Health and Lifespan Development Notes PDF

lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Health and lifespan development notes Sport and Exercise Science (University of Technology Sydney) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by lachlan gunderson...

lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Health and lifespan development notes Sport and Exercise Science (University of Technology Sydney) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Health and lifespan development notes - WEEK 1 - Introduction WEEK 2 - Fundamentals - Health - state of complete physical, mental, and social well being not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. - Physical - Social - Spiritual - Emotional - Intellectual Contributions to overall health - - Health behaviours (smoking, diet, physical activity) - Genetics - Environments - Access to medical care Physical inactivity - By being physically active it prevents - 5.3 million deaths per year - Extend the life expectancy of inactive people by 1.3-1.7 years - Extend life expectancy of the world by 0.68 years Lifespan development - It includes the study of our cognitive, psychosocial and physical changes throughout our lives. It is a scientific approach which aims to explain growth, change and consistency through the lifespan. There is a high focus on childhood. The main goal is to describe, explain and optimise human development. Definitions - Development - systematic patterns of change that occur in an individual throughout their lifespan - Growth - physical changes that occur from conception to maturity - Maturation - the quantitative functional changes that occur with age, enabling orderly changes in behaviour relatively uninfluenced by experience. Development - Cognitive Psychosocial Knowing Emotions Remembering Mental health Understanding Moral capabilities Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Communicating Self - esteem Learning Personality and relationships Nature vs nature Natue Nature Heredity Environment Genes Experience Biologically - based predispositions Sociocultural influences High BP Personality Obesity Homosexuality Conception and genetics - Key points - 46 pairs of chromosomes carry DNA and genes - Many genes are identical for every human - Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles - Expression of most traits are influenced by nature vs nature - The expression of some traits are heavily influenced by environmental factors Genetics of athletic performance Sex - - Entirely influenced by nature - Key predictor in the athletes performance - Women marathon WR lies outside of the top 3000 performers Height - Influence on performance is sport specific Myostatin (MSTN) - Negative regulator of muscle cell growth - When absent causes increase in fast-twitch muscle fibres - Mutation causes heavy musculature Alpha-Actin-3 protein (ACTN3) - Component of the contractile fibres in fast-twitch skeletal fibres - R allele helps the generate force at a high velocity, X allele not beneficial for force production - Elite sprinter have a high frequency of R allele Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 WEEK 3 - Cognitive development Theories of cognitive development - Jean Piaget - cognitive development therapy (1936) The three basic components to his theory 1. Schemas - building blocks of knowledge The basic building blocks or cognitive structures used to form a mental representation of the world. Mental representations (objects, actions, abstract, concepts) are stored in our brain and can be applied when we need them. 2. Adaptation process - assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium The process of cognitive change with intellectual growth. Assimilation - trying to use existing schema to deal with a new object or situation Accommodation - when the existing schema does not work and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation Equilibrium - the adjustment to the new object or situation 3. Stages of cognitive development Piaget proposed that cognition develops through distinct stages from birth through to the end of adolescence - Sensorimotor - birth to 2 years Object permanence - The understanding that object continue to exist when they are no longer visible or otherwise detectable to the senses - A not B error - the tendency of 8-12 month old infants to search for hidden object in the blass they last found it (A) rather than its new hiding place (B) - Develops gradually over sensorimotor period. - Preoperational - 2-7 years (pre school) Egocentrism - Children's thoughts and perceptions are about themselves (egocentric) - Inability to see a situation from another person point of view - Child assumes that people see, hear and feel the same as they do Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Lack of conversation - The concept that certain properties of an object or substance fo not change when its appearance is altered in some superficial way - Concrete operational 7- 11 years Logical/operational thought - Children gain the abilities and mental operation that allow them to think logically about concrete events such as mathematical operations and principles and conversion - Struggle with abstract ideas - Formal operational - > 11 years Abstract though approach problems in an organised manner than through trial and error. - Child can think about hypothetical and abstract concepts they have yet to