History of Psychology Summary PDF

**[, History of Psychologie Zusammenfassung]** [Session 1] *Reasons to study the History of psychology:* - Understanding the origins of ideas-\> how modern psychological framework evolved form earlier - Contextualizing current theories - Avoiding past mistakes - Highlighting its ev...

**[, History of Psychologie Zusammenfassung]** [Session 1] *Reasons to study the History of psychology:* - Understanding the origins of ideas-\> how modern psychological framework evolved form earlier - Contextualizing current theories - Avoiding past mistakes - Highlighting its evolution -\> f.e. How ethical standards have evolved - Recognizing contributions of diverse figures-\> uncover contributions of lesser known figures - Appreciating the interdisciplinary nature of psychologie-\> deep connection to f.e. Philosophy, biology, economics and sociology - Encouraging critical thinking-\> theories are not immune to challenge or revision - Inspiring new research-\> identify overlooked areas or gaps that inspire new studies - Building a sense of identity-\> professional identity *3 major problems for studying history* **Causality**: how do we know what/who led to what, and why? **Not value free**: historians have motivations too-\> ask yourself who writes history and why **Diversity:** f.e. People supervising experiments getting the recognition for things they didn't doo **Traditional View: The "Great Man" Approach** - Focuses on celebrating influential individuals (heroes/geniuses) who shaped history. - Prominent in early psychological history; figures like Freud, Skinner, and Terman were highlighted. - Seen as "hero worship" with little attention to social and cultural contexts. **Shift in Historical Perspective** - Modern historians reject the "Great Man" approach. - Emphasize external, social, and cultural influences over individual achievements. - Critique older histories as overly celebratory and disconnected from broader social forces. **The Call for Balance** - The article argues against completely dismissing the study of exceptional individuals. - Suggests studying influential figures critically, without glorifying them. - Highlights the importance of understanding the interaction between individuals and their societal contexts. *How to study the history of psychologie (alternative to heroe worship)* **Historiometry:** - Statistical approach to find patterns - Focus on (groups of) individuals but considers the social factors - Biographical data, historical records, societal and cultural data - E.g. Study groups of artists or scientists within a certain time frame to identify common patterns in their creative development - Quantitative, data-driven **Psychological factories:** - A lab that has produced 10 or more scholarly articles per year for at least two years in a row - Individual success happens within an ecology! - E.g. use PsychNET to identify psychological factories-\> study who has influenced psychology withot the hagiography/hero worship - Quantitativ, data dirven **Scientific personae & moral economies:** - What are individuals' values at the time, do they align with status quo of the discipline - Who rose to eminence (=hohes Ansehen) at what time and in which cultural space - How and why do scientists engage with particular topics, methods and evidence - E.g. Open science, ethics, mentoring, objectivity, quantifications, fairness - Qualitative focus **Multisited ethnography:** - Proliferation (=ausbreitung/vermehrung) of phenomena and special processes in different environments - Examines people, practices, and interactions across various sites - E.g.global spread of beliefs about specific individuals and impact of media and culture - Mixed, but mire of a qualitative focus **Biography of scientific objects** - Related to multisited ethnography - Focuses on the historical and social life of a particular scientific concept, product or object, tracing its development, usage and meaning across time and space - E.g. Lifecycle of a psychological test - Mixed but more of a qualitative focus *Example: Bibliometric analysis of key psychological terms over time* What is the core of psychology as a discipline and. How has it changed? - Debate about unity/disunity - New methods of analyzing large amounts of data (in this case psychological journals) make a birds-eye view (übersicht) possible. Is there a growth of literature? Fundamental changes in content of science? Methodological traditions like tho ones of Cornbach? - The aim is to show that that the structure of the fiels remained the same, and that the center was a methodological core.  *The Importance of Individual and Social Interaction* - Calls for recognizing the interplay between personal achievements and larger societal influences. - Suggests a balanced approach to studying history: neither celebrating nor ignoring great individuals. *Conclusion* - Recommends revitalizing the study of historical psychology by integrating critical, socially informed methods. - Encourages maintaining dialogue between historians and mainstream psychology for mutual benefit. This approach aims to preserve valuable lessons from historical figures while understanding their work in broader, more nuanced contexts. [Session 2: Pre-Psychologie (before it was s science)] The psychologie logo of UniBAsel has his origins in t greek goddess "psyche" (greek for soul) *Plato* He was a student of Socrates and founded the academy for philosophy in 385 BC in Athens - **Idealism and Theory of Forms:** Reality is mentally constructed, senses do not necessarily deliver a true picture of the physical world - **Dualist Views:** Separation of body and soul (we as humans have axes to both) - **Nativist Views:** The soul possesses a prior knowledge that can be recalled *Meno: Paltos view on innate knowledge* even a slave can understand basic geometric concepts „Meno" represents of his idea of anamnesis-\> some knowledge is innate and can be recalled by the soul - similar arguments are still made today: language can be produced by everyone, because base knowledge of grammar E.g.: Noam Chomsky introduced the „poverty of stimulus" argument: It is a critique of B:F: Skinners idea that language is learned solely through experience. Chomsky says that there is a poverty of stimulus (children are not exposed to rich enough linguistic data to learn every feature of language) so there has to be some innate linguistic knowledge. *Phaedrus: Platos view on the soul (psyche)* **The chariot alegory** Charioteer: Represents the intellect or reason (vernunft). He steers the two horses and has to bend the irrational horses desires. Noble/rational Horse: Represents the noble part of the soul like courage and honor Irrational horse: Represents the irrational desires like lust, greed and physical desire and is hard to bend Only the intellect, not the body is immortal and allows entrance to the world of ideas. *Aristotle* He was Platos student/disciple and founded a philosophy school 335 BC called „Lyceum" - Contributions to many different areas of knowledge (theoretical, practical, productive) - Biology - Logic and causality - Psychology: memory, dreams, health - Emphasis on practical goals of philosophy (rhetoric, ethics, the good life) - Monist - Body and soul are two different parts that support and rely on each other; the body as a tool of the soul *Aristotle: Causes* - *What makes something something* Just because things have different functions they are not different things The slide argues that we should move from a reductionist focus on neural mechanisms to a more holistic (ganzheitlich), pluralistic approach. This involves combining Aristotle's causes, Tinbergen's questions, and Marr's levels to promote a better understanding of behavior and its underlying principles *De Anima: Aristotles view on the soul (psyche)* - Not necessary to ask if soul and body are one Tripartite view of the soul in which faculties or powers are distinguished (unterschieden) (Yet the soul is viewd as not being divisible (teilbar) as in platos view) *Modern psychology's latent factors* Todays modern theories of intelectual and personality functions suggest latent factors that are not directly observable *Nicomachean Ethics: Aristotles view on well-being* **Aristippus: hedonism** **Aristotle: eudaimonism** ---------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Well-being consists of pleasure or happiness Well-being consists of fulfilling or realiszing ones daimon (wahre selbst) or true nature Both hedonic and eudaemonic views remain well represented in modern theories of human motivation. *Galileo Galilei* - How is the world made? - 1564 Birth in Pisa, Italy - 1609 Develops a new telescope - 1610 Discovery of Jupiter's Moons - 1613 Discovery of Venus' phases evidence that Venus revolves around the sun favours Copernican (heliocentric) over Aristotelian/Ptolemaic (geocentric) system - 1616 Admonishment by the Pope - 1623 Publishes "The Assayer", his "scientific manifesto" - 1632 Publishes "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems" and is later arrested - 1633 Judged for heresy in Rom Consequence: life-long house arrest, publication ban - 1642 Death - 1992 (!) rehabilitated by the church **Galileos Telescope** - Made the first one in 1609 -\> among other things verify the phases of Venus and discover sunspots-\> could use that to support the heliocentric view - **Power and need for instrumentation in science** **The Assayer** - Book, he wrote about how „the universe is written in the language of mathematics and its characters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it." - **Mathematics as the language of science** **Dialogue** - A book presenting a series of discussions between three men: Salvati (stand-in for Galileo, Sagredo (neutral layman (leihe)), Simplicio (geocentric views) - The book discusses a number of phenomena (Venus phases etc) - At the time the two systems were not distinguishable from the existing data - **Unsing data to distinguish theories (but also omission (auslassen/vernachlässigen) of problems!)** *Francis Bacon* - In 1645, Bacon's book Novum Organum Scientiarum introduced the scientific method (inductive reasoning). This method uses specific observations to form general ideas. - Bacon believed that knowledge should be built step by step, like building something from the ground up. - He suggested making two lists: one of cases where a phenomenon happens, and another where it doesn't. By comparing the lists and ranking the cases, we can figure out the causes of the phenomenon. - This approach mixes experience (observing the world) with reasoning (thinking logically). *Rationalism and Empiricism* **Rationalism:** We learn most things by using our mind and reason. It means that some knowledge can come from thinking and logic, without needing to see, hear, or feel something with our senses. 1\. The Intuition/Deduction Thesis Some truths can be known simply by thinking about them (intuition) or logically deducing them from other truths. For example: - We intuitively know that "3 is greater than 2." - From this, we deduce that "there is a prime number greater than 2." This is called a priori knowledge---knowledge gained independently of experience. 2\. The Innate Knowledge Thesis Some knowledge is already within us as part of our nature. Experiences might help us realize this knowledge, but they do not create it. For instance: - Some rationalists think we were born with knowledge given by God, evolution, or a previous life. - Plato believed that learning is simply "remembering" knowledge from before birth. 