History of the English Language PDF

History of the English Language Code: 35349 6 ECTS Dr Ana-Isabel Martínez-Hernández 1  Introduction to the 1 history of the English language 2 Introduction to the history o...

History of the English Language Code: 35349 6 ECTS Dr Ana-Isabel Martínez-Hernández 1  Introduction to the 1 history of the English language 2 Introduction to the history of the English language Time Words Feeling Lexis has to do with the choice of vocabulary (synonyms/close synonyms). Semantics studies meaning and its change Usage over time. (e.g., pig vs pork; awesome, gay) Pnoetics/Phonology. Pragmatics. Morphology (inflections) Syntax (rules & combination) 3 Introduction to the history of the English language Source: VividMaps 4 Introduction to the history of the English language Source: MapsOnTheWeb 5 Introduction to the history of the English language https://broadyesl.w ordpress.com/2014 /10/03/great-chart- history-of-english- language/ 6 Introduction to the history of the English language Gender (Ger. - Eng) Idiomatic Spelling Die Sonne (fem) Il fait froid / Fa fred (Fr. / Cat.) Believe Father Shoe Der Mond (masc) (Eng?) Receive Hate Sugar Das Kind (neu.) Leave Hat Issue Das Mädchen (neu) Machine Nation Be Suspicion See Ocean -ough- video Nauseous Though Conscious Cough Chaperon Plough Fuchsia Hiccough Thorough Thought Through Enough Hough (=hock) 7 Introduction to the history of the English language WHY? STORIES (Crystal, 2005) 8 Introduction to the history of the English language SCENE 1 SCENE 2 a) They gave us a hearty welcome. b) They gave us a cordial reception. 9 Introduction to the history of the English language 2 min ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? a) They gave us a hearty welcome. b) They gave us a cordial reception. 10 Introduction to the history of the English language a) They gave us a hearty welcome. b) They gave us a cordial reception. 11 Introduction to the history of the English language WHY? a) They gave us a hearty welcome. b) They gave us a cordial reception. 12 Introduction to the history of the English language The Celts Source: VividMaps 13 Introduction to the history of the English language The Romans Source: Vividmaps 14 Introduction to the history of the English language The Romans Source: Reddit 15 Introduction to the history of the English language Hadrian’s Wall 16 Introduction to the history of the English language Roman words https://youtu.be/Lf9Q68DZlok 17 Introduction to the history of the English language Source: Mapsontheweb 18  Introduction to the history of the English language More about Romans in Britain: https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story- of-england/romans/invasion/ Source: Mapsontheweb 19  Introduction to the history of the English language Bede’s account Celtic place-names - Arden - Avon - Exe - Leeds - Severn Berkshire, Bray, Bredon, Cambridge, Carlisle, Cirencester, Doncaster, Gloucester, Ilfracombe, Lancaster, Leicester, Lincoln, Malvern, Manchester, Penkridge, Penrith, Penzance, Wiltshire, Winchester, Worcester Source: Mapsontheweb 20 Introduction to the history of the English language https://starkeycomics.com/2019/ 03/01/a-brief-history-of-british- and-irish-languages/ 21 Introduction to the history of the English language Viking (Old Norse) words today Want Th-pronounouns Weak Berserk Leg Skirt & shirt Knife Ship & skipper Egg Shabby & scabby Mist Shatter & scatter Be Places (-by, -thorpe, -thwaite, -wick) Take Names (-son, Mac-) https://youtu.be/XimUGRX81V8 Sky Days of the week Skull Skill Scar Ugly 22 Introduction to the history of the English language The Normans (Middle English) 1066 – William the Conqueror - - Invasion; Battle of Hastings https://mapsontheweb.zoom- maps.com/post/712793025214038016/th e-norman-conquest-of-england-1066 23 Introduction to the