experience - Abstract thought is important for planning regarding the future - Key features - They always happen in the same order - No stage is ever skipped - Each stage builds upon the previous - Individual differences in the rate at which children progress through stages Contributions - young people are not small adults Criticism - understanding young minds, many concepts can be taught to children younger than the age at which concepts would naturally emerge. Giving limited attention to social influences on cognitive development Lev Vygotskt - sociocultural theory of development (1978) - Culture - Social factors - Adults Main principles - 1. More knowledgeable other (MKO) Someone who has a better understanding of higher ability than the learner - Parent - Teacher - Peers 2. Zone of proximal development (ZPD) - Difference between what a learner can do without any help and what they can do with help - Vygotskt believed that when a learner is the ZPD, appropriate assistance will give the learner a “boost” to achieve the task Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Cognitive ageing - Normal changes in cognitive processing that occurs as we age - Some abilities (language vocabulary) are resilient to ageing and may even improve - Age related impairments in memory attention and processing speed can arise during adulthood and progress into older adulthood - Significant heterogeneity (viability) among the rate of decline in older adults Processing and speed - The speed at which cognitive activities or motor responses are performed - Decline begins at ~ 30 years and continues throughout the lifespan - Most cognitive changes reported in healthy older adults are the result of slowed processing speed Attention - Ability to concentrate and focus on specific stimuli - Selective attention ( the ability to focus on specific information in the environment while ignoring irrelevant information) - Divided attention ( the ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously ) show large declines with age Memory - Explicit memory: conscious recall of facts and events - Semantic memory: learned information and practical knowledge ( meaning of words ) - Episodic memory: personally experienced events that occur at a specific time and place, declines with age - Implicit memory: outside a person's awareness - Procedural memory: how to do things ( tie shoelace ) remains stable with age Intellectually engaging activities - Puzzles, reading, musical instruments, board games - Careers that involve high educational attainment Physical activities - Exercise, gardening, dancing Social engagement - Travel, cultural events - Socialising with friends and family Cognitive impairment Dementia - Umbrella for term of loss of cognitive functioning and behavioural abilities affect activities of daily living - 5-8% of people aged >60 have dementia - Alzheimers is a specific disease that accounts for 60-80 % of dementia cases Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Measuring cognitive impairment Montreal cognitive assessment - Screening assessment for cognitive dysfunction ( onset dementia ) - Assess different cognitive demands ( attention and concentration, executive function, memory, language, conceptual thinking) Difference between cognitive abilities and intelligence are related but not the same thing Cognitive abilities can be trained and improved Intelligence stays relatively stable through adulthood Exercise and cognition Childhood - Sibley et at (2003) - Positive relationship between PA and cognitive performance in school aged children (4-18 years ) - IQ, academic achievements, verbal tests, mathematical tests - Beneficial effect was stronger for children ages 4-11 compared to those aged 14-18 Older adulthood Hawkins et at (1992) - 10 weeks of poola based aerobic exercise - Single and dual attention taste administered before and after intervention - Participants in the training program showed significant improvement in divided attention tasks Older adulthood Colcombe et at (2003) - Physical activity has a positive effect on cognition - Physical disproportionately large effect on executive functioning - Positive relationship between physical activity has been found for otherwise healthy adults and adults with alzheimer's disease Cognitive bias - Attribution bias: excusing our own mistakes but blaming other people for theirs Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 WEEK 4 - psychosocial development Theories of psychosocial development 1. Sigmund Freud - psychosexual theory (1905 ) Childhood experiences are important for shaping adult thoughts and behaviour. The first 5 years are crucial. Believed that life was built around tension ( build-up libido, sexual energy ) and pleasure. Key features - Dominas of consciousness 1. Conscious - the small amount of mental activity we know about, thoughts, perceptions. 