3\. The Innate Concept Thesis Some concepts (like "infinity" or "God") are part of our nature. While experiences might trigger these ideas, we do not get the concepts from experience itself. For example: - We have a concept of a perfect triangle, even though we've never seen one. Rationalists also believe that reason is superior to experience for gaining knowledge because: - Reason provides certainty, while sense experience can be unreliable (e.g., illusions or dreams). - A priori knowledge (like mathematics) involves truths that are unchanging and universal. **Empiricism** We learn most things through experience. This means we understand the world by seeing, hearing, or doing things. It focuses on using evidence from the real world instead of just thinking or relying on ideas we are born with. Empiricism Thesis Knowledge comes from a posteriori reasoning, which is based on experience. For example: - We learn about the color "red" by seeing red objects. - Concepts like "cause and effect" come from observing patterns in the world. 2\. Rejection of Innate Knowledge Empiricists argue that there's no evidence for innate knowledge. For example: - If knowledge were innate, everyone would have the same ideas from birth, but this isn't true. Children or people from different cultures don't naturally know certain truths. 3\. Skepticism About A Priori Knowledge Empiricists agree that reason can tell us about relations between ideas (like in math) but not about the real world. For example: - We can logically prove that 2 + 2 = 4, but this doesn't tell us anything about actual objects in the world unless we observe them. Empiricists focus on how experiences shape knowledge and argue that reason is only a tool for organizing information from the senses. - The main difference is: Rationalism trusts the mind and logic, while Empiricism trusts the senses and experiences.  *René Descartes (rationalis)* **Nativism** - The human soul already comes equipped at birth with an innate understanding of certain concepts, such as time or space **Dualism** - Res extens (body) vs. Res cogitans (mind/soul) - Body works like a machine -\> has material properties, mind or soul is nonmaterial and does not follow the laws of nature - The mind and body are connected at a part of the brain called the pineal gland, which Descartes called the "seat of the soul." He thought this because: 1\. He believed the soul is a single, unified thing, and the pineal gland looked like one single structure (though later it was found to have two parts). 2\. The pineal gland is close to the brain's ventricles, which are filled with a fluid. Descartes thought this fluid (called cerebrospinal fluid) moved through nerves and controlled the body, carrying what he called "animal spirits." -\> So, Descartes' idea was that the pineal gland is where the mind and body communicate. *Descartes Error?* Recent ideas in psychology and neuroscience, like those of Damasio, challenge Descartes' idea of dualism. They question the clear divide between reason and emotion. This is based on new evidence from studies of brain damage (called lesion studies) that show how damage to certain parts of the brain affects decision-making and personality. This suggests that reason and emotion are more connected than Descartes thought. *John Locke and David Hume (empirists)* **John Locke** - English physician and philosopher, statesman - Essay concerning human understanding-\> at birth the mind is blank or tabula rasa - Contrary to nativism he said we where born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is determined only by experience derived from sense perception. **David Hume** - Scottish philosopher, economist, historian - Wrote text -\> argued against the existence of innate ideas, humans can only have knowledge of objects of experience and relations of ideas. Inductive reasoning and causality can not be justified rationally. Believe in causality and induction results from custom, habit and experience rather than logic. *Humes Principles of Association* **Associationism** Associationism is the idea that our thoughts and mental processes work by connecting different mental states. This concept is still important today, especially when studying how we learn and represent meanings. Researchers have suggested different ways our brains might organize knowledge, such as: 1\. Hierarchical networks (like a tree structure with categories and subcategories). 2\. Unstructured networks (connections without a clear pattern). 3\. Small-world networks (recent research showing efficient, interconnected structures). These models help explain how we organize and access knowledge in our minds. *Rationalism and Empiricism: Commonalities and differences* - Both go beyond religious dogma (scholasticism), and propose new methodologies to uncover the „truth" -\> obtain (erhalten) knowledge of the world through systematic methods (i.e. Science) - They have different emphasis (legen unterscheidlichen wert) on deduction (Rationalism) (the process of reasoning one preomise to reach logical certain conclusion. Conclude from big to small) Vs induction (empiricism) (accumulation of evidence or premises to provide suport for a particular conclusion-\> conclude from small to big) - Philosophical work of Immanule Kant contributed to a more common acceptance of combining rationality and empiricist views *Key arguments* For Rationalism 1. We can know necessary truths (like math) without relying on experience. 2. Concepts like "infinity" or "God" go beyond what experience can provide. They must be innate or based on reason. Against Rationalism 1. Empiricists argue that rationalists assume too much. For example, they doubt claims about innate knowledge or concepts. 2. They also criticize the idea of intuition, pointing out that intuitions can be wrong or unreliable. For Empiricism 1. Sense experience is essential for gaining knowledge about the world. Without it, we would have no concepts or understanding. 2. Knowledge that seems a priori (like math) may simply reflect how our minds organize sensory information. Against Empiricism 1. Rationalists argue that sense experience cannot explain everything. For example, how can experience provide the idea of infinity or universal moral truths? 2. They also claim that empiricism struggles to explain abstract concepts like mathematics or logic. *„Psychology" through the ages* - Croatian humanist Marko Marulić (1450-1524)first used the term „psychology" - German philisopher Rudolf Göckel used the term aswell in 1590 - The term did not come into popular usage until the german philiopher christian wolff used it (1732 and 1734) Distinction between empirical and reational psychologie was picked up by Denis Diderot (713-1780). In england „psychologie" overtook mental philosophy" in midle of the 19th century [Session 3: The birth of psychologie] *The Origins of Evolutionary Theory: Beagle Voyage* - 1831-\> Beagle sailed from England towards South America - Charles Darwin was on board (was inspired by Humbolt and his travel diaries)-\> found fossils of extinct mammals, observed plants and animals - This was the basis for his theory of evolution by natuaral selection **Charles Darwin** - English naturalist and geologist - Known for contribution to evolutionary theory - All life descended form common ancestors - 1858-\> evolution results form natural selection *The origins of Evolutionary Theory* - Darwin started work on natural selection shortly after Beagle voyage - 20 years to publish ideas - He is conflicted and anctious becaus of religion (wife is religious) and conservativ society, so he wanted to have good evidence for his work - The theory is not a work of isolated genius *The principles of Evolutionary Theory* **Natutal Selection** The differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype (i.e., the composite of an organism\'s observable characteristics or traits, such as its morphology, but also behaviour, or products of behavior) Necessary conditions for natuaral selecion: **Variation** Individuals in the population differ frim each other concernung some genotype/phenotype. **Differentioal Reproduction/Selevtion** Avarage nubre of offspring differ between indiviuals with different genotypes/phenotypes **Heredity** The traits of the fittest genotypes/phenotypes that survive are inherited (vererbt) by the succesful progeny (nachkomme) Genotype: The genes an organism has. It's like the instructions in its DNA. Example: A flower's genotype can have genes for red or white petals. Phenotype: What you can see or measure about an organism. It's how the genes show up in real life, influenced by the environment too. Example: The flower's phenotype is red petals (what we see). Evolution doesn't lead to optimal design! It has no intentionality or goals, it rather works like a sieve (sieb) Example: Nature did not "decide" that giraffes should develop a long neck. Rather, giraffes with longer necks (Variation), had adaptive advantages compared to giraffes with shorter necks (Differential Reproduction/Selection), and their trait (long necks) was passed on to future generations (Heredity). - Variants that are less adaptive will go extinct! \>99 % that ever lived extinct *Evolutionary theory in society: Eugenics* **Social Darwinism:** Theories which claim to apply biological concepts of natural selection to sociology and politics. The strong should see their wealth and power increase and the weak should see their wealth and power decrease. **Eugenics:** Aims to improve genetic quality of the humans through highet sexual reproduction for people with desired traits (positive eugenics) or reduced rates for people with less desired traits (negative eugenics). *From Phrenology to Neuropsychology* **Franz Josef Gall** is Claimed as the founder of phreonology. His contributions to neuropsychology are more pseudoscience (Bumps in skull-\> peronality). His study phrenologiy (physiologie im schädel) where important for inquiry (nachforschung) of brain functions. **Pierre Paul Broca:** - Physician, anatomist, anthropologist - Brain autopsy of a patient (Leborgne) with loss of speech-\> brain localization of language articulation - Leborgne had an aphasia-\> could only say one word *„Social phyics": Adolphe Quetelet* His theory about the number of crimes in connection with age: Age has the biggest impact on whether someone is likely to commit a crime. When people are very young or very old, the chances of committing a crime are very low. This is because young children don't have the strength or strong desires needed for crime, and older people lose that energy and strength as they age. The likelihood of committing a crime is highest around the age of 25, when physical strength and passions are at their peak. *Wilhelm Wundt* - 1832 birth in Nareckarau/Mannheim - Studied medicine and got doctoral degree in 1851 - Assistant to Hermann and Helholtz in Heidelberg - Prof. For Anthropology and Medical Psychology - Political activity - Professor of inductive Philosophy in Zürich - Professor pf philosophy in Leipzig - 1879-\> firs psychologie lab founded -\> BIRTH OF PSYCHOLOGIE (differentiated philosophic topics with psychological ones) - 1920 death near Leipzig Wilhelm Wundt is saying that psychology, as a science, has not advanced as much as other natural sciences like physics. He points out that since the time of scientists like Galileo and Bacon, psychology hasn't experienced the same kind of progress. He compares psychology to logic, which Kant said hadn't improved since Aristotle. Wundt explains that questions like the nature or origin of the soul don't belong to scientific psychology but to metaphysics. And because metaphysics is not a natural science, it hasn't benefited from the advances in methods and knowledge made in natural sciences. *Weber and Fechner* **Ernst-Heinrich Weber** - German Physician - one of the founders of experimental psychologie - Studies on sensation and touch