history of the English language The Normans Jobs: Meat: Flaeshmangere (OE) > butcher (boucher - OFr) Cú (OE) [cow] - boef (OFr) [beef] Treowwyrhta (OE) > carpenter (carpentier OFr) Scéap (OE) [sheep] - mouton (OFr) [mutton] Ceapmann (OE) > merchant (merchaunt - OFr) Díor (OE) [deer] - venisoun (OFr) [venison] Barbier (OFr) - barber Family: Grossier (OFr) - grocer Drapier (OFr) - draper (OE) (OFr) Maisoun (OFr) - mason modor [mother] Niece [niece] Tailleor (OFr) - tailor dohtor [daughter], nevou [nephew] faeder [father] Aunte [aunt] sunu [son] Oncle [uncle] Cousin [cousin] 24 Introduction to the history of the English language The Normans Government & administration Rank & respect government, govern, administer, crown, state, empire, baron, nobility, prince, princess, duke, realm, reign, royal, authority, sovereign, majesty, duchess, count, countess, marquis, baron, tyrant, usurp, oppress, court, council, parliament, squire, page, sir, madam, mistress. assembly, statute, treaty, alliance, record, repeal, ** NOT "king", "queen", "lord", "lady" or "earl" adjourn, tax, subsidy, revenue, traitor, treason, exile, public, liberty. Organisation of society Titles manor, homage, vassal, peasant, slave, chancellor, treasurer, chamberlain, marshal, governor, servant councillor, minister, viscount, mayor, constable, coroner. 25 Introduction to the history of the English language The Normans Law justice, equity, suit, plaintiff, judgement, judge, advocate, attorney, bill, petition, complaint, summons, jury, juror, verdict, prison, punishment, gaol. perjury, adultery, assault, trespass, fraud, and such words involving property such as estate, tenement, patrimony, heritage, heir, and bounds. 26 Introduction to the history of the English language The Normans Religion religion, theology, sermon, homily, sacrament, baptism, communion, confession, prayer, lesson, passion, psalmody clergy, clerk, prelate, cardinal, hermit, dean, pastor, vicar, abbess, novice, friar, hermit crucifix, incense, image, chapter, abbey, convent, priory, hermitage, cloister, sanctuary creator, saviour, trinity, virgin, saint, miracle, mystery, faith, heresy, reverence, remission, devotion, sacrilege, temptation, penitence, redemption, salvation, immortality, piety, sanctity, charity, mercy, pity, obedience solemn, divine, reverend, devout preach, pray, chant, confess, adore, convert, and sacrifice 27 Introduction to the history of the English language Synchronic and diachronic considerations Diachronic [Greek] dia- 'through' + chronos 'time' Synchronic **not just present** 28 Introduction to the history of the English language Internal and external forces Internal "Any change which can be traced to structural considerations in a language and which is independentof sociolinguistic factors" (Hickey, 2012, p.388) External "Any variation and change in a langauge which can be connected with the community or society using that langauge" (Hickey, 2012, p.389) 29 Introduction to the history of the English language Internal and external forces New words due to language contact External chocolate, curry, sushi, pizza, taco, yoga, kung fu, samurai, avatar, safari, algorithm, algebra, zero, boomerang, siesta, tsunami Linguistic economy in a text message External OMG did u c?, IDK, LOL, TTYL, BRB, Gr8, 2nite Loss of case marking due to fixation of accent on first syllable. Internal (OE) cyninges hus > (MoE) [the] king's house New use of old words External Mouse, window, virus, bug, cool, the cloud Words going out of fashion External Hipster, wicked, sweet, swag 30 Introduction to the history of the English language Internal and external forces New words due to social change External Presenteerism, clickbait, influencer, meme, unfriend, adultescent Strong (irregular) verbs becoming weak in the course of time Internal climman, clomm, clommen > climb - climbed; crēopan, crēap, crōpen > creep – crept; helpan, healp, holpen > help – helped lēornian, lēarnte, gelærned > learned; slēpan, slēap, slēpen > sleep, slept Innovations by speakers External Unsex, khaleesi, bromance, unfriend, selfie, staycation, ghosting, mansplaining, binge-watch External Loss of case markings due to invasions 31 Introduction to the history of the English language "[Historical Linguistics can] be thought of as the art of making the best use of bad data" (Labov, 1994, p. 11) 32 Introduction to the history of the English language Written vs spoken on written form BUT! Oral first. c1540 Sayand and allegand ȝow ane commown bluidy huir. in J. H. Forbes, Liber Officialis Sancti Andree (1845) 139 Biased 33 Introduction to the history of the English language Language change Causes: - Economy: gonna, waiting, lamb, first light - Social prestige - Migrations - Language contact... An important process in English: grammaticalization Go, "be going to" "I'm going to the shops" vs "I'm going to consider her offer" Will, OE willan 'to want', 'to wish' > aux. futurity or intention 34 Introduction to the history of the English language Etymological dictionaries (OED) "man" 35 Introduction to the history of the English language Etymological dictionaries (OED) "man" 36 Introduction to the history of the English language Etymological dictionaries (OED) "man" (OE) were (e.g. werewolf) = (Latin) vir (e.g. virile) (OE) gome (e.g. bridegroom) = (Latin) homō, hominis 37  Introduction to the history of the English language Word Original meaning Current meaning Other: cognates, 1st use, expressions with original meaning? man Were (i.e. werewolf) (=vir Lat.) woman wife meat tide Yule tide, good tidings villain silly Spam nice shampoo (v) nightmare girl 38  History of the English Language Code: 35349 6 ECTS Dr Ana-Isabel Martínez-Hernández 1 2 Before Old English 2 Invasions and history of Britain? All something in common! = same ancient source Significant in Modern English - multiple words for almost anything. 3 father < fæder (OE) Fatherland, father-in-law, step-father, fatherhood, father (v) Paternal, paternity, paternalistic, patriarch (LATIN pater) Foot football, foothill, foothold, footing, footnote, footprint, footpath, footstep Pedestrian, pedicure, pedal (LATIN ped-) 4 Same origin 5,000 y [COGNATES] /p/ > /f/ The history of English begins before the Anglo-Saxons Proto-Indo-European (1700) Before: Biblical explanation & understanding of Romance languages. Similarities between Germanic languages and Slavic languages through borrowings. 5 Discovery in India involving European imperialism. Started as traders Mogul Empire fall apart in 1700s --> unrest & civil conflict The Dutch & Portuguese left, French & British stayed – fought for control British East India Company dominant power – not a gov., later gov. takes over. Warren Hastings (Governor General of Bengal) --> Rule based on traditional models Texts in Sanskrit (aaaaarrh!) (similar position to Latin in Middle Ages) Local pandits (MoE: pundits), reliable?? 6 William Jones Jurist & scholar Knew 28 languages!! Orientalist The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of the verbs and in the forms of the grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists; there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the Old Persian might be added to the same family. 7 Credit to William Jones, but not alone. Gaston-Laurent Coerdoux (Sanskirt, Latin, Greek, German and Russian) bhratar (Sanskrit) - brother (English) Examples that made Jones realise: Pitar (Sanskrit), pater (Latin), pater (Greek), father (English) Compound for God ('sky father'): o Dyaus pitar (Sanskrit) o Zeu pater (Greek) > Zeus o Iu-peter (Latin) > Jupiter (/j/ > /dʒ/ e.g. "Did you...?") 8 /p/ > /f/ pater, father /d/ > /t/ duo, two; decem, ten (decade) 'sky father' Proto-Indo-European: *dyēw Old Norse: Tir Old English: Tiu (same root as Zeus and Jupiter) Tuesday! Name of the language: Aryan? >> 20th c. Indo-European 9  Parent language Daughter Daughter language A language B Sister languages 12 branches? 