2. Subconscious - things we could be aware of if we tried or wanted, memories, stored knowledge 3. Unconscious - things we are unaware of and cannot become aware of, sexual and aggressive instincts. - Three structures of personality Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 - Five stages of psychosexual development 2. Erik Erikxon - psychosocial theory (1958 ) Stage Age range Trust vs mistrust Birth -2 years Autonomy vs shame and doubt 2-4 years Initiative vs guilt 4-5 years Industry vs inferiority 5-12 years Identity vs role confusion 13-19 years Intimacy vs isolation 20-40 years Generativity vs stagnation 40-65 years Integrity vs despair 65- death 1. Trust vs mistrust - Harlow's Monkey They put a monkey in a cage with a fake mother made from cloth and a wire mother - He preferred the cloth mother as it was for comfort - The attachment was not solely based on food What happened after - Monkeys disturned and mentally unwell after the experiment - Most monkeys never recovered 2. Autonomy vs shame and doubt Parents who allow children to make choices gain control ( independence ), which help develop a sense of autonomy. Children who display independence feel secure, confident and act autonomously 3. Initiative vs guilt - Initiative occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child's choice. These children develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose - These who are unsuccessful at this stage - with their initiative misfiring or stuffled by over-controlling parents - may develop feelings of guilt 4, industry vs inferiority - Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishment and abilities - Children who are encouraged and commenced by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 - Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful - inferiority complex 5. Identity vs role confusion - An adolescent's main task is developing a sense of self - Adolescence who are successful at his stage have a strong sense of identity - When adolescence do not make a conscious search for identity or are pressured to conform to their parents ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self experience and role confusion - Struggle to find themselves as adults 6. Intimacy vs isolation - Young adults need to inform intimate, loving relationships with other people - Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation 7. Generativity vs stagnation - Adults need to create or nature things that will often outlast them, often by having children or creative a positive change that benefits other people - Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow environment in the world 8. Integrity vs despair - Reflecting on life - Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfilment - Success at this stage leads to feelings wisdom - Failure results in regret, bitterness and despair Self concept - One of the biggest achievements in adolescence is developing a positive sense of self (understanding of who they are ) - Kids with positive self concept are more happy, confident, independent, sociable 3 key concepts - The view you have of yourself ( self-image ) - How much value you placed on yourself ( self esteem/self worth ) - What you wish you were really like ( ideal self ) Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Self esteem Confidence in ones own worth or ability - High self esteem in childhood - Decline during adolescent - Increases gradually through adulthood - Declines rapidly in older adulthood Mortality - Kohlberg (1985 ) - Moral reasoning continues to develop throughout our lives - Heinz dilemma 3 stages of moral development 1. Preconvetional (< 9 years) Children are connected with obedience and self interest For - Heins will be much happier if he saves his wife even if he must go to prison Against - His will be put in prison which means he is a bad person 2. Conventional (early adolescent) Emphasis on conformity and law and order, “what would people think” For - his wife will live, but he must be punished for the crime Against - stealing is bad. The law prohibits stealing 3. Postconventional (late adolescence and beyond) Complex was to account for differing values and basic rights. Laws are important but some situations may overrule them For - everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law Against - others may need the medicine just as badly, and their lives are equally significant Exercise and psychosocial health Psychosocial health and social-psychosocial outcomes - Depression - Anxiety - Mood - Prosocial behaviour Physical activity can contribute to psychosocial health in the following ways - Treatment of mental illness and disorders - Prevention of mental illness and disorders - Improvement of mental and physical well-being in those with mental illness or disorder - Improvement of mental and well-being of the general population Mental health in Australia - 1/7 Ausrralians will experience depression in their lifetime - - 18% of females - - 12% of males - ¼ Australians will experience an anxiety condition in their lifetime - - 32% of females - - 20 % of males Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Depression Blumenthal et al. (2012) - 16 weeks aerobic exercise vs medication vs placebo in participants with depressive symptoms - Exercise resulted in greater reductions in depressive symptoms compared to placebo - Exercise equally effective as zoloft Anxiety - Emotional state, typified by cognitive component (worry, self doubt) and a somatic component (heightened awareness of physiological responses) - Physiological stress response Reduced reactivity to stressors found in those who performed exercise training ↓ Heart rate ↓ Systolic and diastolic blood pressure ↓ Muscle tension - Panic Disorders Physical activity can improve symptoms of panic disorders Often avoided due to ‘panic’ about exercise triggering a life-threatening event Self esteem - The potential mechanism by which involvement in