and good experimental techniques gave was to new directions and areas for future psychologists, physiologists and anatomists **Gustav Theodor Fechner** - German philosopher, physicist, experimental psychologist - Pioneer of experimental psychology - Founder pf psychophysics - Weber-fechner law *Psychophysics* Figure in the left (Weber-Fechner law): lower squares contain 10 less dots than the upper ones. But the perception is different: on the left side the difference is clearly visible. Un the right side they look the same. Figure on the iight: relation between intensity (I) of a stimulus and the subjective experience or sensation (S) - Proportional difference is more important than absolute difference (except pain) *Instrumentation: The brass (messing)-and-glass era* The new psychologists wanted to examine problems of sensation and perception witch experimentation and measurement. **Hipp Chronoscope** - stopwatch instrument - Worked with a vibrating tongue and electromagnets - Two dials (ziffernblätter) recorded duration down to 1000^th^ of a second - Used in reaction-time experiments - Matthäus Hipp developed it in 1848 - After Wilhelm Wundt recommended it, it was widely used by experimental psychologists *Wilhelm Wundt: Methodolical electicism* Pluralistic use of Methods: - **Experimental Studies**: psychophysical methods to study the connection between physical stimuli and subjective experience, reaction time measurements, accuracy of reproduction in memory tasks - **Introspection:** self reports of sensation, feelings, and thoughts by trained individuals under controlled experimental situations - **Historical and Comparative analysis:** analysis of the products of human thought and culture through examination of different societies and their development *Wilhelm Wundts laboratory as a „factory"* - Published about 7 publications/year for 68 years (490) - Started many new journals - Advised 184 doctoral students (including Hall, Titchner usw.) *Titchner and Structuralism* - Psychologie is the science of consciousness - Only method to deal with content of consciousness is introspection (slebstbeobachtung) - Investigators needed a lot of training had to collect personal experience - Tichner was known for his very precise experiments *William James and Functionalism* - American philosopher and psychologist, trained as a physician - First educator to offer a psychologie course in the USA at Harvard in 1875. - One of the founders of functionals psychology - Gained recognition with „the principles of Psychology" *The first Schools: Structuralism vs. Functionalism* 1. Functionalism looks at the "how" and "why" of the mind --- how it works and why it helps us survive. This is different from structuralism, which focuses on the "what" --- the parts of the mind and how they are put together. 2. Functionalism also studies how the mind helps us deal with the environment and meet our needs. It's about the practical uses of consciousness --- how thinking helps us adapt to the world. 3. Lastly, functionalism focuses on the connection between the mind and the body (psychophysical *Psychology*), showing how they work together to understand mental life better. *Institutionalization* Laboratories: Conferences, Organisations, Publications:  *Reading*: *Why Experiments Are Important* This section explains why experiments are a key method in understanding psychology and related fields. **Key Ideas:** - Experiments are powerful because they help determine cause-and-effect relationships. For instance, they can show whether one factor (like stress) directly influences another (like memory performance). - Unlike observations or surveys, experiments allow researchers to control variables. This means they can isolate one specific cause while keeping other factors constant. - Experiments often compare groups: one group receives a "treatment" or specific condition, while another (control group) does not. Differences in outcomes between the groups reveal the effect of the treatment. **Example:** If researchers want to know if sleep affects learning, they can have one group sleep well and another stay awake. If the sleep group performs better, it suggests sleep is crucial for learning. **Limits of Experiments:** - Experiments in labs can sometimes oversimplify real-world situations. - Ethical concerns can limit the type of experiments that can be done on humans. *The Structure of an Experiment* **Components of an Experiment:** 1. Independent Variable (IV): The factor that researchers change or control (e.g., amount of sleep). 2. Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome being measured (e.g., test scores). 3. Control Variables: Factors that are kept constant to ensure the test is fair (e.g., same test for all participants). **Steps in an Experiment:** 1. Decide on a question or hypothesis (e.g., Does sleep improve memory?). 2. Identify and manipulate the independent variable. 3. Measure the dependent variable. 4. Analyze the results to check if changes in the IV caused changes in the DV. **Types of Groups:** - Experimental Group: Receives the treatment (e.g., more sleep). - Control Group: Does not receive the treatment (e.g., less sleep). - Random Assignment: - Participants are assigned randomly to ensure fairness and eliminate bias. **Common Pitfalls:** - Participants might guess the purpose of the study, which can influence their behavior (known as the "placebo effect"). - Researcher bias can affect results unless proper controls are in place. - Ethics in Experiments: - Participants must give informed consent. - They should not face harm, and researchers must maintain confidentiality. **\ ** [Session 4: Psychoanalysis] *Sigmund Freud* - 1856 Birth in Vienna - 1873 studies medicine - Made doctoral degree - Habilitation in Neuropathology - Opens private practice in Vienna - Met other psychologists like Carl Jung and Hall - Flees from Nazis *The origins and development of psychoanalysis* - Relation between trauma and mental illness first investigated by Jean Martin Charcot-\> worked with traumatized (hysteric) women - Hysterical symptoms: sudden paralysis, amnesia, sensory loss, and convulsions-\> thought to originate in the uterus - Treatment until then: hysterectomy (operate the uterus out) - Charcot found out hysteria is not physiological bur psychological - He noticed that traumatic events could put his patients into a hypnotic-like state. He was the first to explain that: 1\. These patients were highly suggestible (easily influenced). 2\. Hysterical attacks were dissociative problems caused by going through unbearable experiences. **From Trauma to Phantasy** Later, Freud stopped believing that every client who walked into his office with \'hysteria\' had been sexually abused. Rather, he seemed to believe that symptoms resulted from repressed phantasies. *Psychoanalysis: Theses (and phases)* Psychoanalysis as: - General theory of human psychology and behavior - Method to diagnose and treat psychopathology - Historical-cultural movement Phases of psychoanalytic Theory: - Pre-psychoanalysis (1881-1894 - Trauma theory (1895-1899) -\> Repressed traumas -\>Reinterpretation as phantasies (castration complex, penis envy, Ouedipus complex) - Topographical Theory (1900-1922) -\>levels of conscious access  - Structural Theory (1923 onwards) -\>Id, ego, super Ego -\>Es =Eros and Thanos (death) *Psychoanalysis: Examples of Defence Mechanisms* **Defense mechanism**: Different parts of the self are often in a conflict-\> the settlement (schlichtung) between these conflicts is called Defence Machanisms *Psychoanalysis: Methods* Freud: first used hypnosis, later more free association and then dream interpretation - **Anamnesis:** psychonalaytic interpretation of patient biography-\> reveal origins of trauma/conflict and what defence mechanism they use. By uncovering these issues and looking at them in a new way, it might help reduce their struggles. - **Hypnosis:** probe (untersuchen) the unconscious and cure abandoned - **Dream analysis:** Dreams are called "the royal road" to the unconscious. Like hypnosis, they are a different state of mind. Dreams show hidden wishes, desires, and conflicts from the unconscious. They have two parts: 1\. Manifest content: The story of the dream you can remember. 2\. Latent content: The hidden, symbolic meaning behind the dream. The therapist's goal is to find the meaning of the latent content. They may also use other methods, like free association, to explore deeper mental conflicts. - **Free association:** analysts asks individual to share thoughts, words or images that come freely to mind or in reception with some cue-\> results are interpreted by the analyst to uncover noconscious thoughts and conflict. - **Freud slips:** (i.e., slips of the tongue; "bread and butter" -\> "bed and butter"): investigative technique to reveal sources of mental conflict - Projective tests: psychoanalysts aim to uncover unconscious drives and conflicts - by interpreting responses to ambiguous (mehrdeutig) cues (e.g., Rorschach ink blots) *Psychoanalysis: Impact (and Conflict)* 1. Clark University Event (1909): - Freud, Jung, and others attended the 10-year anniversary of Clark University in the USA. - They were awarded honorary doctorates. - Freud gave his famous "Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis," marking psychoanalysis as an important scientific field. 2. Freud's Reflection: - Freud felt unrecognized in Europe but respected in the USA. - He considered this moment a turning point for psychoanalysis, transforming it into a widely accepted reality. 3. The Great Schism: - Freud and Jung later separated due to disagreements, especially about sexuality in psychoanalysis. - Freud insisted that sexual theory was central to psychoanalysis, while Jung disagreed, focusing on other symbolic and spiritual ideas. - Their differing views led to a lasting conflict. *Carl Gustav Jung* - 1875 Born in Kesswil (Bodensee) - 1895 studies medicine in Basel - 1902 doctorate - 1907 contact with Freud - 1912 „wandlung und symbole der liebe" - 1913 rupture with Freud - Professorship in Zürich and Basel - 1961 death - Libido as a more general term to describe mental energy (opposed to sexual energy) - Collective unconscious: aspects of unconsciousness experienced by all people in different times and cultures - Archetypes: - Inherited (geerbte, übernommene) images, symbols (e.g. Giants, magicians, heroes) - Double-nature as instincts and cultural traditions - As foundation of human communion (verbundenheit) - Personalty types: distinguish introverts and extroverts - Publication record - Little systematic treatment of thoretical ideas - Publications on relogion, mystical topics, alchemy... *Psychoanalysis: Methods (critique)* Freud had little interest to systematic empirical research **Dod bird verdict:** A controversial topic in psychotherapy, referring to the claim that all psychotherapies, regardless of their specific components, produce equivalent outcomes. **Karl popper:** Critiqued psychoanalysis for being unfalsifable-\> could nit be empirically tested or disproven. It could explain any possible behavior and therefore adaptable to all outcomes. He classified it as pseudoscience.  *Psychoanalysis vs. Behaviorism* Watsons investigation of childrens conditioning -\> response to psychoanalysis focus in early childhood *Psychoanalysis vs. Attachment Theory* **Mary Ainsworth:** - 1913 born in Ohio - Worked with Willam Baltz who rejected Freudian theories, they applied security theory -\> how children strive for security - Studied maternal infant attachments - Strange situation procedure: children's behavior when separated and reunited with their mother - 1999 death **Strange Situation Paradigm:\ **How do children react when they are seperated from their mother and left alone with a stranger (caregiver) - Shows the attachment style **Psychoanalysis** **Attachment Theory** --------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Drives (triebe) as primary Primacy as caregiving function (imprinting) The bond between a caregiver (like a parent) and a child is the foundation of development. Objects (attachment figures) secondary to drive gratification Learning and independence as motivation force in development Normative view: sexuality and aggression as primary drives Individual differences (every child is unique) **KEY READING FEHLT** [Session 5: Behaviorism] *Behaviourism: Watson* - 1878 Birth (trouble in youth - Studies Philosophy - 1908 professor of psychology - 1915 president of the APA - Psychodiagnostics' during first ww - 1958 death *Behaviorism* The text centers on behaviorism, a school of psychology founded by J.B. Watson in his 1913 article, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." Watson argued that psychology should be redefined as the study of observable behavior, moving away from introspection and the analysis of mental states or consciousness. He believed that only phenomena that could be observed, measured, and objectively recorded should form the basis of psychological research. Key theses of behaviorism include: 1. Focus on Observable Behavior: Unlike earlier approaches, behaviorism disregards subjective mental states and emphasizes directly observable actions. 2. Environmental Influence: Behaviorists study how the environment and external stimuli shape behavior. 3. Scientific Methods: They rely heavily on experiments, often using animals to derive principles applicable to humans, aiming for precision and replicability. 4. Prediction and Control: Watson envisioned psychology as a discipline capable of predicting and controlling behavior. *Behaviorism: Methods* **Classical (pavlovian) conditioning:** 1. Start with a natural reaction: Some things naturally make us react. For example, food makes dogs drool. 2. Add something new: You introduce something neutral, like a bell, that doesn't normally cause a reaction. 3. Pair them together: Every time you give food to the dog, you ring the bell. The dog starts to connect the bell with food. 4. Learned reaction: After a while, the dog will drool just from hearing the bell, even if there's no food. The dog has learned to react to the bell. (can generalise t different stimuli that are alike) Key terms: - Unconditioned stimulus (US): The food (naturally causes drooling). - Unconditioned response (UR): Drooling (natural reaction to food). - Conditioned stimulus (CS): The bell (becomes connected to food). - Conditioned response (CR): Drooling (now happens just from the bell). **Watson and Rayner studie:** [Methods]: They conditioned a little child called albert to fear a rat by pairing it with a loud noise. Albert learned to associate the rat with the scary noise, and he became afraid of the rat even when there was no sound. [Results]: The experiment showed that Little Albert developed a fear of the white rat after a few trials of pairing it with the loud noise. This fear also spread to other similar objects, like a rabbit, a dog, and even a white fur coat. This spreading of fear is called "generalization." [Conclusions]**:** The study concluded that emotions like fear are not just natural---they can also be learned through experience. Watson and Rayner suggested that emotional reactions could be conditioned in the same way as other behaviors, and this could apply to humans in general. [Implications]**:** The research opened up new ways of thinking about how people develop fears and phobias. It suggested that behaviors and emotions could be shaped by the environment and experiences, not just inherited traits. **Law of effect** In 1905, Thorndike introduced the "Law of Effect." This law explains how behaviors change based on their results: - If an action leads to a pleasant result (like escaping or getting food), the animal is more likely to do the same action again in the future. - If an action leads to an unpleasant result, the animal is less likely to do it again. *The Schools: Networking Psychological Review* This study looks at how American psychology developed in its early years, focusing on articles published in the journal Psychological Review. First Period: 1894--1908 - The researchers studied all important articles published in the journal over 15 years. - They created "networks" to group articles that used similar words. Articles with similar vocabulary were placed close together. - These groups showed how psychology became more specialized over time: - In the first five years, fields of study began to separate into clear specialties. - By the next five years, the number of specialties decreased. This might have happened because: In 1904, the journal got a new editor, Psychologists started doubting if "consciousness" should be the main idea in psychology. Second Period: 1909--1923 - The researchers continued their analysis for the next 15 years. - This time, psychology faced new challenges: - In 1910, James Baldwin, a key figure in psychology, left unexpectedly. - During World War I, psychology had to adapt to the pressures of the war. - New specialized psychology journals appeared, taking some focus away from Psychological Review. - Despite these challenges, the journal found a clearer purpose: - It became the main place for publishing theoretical psychology in the U.S. - This study shows how early American psychology grew and responded to changes over time.   *Behaviorism: Clark Hull* Clark Hull (1884--1952) was a psychologist who wanted to create mathematical rules to explain behavior. He believed that many factors influence how organisms respond to situations, and he tried to put these factors into a formula: SER = SHR × D × V × K Each part of the formula represents a factor that affects behavior: - SER (Excitatory Potential): This is the chance that the organism will respond to a stimulus. - SHR (Habit Strength): This comes from past learning or conditioning experiences. If a response worked before, it is more likely to happen again. - D (Drive Strength): This depends on how much the organism needs something, like food or water. For example, hunger increases drive strength. - V (Stimulus Intensity): Some stimuli are more noticeable or powerful and affect behavior more strongly. - K (Incentive): This is how rewarding the result of the action is. A bigger reward makes the response more likely. Hull's work, published in 1943, was important for understanding how different factors combine to influence behavior. *Bahaviorism: Skinner* - 1904 birth - 1928 studies psychology - 1936 professor of psychology University of Minnesota - 1948 professor of psychology Harvard University - 1990 death *Behaviorism: Thesis/ principles* **Operant Conditioning (invented by B.F. Skinner)** [Behavior and Consequences:] - If you do something and get a reward, you're more likely to do it again. - If you do something and it leads to a punishment, you're less likely to do it again. [Types of Consequences]: - **Positive Reinforcement**: Adding something good to encourage behavior. Example: Giving a treat when a dog sits. - **Negative Reinforcement**: Taking away something bad to encourage behavior. Example: Turning off a loud noise when a child finishes their homework. - **Positive Punishment**: Adding something unpleasant to stop a behavior. Example: Giving a timeout when a child misbehaves. - **Negative Punishment**: Taking away something good to stop a behavior. Example: Removing a toy when a child fights with their sibling. Example: school for difficult to educate children. Children got tokens if they behaved well with which they could buy themselves treats -\> the children behaved better *Behaviorism: Impact* Spread and impact of behaviorism was enormous; behaviorism took over outlets (e.g., psychological review), associations (e.g., APA), and departments (e.g., Harvard)  - Chairpersons where mostly behaviorists *Bahviorism: Fall* Children don't learn language because they get a reward for it In an experiment children couldn't copy anything that the hear even if the revard was big **KEY READING FEHLT** [Session 6: Gestalt Psychology] *Gestalt Psychology* **Max Wertheimer** Described the phi phenomenon-\> light is perceived as moving even tough the pink light where just turning on and off **Kurt Koffka** He exposed American psychology to gestalt psychology in 1922 with an article that appeared in psychological bulletin. **Wolfgang Köhler** He investigated thinking and reasoning in chimps. He was a critic of both structuralism and behaviorism. *Gestalt Psychology: Perception* **Thesis:** the mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies. When the human mind forms a perception or gestalt, the whole has a reality of its own, independent of the parts. It contrasts with structuralism which aimed to understand specific independent elements of sensation and perception. - The whole is different (more) than the sum of its parts  *Gestalt Psychology: Higher-order Thought* **Law of effect:** Law of Effect (Edward Thorndike): - Thorndike, an American psychologist, studied how animals learn through experiments with "puzzle boxes." - He observed that animals repeated actions that led to satisfying results (e.g., escaping a box) and avoided actions that caused discomfort. - This principle suggests behavior is shaped by rewards and consequences. VS Insight (Wolfgang Köhler): - Köhler studied chimpanzees to understand problem-solving at a research station in the Canary Islands. - He noticed chimps used creative solutions (e.g., stacking boxes to reach bananas) that were not based on trial and error but on sudden understanding, or "insight." - This challenges the idea that all learning is based on trial-and-error behavior, as suggested by Thorndike. Both concepts address how organisms learn and solve problems, contrasting reward-driven behavior with sudden realization or insight-based problem-solving. *Gestalt Psychology: Impact* Brunswick proposed the lens model which describes the link between characteristics of the world and individuals perception of these characteristics. distal Variable: f.e categorization of a face (how it is in real life) Central response: representation in our mind Proximal perception cues: the features of the face Ecological Validities: how important is a cue in „nature"-\> ears arent as important as other feature Utilization: what we think is more important Uncertainty: - The evidence is not definitive or absolute; it involves degrees of likelihood rather than guarantees. - For example, seeing a blurry shape of an animal in the distance might suggest "it could be a deer," but it's not certain. Proximal vs. Distal Information: - Proximal cues: Immediate, sensory inputs (e.g., the sound of footsteps, the sight of moving shadows). - Distal object: The actual source or cause of these cues (e.g., a person walking). - Organisms use probabilistic evidence from proximal cues to make educated guesses about the distal object. Adaptation to Probabilities: - Organisms adapt by learning to interpret these cues and make decisions, even when the information is incomplete or ambiguous Practical Examples: - Vision: You see part of an object obscured by fog and infer its full shape based on past experience. - Judgment: A doctor interprets symptoms as probabilistic evidence to diagnose a patient since symptoms might not point to a single definitive illness. - Decision-Making: A poker player infers the likelihood of winning based on visible cards and patterns of behavior. **Kurt Levin:** German-born psychologist who later moved to the United States. He is considered a pioneer in modern social, organizational, and applied psychology. Lewin introduced the idea that human behavior results from the interaction between a person and their environment, represented by the equation  B = ƒ(P, E) , where  B  stands for behavior,  P  for person, and  E  for environment. - If we can understand every single aspect of someone we can understand the person Lewin's work inspired other psychologists to focus on how behavior is influenced by the social context. One example is Roger Barker, who studied "naturally occurring behavior" in real-life situations.  