). Drop baby’s head back/loud noise. Baby throws arms outwards, arches back, brings arms back together. Grasping Reflex: curling fingers around any small object put into baby’s palm. Asymmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex (ATNR): when laid on back, head turns to side, arm and leg extend to same side, limbs on opposite side flex. Babinski: bottom of foot is stroked, toes fan and then curl. Postural Reflexes - important for balance, stability, postural tone, muscle tone. Head righting reflex (labarynthine): ensure head maintains a midline position. Segmental rolling reflex (de-rotative rolling): Movement starts at head, follows to shoulders, chest, pelvis, or vice versa. Parachute: protective movement in response to changes in centre of gravity. Tilt forwards and arms bend. Locomotor Reflexes (appear very early – disappear ~4-5mo). Similar to voluntary movement patterns.• Stepping reflex (birth to 5 months) • Swimming reflex (11 days to 5 months) • Crawling reflex (birth to 4 months) • Moving in place Types of Play Types of Play: Social perspective Parten (1932)Type Description and examples Unoccupied play The child wanders about, watching whatever is of momentary interest, but does not become involved in any activity.Solitary play The child plays alone with different toys/objects and with no awareness of or involvement with other children.Onlooker play The child watches others play without actually entering into the activities; is clearly involved with what is happening and usually is within speaking distance of the participants.Parallel play Involves two or more children playing side by side in close proximity with an awareness of each other, often same toys or similar activity; but do not share, talk or interact (very minimal). Associative play Children engage in a common activity and talk about it with each other, but do not assign tasks or roles to particular individuals and are not very clear about their goals.Cooperative play Children consciously form into group to make something, attain a goal or dramatise a situation; one or two members organise and direct the activity, with children assuming different roles and responsibilities.Types of Play: Cognitive Perspective Grusec and Lytton’s 1988 typology Functional play Simple, repetitive movements, sometimes with objects or own body. E.g. shoveling sand, pushing a toy, jumping up and down. Constructive play Manipulation of objects in order to construct something. E.g. building with blocks. Pretend play Substitutes make-believe, imaginary and dramatic situations for real ones. E.g. playing ‘house’. Games with rules Play is more formal and is governed by fixed rules. E.g. hopscotch, hide-and-seek. Parenting Styles Outcomes of Parenting Styles is (Erikson)). Caregiver–Infant Synchrony: sensitively tuned responses to an infant’s signals (appropriate/well timed/rhythmic), matching the emotional state of the caregiver and infant. Interaction waits for the other to finish before responding. Co-regulation: joint attention, reciprocal turn taking in parent-infant interactions E.g. ‘conversation’ (except for infants lack of words)Autonomy: a child’s capacity to be independent/self directed. Balance demands for self control with demands for control from caregivers. Healthy autonomy = balance between freedom and controlShame: a loss of approval from those important to child, and a loss of self respect due to failure meeting own standards. Temperament: infants’ characteristic way of feeling/responding that depicts differences in self regulation and reactivity. Infants consistent pattern/style of reacting to environmental events and situations. Differences in primary reactions are present at birth. 9 behavioural dimensions: activity level; rhythmicity; approach; adaptability; emotional reactivity; responsiveness; mood; distractibility; attention span. Distinct patterns of temperament: 1. Easy babies (40%) – positive moods, regular bodily functions, good adaptation to new situations 2. Difficult babies (10%) – negative moods, irregular bodily functions, high stress in new situations 3. Slow to warm up babies (15%) – moody and relatively unadaptable, did not react vigorously to new stimuli 4. Mixed pattern babies (35%) – don’t fit into the other groups, unique blended patterns Reactivity: variations among individuals in emotional arousal, motor activity, and attention. Self regulation: strategies that modify and adjust reactivity/emotional state to a comfortable level (e.g. looking away, self comforting, self stimulation)Attachment: strong, enduring bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver during the infant’s first year of life.Characterised by reciprocal affection and a shared desire to maintain physical and emotional closeness.Pattern of Behaviour groups: Secure attachment (65-70%) – seek mothers contact/comfort after being left alone with stranger. oCooperate better with their parentsoComply better with rules oAccept help from parents to solve problems oAdapt better to preschool changes Anxious Resistant (Ambivalent)/Insecure (10%)– intensely upset when with stranger, actively sought contact with mother but refused comfort. oRespond with anger to parents attempts to help/teach them oMay invest so much time in conflicts, they are unable to benefit from parent’s experience or explore their environments. Anxious Avoidant/Insecure (20%) – treated mother and stranger the same way, rarely cried when separated. oTendency to avoid interaction with parents, miss out parental efforts to teach or help them, may discourage parents from trying to help. Disorganised–Disorientated/Greatly insecure – when reunited with parent, exhibited confused and contradictory behaviours. oFound in seriously disturbed caregiver situations oInteractions are inconsistent and out of tune with/inappropriately responsive to infant’s physical, social, or emotional needs. oParents may display role reversal – unrealistically expecting to be cared for by their infant oMay respond to infant in an overly intrusive, withdrawing or rejecting waysoInfants attempts to communicate or modify this behaviour are ignored or overridden oIncreases with severity of family risk factors, infants at risk for future problems (aggression, conduct disorder, developmental difficulties) Gender roles: Societal expectations of males and females (different from each other, conform to stereotypes) Gender typing: Process of acquiring gender-consistent behaviours (behaviours of girls and boys different from early age). Personality: set of habitual behaviors, cognitions and emotional patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors. Dimensions: 1. Neuroticism: the tendency to experience negative emotions such as fear, anger, and sadness2. Extroversion: sociability, but closely associated with the tendency to experience excitement, joy and good spirits 3. Openness to experience: welcoming new experiences; imaginative and curious 4. Agreeableness: sympathy, trust, cooperativeness, and altruism 5. Conscientiousness: organisation, scrupulousness, persistence and achievement motivation Theory of Mind: is the ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc.—to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own.Defining Intelligence: the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills Environmental adaptability Ability to learn from experienceAbstract reasoning Ability to integrate new and old knowledge Social skills Musical ability Physical skills Post-formal thinking: a pragmatic approach to ambiguous problems, formal operations used as a problem solving tool.Complex, and involves making decisions based on situational constraints and circumstances, and integrating emotion with logic to form context- dependent principles.Crystallised Intelligence: (primary abilities - requiring use of applied knowledge to real life tasks, verbal abilities & general knowledge) learned processes, stored responses. Remains relatively stable with age. Fluid Intelligence: (reasoning ability - requiring new learning, abstract reasoning and processing speed) processing new information. Relates to neurological development, declines from early adulthood.Ageism: systematic stereotyping of and discrimination against people because they are old (can happen for other ages)Successful Ageing: maintenance of psychological adjustment and wellbeing across the life span  longer and better quality of life.Bereavement: Grief and Mourning Acceptance and understanding of deathNeutral acceptance: accepting death as a reality that is neither welcomed nor feared Approach-avoidance acceptance – e.g. accepting death as a passage to a happy afterlife Escape-avoidance acceptance – e.g. accepting death as an escape form a painful existence.