exercise or sport might promote - An undetermined psychosociological mechanism - Improvements in fitness or weight loss/muscle gain - Autonomy and personal control - Sense of belonging and significance - Exercise may promote self worth, self perceptions and self esteem - Positive effects can be experienced by all age groups - Greatest effect for females as they consistently score lower on all self confidence, body image, self worth and self esteem - Several types of exercise are effective in changing self perceptions. Resistance training shows greatest effectiveness in the short term Mood and well being Aerobic activity results - - tension - - depression - + vigour - - fatigue - - confusion - - anger (small effect) Physical activity is consistently associated with positive mood and psychological well-being Greatest effect - Goal focused on personal improvement or mastery - Group climate Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Prosocial behaviour -”sport builds good character” Positive - Cooperative game structures beneficial in promoting prosocial behaviour - Helping, sharing, cooperating Negative - Potential for competition to increase feelings of rejection and hostility - Does sport promote aggressive behaviour Negative outcomes - Exercise addiction/dependance - Often confused with exercise commitment - Difference is negative versus a positive motivation to exercise - Relationships between exercise dependence and eating disorders - Female athletes in weight restricted sports at greatest risk WEEK 5 - Physical development - Height / weight - Muscle mass - Adipose - Bone density - Brain development - Puberty - Menopause Principles of growth - Cephalo-caidal principle - Growth occur in a head-to-tail direction Promimo-distal principle - Growth occurs from the centre out towards the extremities Prenatal - infancy - Microscopic zygote to 50 cm long newborn, weighing 3-3.5kg - Newborn head makes up 25% of length - In first few months of life, infants gain 30g of weight a day and 2.5cm in length each month - 2 years old = half evental adult height Childhood - - Grow approx 3 inches/year - Gain approx 2-3 kg / year - Brain reaches adult size by age 7 - Brian lateralisation occurs Adolescence - Puberty - - Primary sexual characteristsics develop and mature - Secondary sexual characteristsics develop and mature Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 - Frontal lobes of the brain are still developing, this may result in - increases risk taking behaviour and emotional outbursts Adulthood Early adulthood - Peak of physiological development Middle adulthood - Notice early signs of ageing - Vision begins to decline - Joint pain and weight gain Late adulthood - Skin and hair - Hearing loss - Prevalence of illness or disease Height Childhood-adolescence - Peak rate of growth for height occurs at - - 12 for girls - - 13.4 for boys - Adolescent growth spurt - Girls usually achieve their adult height around 16 years while boys are still growing at 18, 19 even 20. - Physical activity has no established effect on stature or height Early- late adulthood - Height declines approximately 1cm per decade during the 40s and 50s - Accelerated height loss after 60 years - Intervertebral disks compress - Thoracic curve becomes more pronounced Weight Childhood-adolescence - Peak rate of growth for weight occurs - - 12.5 years for girls - - 13.9 years for boys - Boys lag behind girls by 1-2 years Early- late adulthood - Weight steadily increases during 30s, 40s, and 50s, - Weight declines at age 70 - Age-related changes in weight BMI can mask fat gain/muscle loss - Large, rapid loss of weight in old can indicate disease process Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Body composition Fat free mass (FFM) Fat mass (FM) Muscles Muscles (M 2-5% F 10-13%) bones Non-essential fat Organs Subcutaneous fat Connective tissue Visceral fat Water Adolescence Biggest change in body composition occurs during adolescence - FFM - Girls gain 20-40kg Boys gain 25-60kg Childhood adolescence - FFM peaks shortly after puberty - Physical activity significantly influences growth of FFM during adolescence - During adolescence, testosterone and growth hormone result in skeletal muscle growth - Physical activity should be promoted in children and adolescence for the accretion of FFM Early - late adulthood - Adult males have 150% of the FFM of the average adult female - Physical activity ( no resistance) does not appear to affect FFM during adulthood - 4kg FFM loss between 50-89 years, with a preferential loss of muscle mass in the lower body - FM Increase for girls Decrease for boys Childhood - adolescence - Boys and girls have similar amounts of body fat from 5-10 years - During puberty girls increase fat mass at a rate of 1.14kg/yr - During puberty boys decrease fat mass at a rate of 1.15kg/yr Early -late adulthood - Body fat accumulates during the 30s, 40s, and 50s, - Redistributes to visceral region during middle adulthood, especially in men Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Fat mass - FM is a result of positive energy balance - Physical activity - Energy intake - In the general population, increasing the recommended amounts of physical activity will likely not lead to fat loss nor will it prevent fat gain. Changes in energy intake will affect fat mass Energy intake - Older age results in decreased ability to regulate energy intake - Stubbs et