Lewin also developed "field theory," which describes life as consisting of various distinct spaces or fields. People navigate these spaces to reach their goals. In the Importance-ranking of all time and contemporary psychologists, gestalt Psychologists don't make it top 10 KEY READING FEHLT [Session 7: Cognitive Psychology] *The Hixon Symposium* - 1948 - Beginning of a period in which scientists proposed a parallel between mind and machine (i.e. information processing logical devices) - Strongly criticized behavioral theories *The Hixon Symposium (1948)* Karl Lashley (1890-1958): - A zoologist and psychologist. - Studied how brain lesions (injuries) affected the behavior of trained rats. - Published a famous paper in 1951, "The Problem of Serial Order in Behavior." - He argued that complex actions, like playing piano, couldn't rely on simple brain feedback because neural signals are too slow. Instead, he proposed that behaviors are controlled by a hierarchically organized program in the brain. Warren McCulloch (1898-1969): - A neurophysiologist who contributed to the field of cybernetics (study of systems and control). - Co-authored the paper "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" with Walter Pitts in 1943. - They showed that the brain works like a Turing machine, where neurons act as logic units. (converting the on/off of neurons into 1 and 0) - Also explained how networks of neurons could identify visual patterns, even if the object changes in size or orientation. John von Neumann (1903-1957): - A mathematician and physicist who worked in many fields. - Made significant contributions to mathematics, the design of self-replicating systems (like cells), and game theory. - His work laid the foundation for modern computing. The symposium highlighted how early thinkers began connecting ideas from biology, psychology, and mathematics to understand the brain and behavior, influencing many modern fields like artificial intelligence and neuroscience. *The Dartmouth Workshop (1956)* A summer workshop initiated by John McCarthy-\> seminal (wegweisend) event for artificial intelligence. Some of the key figures: **Claude Shannon:** Information theory: defined information mathematically, how information can be communicated over limited channels, and how it can be reconstructed with low probability of error. **Allen Newell/Herbert Simon** General problem solver: computer program that could solve simple problems-\> if they understand how computers solve problems they may also understand how humans do. **Marvin Minsky/Oliver Selfridge** Artificial neural networks: computing systems inspired by biological neural networks that constitute animal brains *Noam Chomsky: (innate) Universal Grammer* Noam Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar critiques behaviorism's explanation of language acquisition. He argued that behaviorist models, like Skinner's, cannot account for the rapid and complex language development seen in children, such as their ability to produce and understand novel sentences by age four or five. Chomsky emphasized that language learning does not depend solely on reinforcement, as children often acquire language without explicit instruction or sufficient input. Instead, he proposed that innate cognitive structures, or a Universal Grammar, provide the framework for language learning, challenging the behaviorist view that learning is entirely shaped by external stimuli. Initially, Chomsky proposed the concept of "Universal Grammar," which suggests that humans possess innate syntactic structures and grammatical principles shared across all languages. However, his later work, particularly in collaboration with others, refined this concept to emphasize a single core feature: computational recursion. This shift highlights the centrality of recursion---a process enabling the generation of infinitely complex structures from a finite set of rules---in understanding human language and its evolution. The cited article further explores these ideas within the context of language's development and universality. *Connectionism (Parallel distributed processing)* The slide explains connectionism, a movement in cognitive science aimed at understanding thinking and learning by using artificial neural networks (simple models inspired by the brain). These networks are made up of many units (like neurons) connected by "weights," which mimic the strength of synapses in the brain. Experiments with these models have shown they can learn skills like recognizing faces, reading, and understanding basic grammar. This approach offers a mechanical alternative to innate (grammatical) principles. *The Harvard Center for Cognitive Studies (1960)* Founders of the Harvard Center for Cognitive Studies (1960): - George Miller (1920--2012): Pioneer in cognitive psychology. - Jerome Bruner (1915--2016): Known for his work in social psychology. Purpose of the Center: - To bring the concept of the "mind" back into experimental psychology, which had been dominated by behaviorism in the U.S. - Behaviorism focused only on observable behavior, ignoring mental processes. Background and Formation: - George Miller became dissatisfied with behaviorism (Skinner) and psychophysics (Stevens). - Inspired by Bruner's group called the "Cognition Project," they turned it into the Center for Cognitive Studies. - Funded by the Carnegie Corporation, with space provided at Harvard. Impact of Behaviorism: - Behaviorism was mostly popular in the U.S. but had less influence internationally. - The cognitive revolution in psychology helped reconnect with international psychologists. **George Miller:** - Memory span is about 7 items - Memory span is the same with vastly different amount of information (e.g. letters, digits, words) - Not limited in terms of bits but rather chunks - Mind could be described like an information processing system with significant capacity limitations *Cognitive Psychology: Theses and Methods* Psychology became fascinated with information-processing diagrams. Boxes and arrows stand for (temporary) stores of information and/or processes that transform the information and the transmission of information. *Cognitive Psychology: Thesis and Methods* **Definition:** Cognitive psychology explains behavior by looking at mental processes like thinking, remembering, planning, and attention. It also studies representations like language rules (e.g., Noam Chomsky's theories). **Key Idea:** cognitivism gained importance and acceptance in psychology based on the analogy of information processing carried out by computers **Comparison to Other Fields:** - Behaviorism: Focuses on observable actions; cognitive psychology instead studies internal mental processes. Both use strict experimental methods. - Gestalt Psychology: Focuses on holistic perception (as whole objects); cognitive psychology aims to create detailed, mechanical models of how thinking works. **Impact of Computing:** Enabled new tools like: - Computational models: Simulate thinking with step-by-step rules (e.g., Newell & Simon's General Problem Solver). - Neural networks: Mimic learning through connections, similar to how the brain works. *Cognitive Science and the cognitive revolution* **David Marr:** - Studied Mathematics an physiology, later worked as professor of psychology - Particularly famous for three level view of how to understand information processing systems: [Marrs Levels] - **Computational level:** what is the goal of a given process/computation - **Algorithmic level:** how can a goal be achieved using a particular set of inputs/outputs, which algorithm describes the required transformation - **Implemental level:** how is an algorithm physically implemented? (e.g. neutral activity?) *Cognitive science and the cognitive revolution* **Origins**: - The "cognitive revolution" started over 50 years ago. - It emphasized the idea that "cognition is computation"---viewing the mind like a computer. - This led to the creation of a new multidisciplinary field called cognitive science. **Current Challenges:** - Despite its initial vision, cognitive science has struggled to develop into a fully interdisciplinary and unified field. - Bibliometric data (data about academic publications) suggests that cognitive science has largely been taken over by cognitive psychology. - In education, there is no clear agreement on what should be included in a cognitive science curriculum. - These issues raise concerns about the future direction and development of cognitive science as a discipline. *The myth of revolutions?* **Claim:** Common narrative in American experimental psychology describes the field as undergoing three major "paradigm shifts" (Kuhnian revolutions): - Mentalist era: Focus on mental processes. - Behaviorist era: Emphasis on observable behavior. - Cognitivist era: Return to the study of mental processes, with modern tools and approaches. **Argument by Leahey (1992):** - These "revolutions" were not true radical changes. - Instead, they were periods of rapid but continuous development---not abrupt or revolutionary as commonly believed. - Psychology has experienced steady evolution rather than drastic paradigm shifts. **Key Quote:** "Revolution in psychology is a myth," except for Wundt's founding of the discipline. *An empirical approach to the impact of "schools"* **Key reading:** *Section 5.3: Representations* **What is Representation?** - Representation is like a mental "code" or "symbol" for something. For example, when you think of the word "dog," your mind creates an image, sound, or idea that represents a real dog. This process happens in your brain through patterns of activity. Representations make it possible for us to: - Recognize objects. - Understand language. - Plan actions or solve problems. **Types of Representations** 1. Symbolic Representations: - These are clear, specific symbols like numbers, words, or signs. For example, the word "tree" is a symbol for the physical thing we see in the real world. - They are often structured and logical, much like how we use language or math. 2. Subsymbolic Representations: - These are less obvious and more complex. Instead of using clear symbols, our brain uses patterns of neural activity. - For example, a network of neurons might represent the idea of a "face" without a specific "face symbol." **Why Are Representations Important?** - Representations are fundamental to understanding cognition (thinking processes). They explain how we: - Process sensory input (like seeing or hearing). - Combine information (like linking sound with meaning in language). - React to the environment or solve problems. **Examples of Representations** - When we read, our brain transforms written words into meanings. This involves both symbolic and subsymbolic representations. - Recognizing an object like a chair involves a mental representation of its shape, size, and function. **Challenges in Understanding Representations** - the brain is incredibly complex, and understanding how it represents information is difficult. - Different scientific methods (like brain imaging or behavioral experiments) are used to study representations, but they still provide only partial answers. *Section 5.4: Models in Cognitive Science* This section explores how cognitive scientists use models to understand the brain and mind. A model is a simplified version of reality, like a map that helps us understand complex systems. **What Are Models and Why Do We Need Them?