10?? 11?? https://www.sssscomic.c om/comic.php?page=196 10 IE: Comparative Reconstruction through cognates - hypothesise from daughter languages Oxen - *uks-en Mother *mater One - *oinos Six - *sweks Seven - *septm Bear - *behr Apple - *abel Sanskrit Greek Latin OE Today Pitā patēr pater fæder father tráyas treîs trēs þrēo three śatám he-katón centum hund Hundred kás tís quis hwā who 11 12 Who were the IE? 13 Who were the IE? apple, oak, willow bear wolf 14 Who were the IE? Otter, beaver, horse, bee, snow, ice, bull, cow, ox, pig, to drive cattle, to shear, to weave, yoke, sour milk, whey, curds, grain, grind, pestle... 15 Who were the IE? 1. Lived between 4500 – 2500 BCE Patriarchal 2. Tibal farmers and herded cattle and sheep Patrilineal 3. Drove wheeled wagons patrilocal 4. Made woolen textiles 5. Plowed fields 6. Worshiped Sky Gods 7. Lived in temperate climate 8. Proximity to the Urals (connection with IE) 16 William Jones & Who were the IE?: Summary William Jones discovered that almost all of the languages of Europe – as well as several languages of central Asia – were all descended from an ancient common ancestor. 17 The Grimm Brothers & Comparative linguistics Early linguists – Northern Europe (Germany) Jacob Grimm Linguistics and IE was intense in Germany during the early 1800s Franz Bopp (also German!) – conj. & structure of Sanscrit in relation to European lang. Confirmed relation to Latin, Greek, Modern English & other European languages. Why Germany? The Frenchman (Bonaparte) 18 The Grimm Brothers & Comparative linguistics Comparative Linguistics (burgeoning) Early work focused on sound change o Friedrich von Schlegel and Rasmus Rask o Jacob Grimm (documented 9 changes in detail) Cognates or borrowings? 19 Grimm’s Law 1) p > f Note that not all P > F. Different factors. More linguists to figure it out. Sanskrit Greek Latin English pod pous ped foot pitar pater pater father Evolved into distinct dialects and, eventually, languages Already happened in Greek (phone, piholosophy, elephant) 20 Grimm’s Law Example of IE (Latin) Example of Germanic (English) pater father ped foot pisces fish pyre fire penna (via Fr. 'pen') feather 21 Grimm’s Law 2) d > t Example of IE (Latin) Example of Germanic (English) duo Two decem Ten dentis tooth Easy! US Eng: latter vs ladder? 22 Grimm’s Law 2) d > t Latin Latin words in English duo Duo, duet, dual * duel (indirectly) *Old Latin 'duo' (divided into two meanings: 'two' and 'war') > 'duellum' (war) 'duellum' > 'bellum' --> bellicose, belliberent, rebellion 23 Grimm’s Law 3) k > h Example of IE (Latin) Example of Germanic (English) cor (Fr. coeur, Sp. corazón) heart Gr. 'kardia' > cardiology, cardiac arrest cornu horn Cornucopia (=abundance) centum hundred *(East & Asia with S-) Centum-Satem Fr./Cat. 'cent' > centipede, century, centennial, centimeter, languages cent (1/100 of 1$) Caput head (OE 'hēafod') Capitol, capital, decapitation, captain, chief, chef, corporal (> caporal [military]), cadet, mischief, kerchief, handkerchief, cap 24 Grimm’s Law 3) k > h WHAT??? Who, what qui/quién, què/qué 25 Grimm’s Law 3) k > h What IE *kwod /k/ & /d/ fall away in Sp, Cat & Fr Grimm's Law: /k/ > /h/; /d/ > /t/ (/kwod/ > /hwod/ > /hwot/ > /wot/) 26 Grimm’s Law 3) k > h who IE *kwos Grimm's Law: /k/ > /h/ /kwos/ > /hwos/ > /hu:/ 27 Grimm’s Law 4) t > th /θ/ Example of IE (Latin) Example of Germanic (English) trēs three 5) b > p (not many examples) Example of IE (Lithuanian) Example of Germanic (English) dubus deep 28 Grimm’s Law 6) g > k Example of IE (Latin) Example of Germanic (English) genus kin (genealogy, genetics) agre (= field, land) acre (agriculture, acorn, agronomy) 29 Grimm’s Law 7) bh > b 8) dh > d 9) gh > g Aspirated consonants in other languages lost aspiration. Not relevant for English. 