al. (2004) assessed the effect of an imposed sedentary routine on energy balance - Reducing physical activity does not induce compensatory reduction in energy intake and leads to positive energy balance Bone density Bone mineral density (BMD) - the amount of mineral matter per square centimetre of bone Osteoporosis - progressive skeletal disease characterised by low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue, with consequent increase in bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture Child hood - adolescence - Equal amounts of organic vs inorganic components - Therefore bones are soft, pliable, difficult to break, too flexible and small to sit up, balance - Rapid increase in bone growth - New bone formed faster than it is resorbed Peak bone mass - Males generate higher peak bone mass (PBM) - 90% of PBM is achieved by 20 yrs - PBM is regarded as a significant predictor of future osteoporosis and fracture risk - 10% increase in PBM would delay the onset osteoporosis by 13 yrs Early- late adulthood - BMD declines ~ 0.5% per year after peak bone mass (~20 yrs) - Post menopausal women lose ~2-3% per year - Protective effects of oestrogen on BMD disappear Osteoporosis - 70% of AQustralians over 50 yrs have it - 1 in 3 older women vs 1 in 3 older men - 70% of fractures occur in women - Half of hip fracture patients do not return to independent living Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Bone adaptation to exercise childhood and adolescence - Longitudinal study of adolescence - Active adolescence had 8-10% greater his (total hip TH and femoral neck FN) bone and mineral content in young adulthood than sedentary counterparts Bone adaptation to exercise during adulthood - Adults may benefit from bone loading exercise to a lesser extent than in children - 12 month high impact training resign consisting of vertical jumping 6 times per week - 2.8% increase in femoral BMD in pre menopausal women - No improvemtn in post-menopausal women due to depleted estrogen levels Bone density Athletes with higher bone density - Rugby players, soccer, weight/powerlifters - Usually sports that are: weight bearing , high intensity, high impact and multi directional Metabolism Basal metabolic rate - - Energy expenditure during rest - BMR comprises 50-70% of total energy expenditure in most adults - Decline of 1-2% pre decade from 20 yrs due to changes in body composition - increases if fat mass, decrease in fat-free mass - Muscle tissue is more metabolically active than adipose tissue Can we mitigate the decrease in TDEE by doing more exercise ? - Increase in energy expenditure associated with training (EAT) seems to be offset by decreased voluntary energy expenditure (NEAT) at other times of the day Thermic effect of feeding - Increase in energy expenditure that is associated with consuming and digesting food - TEF comprises of 8-15% of total energy expenditure in most adults - No change with ageing Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 - Obesity and or/digestive problems that limit nutrition absorption may decrease TEF - Protein rich food increase TEF the most WEEK 6 - cardiorespiratory function across the lifespan Features of the cardiorespiratory system - Heart rate - Stroke volume - Cardiac output - Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) Heart rate - The number of beats per minute - Resting HR declines ~50% from birth to maturity - No gender differences in HR until 10 years of age Average HR - Newborn 130bpm - 1 yr old 90 bpm - Adolescent male 57-69 bpm - Adolescent female 62-63bpm - Adult male 70-72bpm - Adult female 78-82 bpm - Resting HR may vary throughout adulthood - Little change until around 60 years of age where heart rate slowly declines Maximal heart rate - Predication fromlas FOX: 220-age = predicted HRmax TANAKA: 208-(0.7xage) = predicted HRmax - Remains consistent until after maturity - Max HR for children and adolescence is between 195-220bpm - HRmax decreases with age after maturity - Max HR declines 0.87-1.02bpm/years Stroke volume - The amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle into circulation with each contraction of the heart (SV) - Influenced by: heart size, contractile force of the myocardium, vascular resistance to blood flow, venous return (the rate at which blood is returned to the right side of the heart) - Substantially lower in children than adults At birth: SV= 4ml/beat Adolescents: SV = 40ml/beat Adolescent growth spurt: SV = 60ml/beat Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Responsive to endurance training At rest During exercise Un trained male adult SV = 60-100ml/beat SV = 100-120ml/beat Endurance trained male SV = 100-120ml/beat SV= 150-170ml/beat adult Cardiac output - The amount of blood that can be pumped out of the heart in 1 minute - CO = HR X SV - Lower in children than adults. Even though children can achieve higher HRmax, the elevated HR is not enough to compensate for lower SV - Adult: at least 5L/min - During exercise Untrained: 20-25L/min Trained: 30-35L/min - Cardiac output declines with age - Decline can be minimised through regular aerobic exercise Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) - The maximum amount of oxygen that an individual can utilise during exercise - Gold standard measure of physical working capacity - Measured in mL/kg/min - Difficult to measure in young children, hard to motivate to complete and all-out effort - Boys exhibit in VO2max during adolescence due to an increase in body size - For boys between 8 and 12, VO2max rises by 49%. During this period, the average weight of the lungs increases 58% and heart volume increases 52% - Girls decline in VO2max is mostly due to: increased fat mass, lesser degree of muscle development in the lower extremities - VO2max declines approx. 