** - Models help scientists break down complicated processes (like thinking or remembering) into smaller, more understandable parts. They make it easier to: - Test theories. - Predict behaviors. - Explore how the brain works. **Types of Models** Descriptive Models: - These focus on describing what happens during a cognitive process. - Example: Observing which areas of the brain are active when someone reads. Mechanistic Models: - These explain how a process works in detail. - Example: Explaining the steps involved in storing a memory. Predictive Models: - These predict outcomes based on data. - Example: Predicting how someone will perform on a test based on their past behavior. **How Are Models Created?** - Models often use data from experiments, such as brain scans or behavioral studies. They can be: - Mathematical Models: Using formulas to describe processes. - Computer Simulations: Replicating human thinking with algorithms. **Examples of Models in Action** - A reading model might show how we recognize words, link them to meanings, and understand a sentence. - Decision-making models explain how we weigh pros and cons to make a choice. **Strengths of Models** They help us: - Understand processes that are too complex to study directly. - Design experiments and new technologies. - For example, models of the brain are used to improve artificial intelligence (AI). **Limitations of Models** - Models are simplifications and can't capture every detail of the real world. - They may rely on assumptions that are not always correct. **The Future of Modeling** - As technology improves, models are becoming more advanced. Scientists aim to create models that are: - More accurate. - Better at predicting real-world behaviors. - This could lead to breakthroughs in areas like education, healthcare, and artificial intelligence. [Session 8: Psychology today] *Recap: Different schools in psychology* *The issue of unity and prominence* Why Unity in Psychology is Important: - Influences professional identity, how resources are shared, and the field's legitimacy. Mixed Results in Understanding Trends: - Research into psychology trends, such as the "cognitive revolution," has shown unclear or varied findings. Main Question: - Is psychology one unified science or a collection of many "psychological studies"? Method to Identify Popular Trends in Psychology: Use a "historiometric approach": 1. Search for specific keywords in top psychology journals. 2. Search the same keywords in dissertation summaries. 3. Analyze which articles are being cited in major psychology journals. Findings:  psychology is such a big and diverse field (with many different specializations or smaller parts) that you can find evidence to support the importance of almost any area of psychology. Looking at psychology as a collection of separate parts (rather than one unified field) can be a useful way to understand the patterns in research. *Scientific revolutions?* - Revolution = one dominant approach is replaced completely by another (compare: Thoman Kuhns idea of scientific revolutions) Behaviorism to Cognitivism: Is it a revolution?: - Did behaviorism (focus on observable actions) and cognitivism (focus on mental processes) change suddenly or gradually? - ncludes questions about whether their theories and methods show continuity or a complete break. Chomsky vs. Skinner Debate: - Chomsky's ideas about how we learn language (cognitive perspective) oppose Skinner's behaviorist ideas. - Shows how different the two approaches can be. Scientific Progress: Evolution vs. Revolution: Does science change step-by-step (evolution) or in sudden jumps (revolution)? *Criticism concerning the narrative of schools* - The idea of psychology having competing 'schools' (like rival teams) isn't strongly supported by historical evidence. - Instead, there was much more practical research happening than this idea suggests. - Edwin Boring, a historian, wrote a very popular book in 1929 called A History of Experimental Psychology. - He believed scientific progress came from debates and controversies. - He exaggerated small discussions to make them look like big fights between 'schools'. - The term 'schools' in psychology may come from philosophy, where it originally had a different meaning. - Using the idea of conquering schools' was likely a shortcut to simplify and summarize psychology's history, but it might have distorted the reality. *Psychology: science or profession?* *(Dis)Unity : APA,APS, and the Psychonomic Society* **American Psychological Association APA:** - primary organization of psychologist in the US founded in 1892 - focusses on psychology as a broad professional scientific field - Mission: Promote the progress, communication, and application of psychological knowledge for societal benefit. - Activities: Membership programs, conferences, journals, ethical guidelines, and citation standards. **Psychonomic Society:** - Founded in 1959 by experimental psychologists. - Focus: experimental study of cognition - Mission: Encourage and share basic research in experimental psychology. - Activities: Membership programs, journals, conferences, and advocacy for experimental methods. **Association for Psychological Science (APS):** - Formed in 1988 as a split from APA. - Focus: Advance rigorous psychological research and evidence-based science. - Mission: Combine traditional scientific values (rigor, transparency) with innovation in psychological research and application. - Activities: Global membership, conferences, journals, and promoting scientific integrity in psychology. *(Dis)Unity as a starting point of the replication crisis* **Replication:** repeating a study with new data/or participants but following the original methods as closely as possible (direct and conceptual replication) **Reproducibility**: refers to the ability to reach the same result when analyzing the same dataset using the same methods and analyses as described in the original study - Could psychology's fragmentation into various specialties and schools have influenced research standards and methodologies -- and ultimately contributed to the replication / reproducibility crisis? *Major steps to deal with replication crisis* The current rise of open science practices is one very visible consequence of the replication crisis **Key reading:** The article examines trends in psychology, focusing on the development and prominence of cognitive psychology and neuroscience, while questioning the notion of psychology as a unified discipline. It critiques earlier studies on the subject and offers a more nuanced interpretation of psychology's evolution, emphasizing its diverse and multi-specialty nature. **Trends in Cognitive Psychology** - Cognitive psychology has grown in prominence since the 1960s but has not become the dominant force some studies claimed. - Earlier analyses suggested a "cognitive revolution," portraying cognitive psychology as overtaking behaviorism and psychoanalysis. - While its influence has risen, it functions more as a specialty alongside others rather than as a unifying paradigm for the field. **Growth in Neuroscience** - Contrary to earlier reports suggesting neuroscience was not gaining traction in psychology, this study finds steady and significant growth in neuroscience since the 1960s. - Neuroscience and cognitive psychology have become increasingly intertwined, giving rise to cognitive neuroscience, a hybrid field bridging the study of mind and brain. - Evidence of neuroscience's growth is seen in journal citations, keyword usage in research, and its representation in psychology dissertations and academic departments. **Psychology's Fragmentation and Disunity** - The author argues that psychology is best viewed as a fragmented or multiparadigmatic discipline. - There is no "mainstream" or dominant school of thought. Instead, psychology encompasses various specialties like clinical, social, developmental, behavioral, cognitive, and neuroscience. - This fragmentation reflects the complexity of psychological phenomena, which resist being unified under a single theoretical framework. **Critique of Earlier Studies** - Previous studies (e.g., Robins et al., 1999; Tracy et al., 2004) used limited methods like keyword searches in flagship journals to measure trends. - These studies concluded that cognitive psychology had risen to prominence while neuroscience lagged behind, but they overlooked the broader landscape of psychology. - The reliance on flagship journals is problematic because these journals reflect only a subset of the field and may not represent applied or clinical specialties. **Expanded Methods and Findings** - This study expanded its analysis to include: - All peer-reviewed psychology journals indexed in PsycINFO, rather than just flagship journals. - A broader range of neuroscience-related keywords, capturing terms that earlier studies missed. - Cognitive psychology references have steadily increased since the 1960s. - Neuroscience references have grown similarly, with the two fields converging in the rise of cognitive neuroscience. - Behavioral psychology references peaked in the 1970s and declined afterward, but behaviorism remains relevant in specific areas like clinical psychology. **Dissertations and Academic Trends** - Dissertations reflect trends similar to journal analyses. Cognitive psychology dissertations increased during the 1960s and 1970s but plateaued afterward, never exceeding 10% of all psychology dissertations. - Clinical and counseling psychology account for the majority of psychology PhDs, suggesting these applied areas dominate the discipline in terms of numbers. - Neuroscience is well-represented in top psychology departments, with many faculty members affiliated with neuroscience or cognitive science programs. **Implications for the Field** - Psychology's fragmentation is not necessarily a weakness. It allows for diversity in approaches and methodologies, reflecting the complex nature of psychological phenomena. - The narrative of a "cognitive revolution" serves more as a professional myth to unify and legitimize the field than as an accurate historical account. - Growth in cognitive psychology and neuroscience does not imply dominance but rather the emergence of new specialties among many others in psychology. **Conclusion** - Psychology is better understood as a collection of diverse specialties ("the psychological studies") rather than as a unified discipline. - Both cognitive psychology and neuroscience are important and growing areas but exist alongside other specialties without dominating the field. - The continued evolution of psychology will likely reflect its inherent diversity, rather than coalescing around a single dominant paradigm. [Session 9: Psychotherapy research] *Psychotherapy* Psychotherapy is a professional process where trained therapists use established psychological methods to help individuals improve their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. It is meant to guide people in changing personal characteristics, such as emotions, attitudes, and habits, that they or the therapist find unhelpful or problematic. - Purpose: To assist individuals in positive personal growth and resolving difficulties. - Methods: Techniques are based on psychological principles and applied intentionally. - Qualifications: Therapists must be properly trained and experienced in these methods. - Collaboration: The process is tailored to the goals deemed important by the participant(s). *Psychotherapy: Main approaches* There are several