9% per decade between 20 and 79 years of age - Loss of aerobic fitness due to many factors: ( increase in fat mass, decrease in muscle mass, decrease in SV and CO, decrease in physical activity) Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Cardiorespiratory fitness in early life Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) - CRF or aerobic fitness, is the overall capacity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems and the ability to carry out prolonged exercise - Low CRF is associated with cardiovascular disease risk factors: triglycerides, blood glucose, total cholesterol, waist circumference, insulin sensitivity, blood pressure CRF and Adiosity - Individuals with high CRF have significantly lower total adiposity - Moderate to high levels of CRF are associated with lower abdominal adiposity Variable Recommendation Mode Mixture of continuous and interval training using large muscle groups Frequency Minimum 3-4 sessions per week Intensity 85-90% maximum heart rate Duration 40-60 minutes Program length Minimum length 12 weeks Cardiorespiratory fitness in late life Leading causes of death in Australia Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) - Umbrella term covering diseases of the heart and blood vessels (eg. coronary heart disease) Behavioural risk factors - Unhealthy diet - Physical inactivity - Tobacco use - Alcohol use Physiological risk factors - High blood pressure - Raised blood glucose - Raised blood lipids and cholesterol - Overweight and obesity Exercise and CVD risk factors - Men and women aged 55-75 with high blood pressure - 6 months of exercise training (3 times per week) - Resistance training (50% 1RM) and aerobic exercise (45min at 60-95% HR max) Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 - Significant improvements in aerobic fitness, lean mass and cardiovascular disease risk factors - Significant decreases in total and abdominal fat Exercise and mortality Mortality and prevalence of CVD, DM and cancer within quartiles of PF determined at baseline in initially healthy men aged 40-60 years, 16 year follow up. Quartile of physical fitness Mortality % Alive with CVD, DM or cancer % Alive with no CVD,DM or cancer % 1 (lowest PF) 19.5 31.7 48.8 2 11.4 27.4 61.2 3 12.0 21.5 66.6 4 (highest PF) 6.2 18.2 75.6 - Examined whether an association exists between physical activity patterns across the lifespan and mortality - Maintaining adolescence from adolescence into later adulthood was associated with a 29% to 36% lower risk for mortality - Being inactive but increasing physical activity during midlife was associated with a 32% lower risk of mortality VO2max and ageing - VO2max equal for 80 year old active and 50 year old sedentary women - At 50 years active has more exercise capacity than sedentary 20 year olds WEEK 7 - muscular function across the lifespan Functions of skeletal muscle - Creating movement and producing force - Maintaining posture - Slows our movements (acts as a break) - Metabolic regulator - Source of protective padding - Source of heat - Energy source during starvation Features of the muscular system - Muscle mass - Muscle strength - Muscle power - Muscle endurance - Flexibility - Balance Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Muscle mass - The size and/or weight of skeletal muscle - Muscle mass increases similarity in boys and girls until puberty - Introduction of male hormones (testosterone) influence muscularity - Prior to adolescence muscle weight is 27% of total body weight, after sexual maturity increases to ~ 40% of total body weight - Ageing atrophy of vastus lateralis muscle - 40% reduction in muscle cross sectional area (CSA) from 20-80 years old - Total muscle mass declines from age 40, accelerated after age 65-70 - Legs lose muscle faster than upper body Muscle strength - The muscles ability to generate force - Strength increases linearly with age until boyd hit puberty and there is an acceleration in strength development - No evidence of a sputy in strength for girls - Grip strength for boys increases 400% from 7-17 years - Muscle strength peaks in the 20s and 30s - In adulthood, women are not as strong as men - Womens maximal strength is about 63.5% of mens strength - Isometric, concentric and eccentric strength decline from age 40 accelerate after age 65-70 - 12-14% decline in strength pre decade after 50 years - Lower body strength declines at a faster rate than upper body strength (diffuse?) Muscle power - Rate at which muscles perform work - The ability to exert force quickly (strength + speed) Muscle endurance - Muscles ability to continue to perform successive exertions or maintain an isometric contraction ( fatigability) - Untrained men and women performed maximal repetitions of bicep curls at forces corresponding to 90%, 80%, 70%, 60% and 50% of their maximal load (1RM) - Females were able to perform a greater number of repetitions than males 50%, 60% and 70% 1RM - No difference for higher loads Flexibility - Ageing results in a decrease in flexibility and joint range of motion - Significant decline of hip Causes - Muscle and tendon elasticity decreases - Synovial fluid becomes less viscous - Osteoarthritis - Decline in physical activity Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Balance - Even distribution of weight enabling a person to remain steady - Maintain centre of gravity over base of support Contributions - Nervous system - Musculoskeletal system - Sensory systems - Children have a low centre of mass making balance easier (one muscle strength is established) - Adolescent growth spurt often accompanied by a loss of coordination - Big change in body size, brain needs time to “recalibrate” - Girls appear to perform better than boys in balance activities - Poor balance frequently reported with older adults - Sensory, motor, and cognitive changes after biomechanics - impared reflex activity - posture changes - deconditioning from disuse - Medications Resistance training Safety of RT in youth - Properly designed and supervised RT programs are safe for youth - Low risk of injury in children and adolescents who follow age-appropriate guidelines incidence of sport -related injuries in youth over 1 year, of 1576 injuries - 0.7% caused by resistance training - 19% caused by football - 15% caused by basketball - 2% caused by soccer - Common concern of related to youth resistance training - Stunts growth or damages the growth cartilage - Potentially with improper lifting techniques or maximal lifts - No evidence to suggest that RT will negatively impact growth or maturation Youth RT guidelines - Qualifies supervision - Begin each session with a 5-10 minute warm-up - Perform 1-3 sets of 6-15 repetitions on a variety of upper and lowe body strength exercises - Include exercise that strengthen the abdominals and lowe back region - Cool-down for 5-10 minutes - Increase the resistance gradually (5-10%) as strength improves - Begin RT 2-3 times per week on non-consecutive days Muscular strength - Well-designed ART programs can enhance muscular strength children and adolescents beyond that which is normally due to growth and development Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 - Strength gains in children relates to neural mechanisms rather than hypertrophy - Lowe circulating testosterone in children Potential health and fitness benefits - Improve cardiovascular risk profile - Facilitate weight control - Strengthen bone - Enhance psychosocial well-being - Improve motor skills - Increase resilience to injury Resitance training for obese youth - Obese youth generally encourgaed to particiapnt in aerobic activities - Excess body weight hinders performance of physical activities to jogging and increases of musculoskeletal injuries - May perceived long aerobic based activities as boring and uncomfortable - RT may offer significant health valve to obese youth - Ovese youth typically enjoy RT as there are short periods of exercise interspeed with brief rest - Consistent with the way that youth habitually move and play Muscular fitness in late life Sarcopenia - Condition characterised by progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength - Associated with physical disability, poor quality or life and death - Hand grip strength measured in 1071 males predicts all-cause mortality RT and muscle strength - Resistance training, 2 times per week for 12 weeks - 4 groups working at different intensities (80%, 50%, 20% of 1RM and control) - Greater gains on muscular strength observed using heavy loads (80%1RM) RT and muscle power - Muscular power declined as a function of age - Weightlifters generated 35% more power - 18-year-old weightlifters demonstrated similar muscular power as 60-year old untrained individuals RT and functional capacity - Resistance training in nursing home residents results in: - 28% increase in stair walking speed - 12% increase in gait speed Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 WEEK 8 - sport and exercise in infancy and childhood Guidelines Physical activity intensity - Metabolic equivalents (METs) - Used to measure activity intensity - Metabolic cost of an activity compared with the basal metabolic rate - 1 MET = 3.5ml O2/kg/min - 2 METs = activity that is 2 times the resting metabolic rate LIGHT - intensity activity is non-sedentary walking behaviour that requires less than 3.0 METs (slow walking, cooking, light household chores) MODERATE - requires 3.0 to less than 6.0 METs (brisk walking, playing doubles tennis, raking the yard) VIGOROUS - requires 6.0 or more METs (jogging, running, strenuous exercise) Levels of physical activity - Inactive Not getting any moderate or vigorous intensity physical activity beyond basic movement from daily life activities - Insufficiently active Doing some moderate or vigorous intensity physical activity but less than 150 minutes per week of moderate or 75 minutes of vigorous or the equivalent combination - Active Doing the equivalent of 150 minutes to 300 minutes of physical activity per week - Highly active Doing the equivalent of more than 300 minutes of physical activity a week Sedentary behaviour - 15 years had taken part in some form of physical activity or sport in the previous 12 months. Participation levels were higher among Indeginous males (38%) than among Indeginous females (23%) Adults aged 18-64: - 38% of Indigenous adults met PA guidelines, compared with 46% of non-Indigenous adults - 13% of Indigenous