forms of psychotherapy-\> many of the concepts and methods emerge directly or indirectly from the schools we addressed earlier in this course *Evidence based practice in psychology* The slide describes Evidence-Based Practice in Psychology (EBPP), which involves combining the best research with clinical expertise while considering the patient's characteristics, culture, and preferences. The goal is to make psychological practice more effective and improve public health by applying tested methods in areas like assessment, treatment planning, building therapeutic relationships, and interventions. The American Psychological Association (APA) adopted this approach in 2006. *Psychotherapy research* **Psychotherapy research** is about studying how psychotherapy works and its results. It is a part of psychology that aims to make psychotherapy more scientific. Instead of just depending on the instincts or experience of therapists, it focuses on evidence and data. This includes controlled studies and other scientific methods to understand: - How effective different psychotherapeutic techniques are. - The mechanisms or reasons why these techniques work. combining **scientific research** with **clinical expertise**. This means therapists use both their professional skills and scientific evidence to provide effective therapy. *Psychotherapy research: four phases and major events* **Early criticism and call for scientific investigation** - Saul Rosenzweig's Role: He was an early researcher in psychotherapy and played a key role in questioning and analyzing its methods. He developed the "Dodo Bird Hypothesis" - Research on Repression: Along with Mason, Rosenzweig performed experiments to study repression. Repression is a concept in psychoanalysis referring to a defense mechanism where individuals push uncomfortable thoughts or memories out of their conscious mind. - Rosenzweig's Letter to Freud: Rosenzweig shared his experimental findings with Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. Freud's response was polite but dismissive. He acknowledged the experiments but said his theories were already based on numerous reliable observations, making experimental confirmation less critical in his view. Freud added that such studies "can do no harm." **Randomized control trial (RCT)** - It's a type of scientific experiment, often used in medicine, where participants are randomly divided into different groups to test different treatments. - They are considered the gold standard for clinical trials. - They are mainly used to check if medical interventions (like new drugs or therapies) are safe and effective. They can also provide information about side effects, like allergic reactions to drugs. - First, participants are evaluated to see if they are eligible for the study. - Next, eligible participants are randomly assigned to one treatment group or another. - The random assignment happens before the treatment starts. - RCTs are designed this way to ensure the results are as fair and unbiased as possible. **Hans Eysencks attack on psychotherapy (1952): A catalyst for change** - Eysenck aimed to assess if psychotherapy truly helps patients recover from mental health problems. He wanted clear evidence to settle debates about its effectiveness. Key Findings: - Psychoanalysis helped 44% of patients recover. - Eclectic therapy (a mix of methods) helped 64% recover. - Non-therapeutic methods (like care from general practitioners or custodial care without psychotherapy) had a recovery rate of 72%. - His data implied that the more psychotherapy patients received, the less likely they were to recover. This finding questioned the value of psychotherapy. Conclusion: - Eysenck argued there was no strong scientific evidence proving that psychotherapy effectively helps people recover from neurotic disorders. - He believed this lack of evidence should make professionals cautious about including psychotherapy as a core skill in clinical psychology training. Eysencks work was heavily criticized, for example on the basis of his use of seemingly different standards to define control groups illness severity, standards for recovery etc. -\> but led to further efforts in psychotherapy. **Competing therapeutic approaches** Joseph Wolpe was a South African psychiatrist and one of the most influential figures in behavior therapy Reciprocal Inhibition: - A feeling or response (like anxiety) is reduced by introducing another feeling or response that cannot happen at the same time. - For example, Joseph Wolpe used this method with assertiveness training. The idea is that you can't feel angry or anxious while you are being assertive (selbstbewusst). Systematic Desensitization: - This is a way to help people overcome fears (phobias) and anxiety problems. - It works by exposing the person to something they fear in small, manageable steps. Each step gets slightly harder, but only when the person feels okay with the current level. - This approach is based on classical conditioning, which means learning to replace negative feelings with neutral or positive ones.  **Systematic review and Meta-Analysis** [Systematic review:] A method to collect and analyze all available research that meets specific criteria to answer a particular question. - Clear Objectives: It has a well-defined purpose and uses a transparent and repeatable process. - Comprehensive Search: Tries to find all studies that fit the criteria. - Study Validation: Checks the reliability of the included studies, such as assessing the risk of bias. - Organized Results: Presents and summarizes the study details and findings systematically. Goal: To minimize bias and provide reliable conclusions for decision-making. [Meta-Analysis:] A statistical method to combine results from multiple studies included in a systematic review. It helps calculate more precise estimates of treatment effects by combining data from many studies, making the conclusions stronger. - Not all systematic reviews include a meta-analysis, but they often go together **Smith and Glass (1977)** - Results of nearly 400 controlled evaluations of psychotherapy were analyzed and statistically evaluated - The findings provide convincing evidence of the efficacy (wirksamkeit) of psychotherapy. - On average therapy client is better off than 75% of untreated patients Smith and Glass , analyzed psychotherapy outcomes and found little difference in effectiveness between various approaches (behavioral therapies and nonbehavioral therapies). - Dod bird verdict: a concept suggesting that all types of psychotherapy are equally effective, regardless of their specific methods. This idea originates from Saul Rosenzweig in 1936 and draws on the quote from Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland: "Everybody has won, and all must have prizes." **The Great (Psychotherapy) Debate: Common factors versus specificity** [Common Factors Theory:] This theory suggests that various types of psychotherapy share certain universal factors (like goal-setting, empathy, and the therapist-client relationship) that are responsible for much of their effectiveness, regardless of the specific treatment approach. Wampold's View: - Believes that common factors (e.g., agreement on therapy goals, empathy, and a strong therapist-client bond) are more influential in treatment outcomes than differences in specific therapeutic techniques. Chambless's View: - Acknowledges the importance of common factors but argues that their role depends on the mental health issue. - or example, common factors may play a larger role in treating depression but are less important in addressing conditions like obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) or phobias, where specific, evidence-based interventions may be critical. In essence, the debate revolves around whether universal elements of therapy or specific techniques tailored to particular disorders drive successful outcomes. [Session 10: Psychological Testing] *Psychological testing* A psychological test is a standardized tool used to measure a sample of someone's behavior. This behavior is observed through tasks or questions (often written ones) that are designed ahead of time. By completing the tasks or questions, a person gets a score or is placed into a category. This score represents a psychological quality, such as: - Academic achievement, - Cognitive ability (like intelligence), - Special skills (aptitude), - Emotional state, - Personality traits. Differences in scores among individuals are believed to reflect real differences in these traits. Most tests are built to compare a person's results with established benchmarks or norms (like typical scores for their age group). This comparison helps predict how someone might behave in real-world situations. The study and creation of psychological tests is called psychometrics. This field ensures that tests are valid, reliable, and useful for their intended purpose. *From mental tests to latent (verborgen) constructs* Three major developments had to happen / take place for the rise of psychological testing as we know it today: 1. **Creating Measures of Mental Capacity**: Psychologists developed tools and tests that could plausibly measure mental abilities and cognitive functions. 2. **Developing Comparative Methods**: They introduced ways to compare individuals' abilities, such as norms, scoring systems, and scales. 3. **Building a Methodological Toolbox**: Researchers established new statistical methods to link test results with real-world criteria, enabling predictions based on these measures. This combination of new measurement tools and statistical methods transformed mental processes and behavior into measurable data. It fostered a strong and lasting relationship between psychological theory and statistical analysis. *Psychological testing and psychometrics: Four phases and major events* **Francis Galton** - 1822 birth (same grandfather as Charles Darwin) - Studies Medicine in London - 1882 Central of mental tests in London -\> founded psychometric, tests for visual acuity, rection times etc. - 1888 independently invents correlation - 1911 death **Francis Galton: Brass, glass and big data** General plan of the international health exhibition 1884: - Organized by Francis Galton - Its goal was to promote public health through exhibits and educational programs - A special feature was an "anthropometric laboratory" - It measured Various physical traits, such as: eye and hair colour, sight and hearing abiliitys, height, weights grip strength etc. - in the first year, Galton collected data from about 10,000 individuals. - Galton used this data to create "normative distributions," meaning he tried to understand what was "normal" for physical traits in people. - He also focused on validating these measurements to ensure their accuracy. **Francis Galton: founder of eugenics** Francis Galton, the founder of eugenics, introduced the term in his 1883 book Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development, though he had explored the idea in earlier works. Eugenics focuses on improving the genetic quality of the human population. The concept has roots as far back as Plato, who suggested selective mating to create a guardian class. Eugenics involves two approaches: - Positive eugenics: Encouraging reproduction among people with desirable traits. - Negative eugenics: Reducing reproduction or enforcing sterilization for those with less-desirable traits. Today, the term is associated with a controversial social philosophy aimed at enhancing human traits through these methods. **James McKeen Cattell** - 1860-1944 - First professor of psychology in the us - Was inspired by Wundt and Galton - Established own psychological laboratory in the US - Mixed Galton's physical attribute measures with Wundt's psychophysical approaches James McKeen Cattell's work "Mental Tests and Measurements" (1890) represents one of the earliest attempts to systematically study and quantify human mental abilities. Here's a more specific summary: - **Objective**: Cattell aimed to apply scientific methods to psychology, particularly to measure mental functions like memory, attention, and sensory perception. - **Methodology**: He introduced the concept of "mental tests" as a way to gather measurable data about individuals' cognitive abilities. - **Impact**: His work laid the foundation for later developments in psychometrics and intelligence testing, establishing psychology as a quantitative and experimental science. **Correlation: Pearsons's product moment correlation** - 1857-1936 - Mathematic and biostatistician - Established discipline of mathematical statistics, theories of social Darwinism and eugenics - Founded first university statistic dep. - Correlation reflects the strength and direction of a linear relationship (top row), but not the slope of that relationship (midle) -\> as long as its linear it's a correlation **Spearman's rank-order correlation**  **Factor Analysis** Factor Analysis is a statistical method used to understand the relationships between observed variables by finding fewer underlying factors that explain the data. For example, differences in performance on three tasks might reflect a single underlying factor like intelligence. - Factor analysis identifies patterns in data, assuming that multiple observed variables are influenced by fewer hidden (latent) factors. - Observed variables are modeled as combinations of these latent factors plus error terms. - This helps to uncover how variables relate and can simplify data by reducing the number of variables to focus on. - It was introduced by Charles Spearman and is still widely used today, especially when dealing with large datasets. Reflective Model: - Latent variables (like "g" for general intelligence) influence the observed variables. - Changes in the latent variable lead to changes in all the related observed variables. - The observed variables are expected to correlate because they share the same underlying factor. **Binet-Simon Scale** The scale was developed in France by two people: - Alfred Binet (a psychologist). - Théodore Simon (a psychiatrist). The first version was published in 1905, and there were later updates.The main purpose was to measure a child's general mental abilities and practical judgment.It was specifically designed to help identify children who had learning difficulties.This need came from the introduction of compulsory education, which meant all children were required to go to school. It was a short test that took less than an hour.The test included a variety of tasks, meaning it didn't focus on just one type of skill. They believed intelligence is about the ability to: - Make good judgments. - Show practical sense. - Use initiative and adapt to situations. - They saw these abilities as the core of intelligence. **The Stanford-Binet Scale** Théodore Simon (1872--1961) and Alfred Binet (1857--1911): - Developed the Binet-Simon Scale, - first version lacked a method to calculate a total score. - Later revisions aligned test items with the performance of 80-90% of children in specific age groups. - In 1911, they introduced a system assigning partial scores (1/5 of a year) for each additional correct answer beyond a baseline level. William Stern (1871--1938): - German psychologist who introduced concept IQ - suggested that IQ be calculated as the ratio of mental age to chronological age:  Henry H. Goddard (1866--1957): - American psychologist who translated the Binet-Simon Scale into English - enabling its widespread use in the United States - distributed approximately 22,000 copies. Lewis Terman (1877--1956): - American psychologist who adapted the test at Stanford University - renaming it the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale - Terman expanded its use to identify both learning disabilities and high intelligence levels. - refined IQ formula by multiplying it by 100 to eliminate fractions **The army Alpha and Beta** [Army Alpha:] This test was for recruits who could read and understand English. It included eight tests focusing on verbal skills, designed for average and high-functioning individuals. [Army Beta:] This was a nonverbal test aimed at recruits who were illiterate or not fluent in English. It used pictures and gestures to communicate instructions. [Scoring:] Test results were rated on a scale from A (very superior) to E (very inferior). Over 1.7 million people were tested, but it's unclear how these results were used to assign people to roles in the military. **Progressive matrices** - Developed by John Raven (1902-1970), British psychologist - Non-verbal Test, to measure human intelligence and abstract reasoning - Estimates (schätzt) fluid intelligence - One of the most common tests - Used from 5-year-olds to elderly - Made of 60 multiple choice questions - Identifying the missing element that completes the pattern - Presented in 6x6, 4x4, 3x3,2x2 matrix (giving the test its name)  **History of subtests** The study by Gibbons and Warne (2019) examined the history of subtests in major intelligence tests like the Stanford-Binet 5 and WAIS-IV. They found: - Most subtests were created before 1908, with only three new ones developed after 1980. - Many subtests have strong research backing due to their long history of use. - However, the formats of these tests were made before modern advancements in test design, cognitive psychology, and theories of intelligence. - The history of these subtests is more complex than most psychologists realize. The timing of subtest development is important for psychological testing because it impacts how well these tests align with current scientific understanding and their validity in measuring intelligence. **Wechsler Intelligence Scale** - Developed by American psychologist David Wechsler (1896-1981) - Several versions: **WAIS**: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (for adults), **WISC**: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (for school-aged children), **WPPSI-IV**: Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (for young children). - WAISC is a revision of the Wechsler-Bellevue test - Different tasks are measure different aspects of intelligence which represent different latent constructs - These scales were not entirely new; many of the test items were borrowed from other tests that existed at the time. - The key innovation was how the scores were structured. - Unlike the older Stanford-Binet scales that compared mental age to chronological age, the Wechsler scales used a "point scale." - This system assigned points to each test item and grouped them by content (e.g., verbal, non-verbal skills). - As a result, the test could give multiple scores for different cognitive abilities, offering a more detailed view of intelligence. The new scoring formula for IQ is: This method shows that IQ is relative: - It measures how a person's cognitive abilities deviate from the average score of a group that serves as a standardized norm. - IQ doesn't represent an absolute measure of intelligence but a comparison to others in the norm group. - the Wechsler scales introduced a more nuanced and multidimensional approach to understanding intelligence. **Behavioral genetics** [Behavioral Genetics:] This field studies how genetic factors are inherited (geerbt) and how they shape behavior. In humans, scientists often use methods like twin studies (comparing identical and fraternal twins) and adoption studies to understand these influences. [Heritability]: This is a statistical concept that estimates how much of the variation in a trait (like intelligence) within a population is due to genetic differences. It does not refer to individuals but rather to populations as a whole. [Research Findings:] A review of 111 studies on family resemblances in intelligence suggests that intelligence follows a polygenic mode of inheritance, meaning it is influenced by many genes. However, the results show variability depending on the family group, and this variability is not affected by the sex of family members or the type of intelligence test used. - behavioral genetics explores how our genes and environment shape behavior, with research showing that intelligence is influenced by multiple genes, though there are differences within families. **25-point consensus on intelligence and testing** Definition of Intelligence: Intelligence is a general mental ability that includes reasoning, problem-solving, planning, abstract thinking, understanding complex ideas, and learning quickly from experiences. It is more than academic skills or test-taking; it involves understanding and making sense of the world. Measurement of Intelligence: Intelligence can be measured effectively using tests. These tests are reliable and valid tools for assessing intelligence but do not measure creativity, personality, character, or other personal traits.  **Key Reading:** **The Early Foundations of Intelligence Assessment** - Phrenology and Early Theories: The earliest attempts to measure mental abilities were rooted in pseudoscience, such as phrenology, which claimed that the shape of the skull reflected mental faculties. Franz Gall and Johann Spurzheim were key proponents, but their methods lacked empirical support. - Philosophical and Scientific Influences: - Herbert Spencer: Defined intelligence as an organism's ability to adapt to its environment. - Charles Darwin: Emphasized the evolutionary basis of human and animal mental abilities, suggesting intelligence was part of natural selection. **Early Scientific Efforts** - Francis Galton (Father of Psychometrics): - Focused on measuring individual differences through physical traits like reaction time and sensory acuity. - Invented statistical tools like correlation and regression, which became foundational for later intelligence studies. - His Anthropometric Laboratory collected data from thousands of participants but failed to link sensory abilities to intelligence directly - Coined the term "mental tests" and designed a test battery incorporating sensory and motor skills. - is methods were criticized after studies showed no correlation between his tests and academic performance, leading to the end of this approach. **Alfred Binet's Breakthrough** Development of the Binet-Simon Scale: - In 1905, Binet and Simon created the first effective intelligence test to help identify children with learning challenges in French schools. - They emphasized tasks requiring reasoning, memory, and judgment, moving away from sensory tests. - The test was designed to measure "mental age," helping assess whether a child was ahead, behind, or at their age-appropriate level. Innovations: - Tasks were ordered by difficulty and grouped by age. - Included cognitive tasks like recalling digits, comparing objects, and defining abstract words. - This scale introduced a developmental perspective, recognizing that intelligence grows with age. **Lewis Terman and the Stanford-Binet Test** Refinement and Standardization: - In 1916, Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon scale, adding new tasks and standardizing it for use in the U.S. - Introduced the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) formula: . - Focused on assessing "general intelligence" (Spearman's g-factor), believing it was largely hereditary. Applications: - The Stanford-Binet became the gold standard for intelligence testing. - Widely used in schools to group students by ability and in the military during World War I to assess recruits. **Controversies and Misuse** Ethical Issues: - In