adults met strength-based guidelines, compared with 21% of non-Indigenous adults - 8.8% of Indigenous adults met both guidelines, compared with 15% of non-Indigenous adults - Indigenous people reported higher proportions of sedentary or low activity levels than non-Indigenous people across all states and territories. - The disparity between Indigenous people and non-Indigenous people in being sedentary increased between 2001 and 2004-2005 from 11% to 18%. Factors contributing to physical activity levels The many barriers Indigenous people face to engagement in physical activity include - Cultural - perceptions of health, inclusion of family or community - Geographical - physical location, environment, terrain and climate - Socioeconomic factors - resources, accessibility, transport and costs Physical activity and chronic disease 80% of the mortality gap between Indigenous and other Australians ages 35-74 years is due to chronic disease. Of the gap due to chronic disease, the main contributors are: - Ischaemic heart disease (22%) - Diabetes mellitus (12%) - Diseases of liver (11%) - Other forms of heart disease (6%) - Chronic low respiratory diseases (6%) Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Physical activity and CVD In 2004-2005, of all Indigenous people living with cardiovascular disease (CVD), almost two-thirds (58%) were physically inactive, a level 1.6 times that of the non-Indigenous population. Physical inactivity accounted for 30% of the disease burden of CVD in the Indigenous population compared with 24% of the disease burden of CVD of the total population in Australia. Physical activity and T2DM - In 2015, 11% of Indigenous adults had diabetes, 3 times the rate for non-Indigenous Australians - For Indigenous people living with diabetes, over two-fifths (42%) have multiple chronic diseases. The burden of diabetes among Indigenous people attributes to physical inactivity is almost one-third (31%) Sport in Indigenous populations - Mental health is estimated to be higher among Indigenous men and women who participate in organised sport. - Indigenous adults who played sport in the previous 12 months reported higher life satisfaction than people who did not participate in sport. - Indigenous adults who play sport report more frequent social contact and are more likely to feel they have support outside their immediate household. - 56% of children who participated in sport were assessed as being in excellent health compared to 48% of those who had not participated in any organised sport. Definition of disability - Loss of sight, not corrected by glasses or contact lenses - Loss of hearing - Speech difficulties in native languages - Blackouts, fits, or loss of consciousness - Slowness at learning or understanding - Incomplete use of arms or fingers - Difficulty gripping or holding small objects - Incomplete use of feet or legs - Treatment for nerves or an emotional condition Key statistics - In 2018 there were 4.4 million Australians with disability, 17.7% of the population, down from 18.3% in 2015 - Disability prevalence was similar for males (17.6%) and females (17.8%) - Almost one-quarter (23.2%) of all people with a disability reported a mental or behavioural disorder as their main condition, up from 21.5% in 2015 Physical activity trends in people with disability - 78% of people with a disability participated in sport or PA at least once in the last 12 months compared to 91% of people with no disability - 69% once a week compared to 83% - 52% three times per week compared to 64% Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 Barriers - Personal: disability, health and lack of energy - Environment: lack of opportunities, accessibility and transport Facilitators - Personal: fun and health - Environmental: social contacts Exercise and prevention/treatment of disability The risk of disability in ageing is related to a reduced physical capacity: - Strength, aerobic capacity, balance and flexibility Exercise prescription for the prevention of disability should focus on: 1. Changing sedentary behaviour to a more active lifestyle 2. Modifying risk factors for disability 3. Improving exercise capacity 4. Enhancing psychosocial functioning Gender and sexual idenity Gender - Stereotypes in sport - Women in sport are seen as non-feminine - Males feel intimidated or excluded when they do not fulfil the ‘masculine’ stereotype Sexual idenity - LGBTI - The reported number of same-sex couples has more than tripled between 1996-2011 - LGBT people are more likely to experience depression compared to the broader population - Around 60% of same-sex attracted and gender-questioning young people said they experienced verbal abuse because of their sexuality - 81% of gay youth and 74% of lesbian Australian youth conceal their sexuality from team mates - 73% of LGBTI persons surveyed believe homophobia is more common in team sports than the rest of society in their country - Gay men are less likely to play team sports than lesbian women, potentially because abuse among men is more likely to be physical as well as verbal The gay games - Inspired by the olympics, premier athletic event of LGBTI individuals - Based on inclusivity Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|27295484 - Participation in the gay games is most frequently described as empowering and personally transformative Downloaded by lachlan gunderson ([email protected])