30 Verner’s Law German linguist Hermann Grassmann & Danish linguist Karl Verner completed Grimm’s work. agreement among Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Baltic, Slavic, and other IE on the ProtoIE sounds *p, *t, *k Importance of stress Verner realised Germanic did not correspond (following Grimm’s Law) (*f, *th, *h), but *β/v, *ð, *ɣ Example of IE (Sanskrit) Example of Germanic (English) bhrātar brother pitā Father 31 Verner’s Law Grimm's Law held true when the stress in the Sanskrit cognate was on the root syllable. If the stress was on a different syllable, Germanic became b, d, and g. 32 Grimm's Law & Verner’s Law: summary Jacob Grimm and other early linguists discovered a very specific set of rules to identify the way in which ancient IE words became Germanic words. That included a set of specific sound changes which also permit linguists to reconstruct large portions of Proto-IE. 33 Centum, Satem Letter C, WHY? Cat, cry, car, cup, cow Face, city, circle, circus Why not S or K? – etymology / history of the language Assibilation (not assimilation!!) / palatalization 34  West of IE world Centum, Satem Central & Western Europe Latin (centum) (Latin, Greek, Celtic, Germanic lang.) Attempt to reconstruct IE /k/ IE *k'mtom (cognates in 8 branches) Earliest version of the word (Sanskrit, Persian, Latin...) Hundred /s/ with a /h/ not Sanskrit a /k/ (satem) East of IE world Eastern European (Baltic, Slavic, Grimm's Law Armenian, Albanian) Indo-Iranian (Persian and Sanskrit) 35 Centum, Satem Assibilation / palatalization (NOT Grimm's Law!! Separate) /k/ in *k'mtom> /s/ satem Shift to a sibilant (i.e. hissing / hushing sound) /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/ Geographic perspective: massive migration ▪ Theory tested in early-20th c. --> Hittite as IE & Tocharian (NW China - Silkroad) 36 Centum, Satem Origin of C: Greeks Alphabet – Phoenicians alpha, beta, ? -- what sound did it represent? Gamma Γγ Romans – Greek alphabet (from Etruscans) Etruscans shift to /k/ Shape: chisel vs ink - Similarity G and C Letter K rarely used Germanic tribes & writing ▪ Runes ▪ Roman alphabet (power!) 37  Centum, Satem Anglo-Saxons adopt alphabet into OE C as a /k/. E.g. cyning Fall of Roman Empire – Germanic kingdoms emerge: Latin fractures into dialects ▪ Assibilation! (OE, very early Fr., Sp. and It.) Front vowels Back vowels /k/ > sibilant /k/ stayed the same LASp. Cien Cat, cot, cut Norman It. Cento Conquest Cat./ Fr. Cent En. cell, center, certain, certify, circle, city, 38 Centum, Satem OE – assibilation OE rice /'ritʃe/. 'Strong, powerful, mighty, great, of high rank', in later OE 'wealthy' (=rich) cirice /'tʃirtʃe/. 'Place of assemblage set aside for Christian worship; the body of Christian believers, Christians collectively; ecclesiastical authority or power' (=church) Old Saxon: riki, kirika Not always: cyning (=king), cene (=keen) 39 Centum, Satem Three pronunciations for the C!! /k/, /tʃ/, /s/ Not problem for speakers, but for scribes Today's rules: ▪ C + A, O, U (cat, cot, carry, car, cap) ▪ Middle English: 'ch' /tʃ/ (OE rice > rich, OE cirice > church, OE cild > child) ▪ French influence: c = /s/ + e/i (e.g. cent) But OE retained /k/ before e/i (e.g. cyning) K did not exist in OE – rescued! (e.g. king, kite, kettle, keg) K + a, o, u = borrowed (e.g. Kangaroo) 40 Centum, Satem: summary Assibilation: A specific sound change that has occured throughout the history of the IE languages. The shift from /k/ to a sibilant sound /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/. That sound change marked the history of the Modern English letter C. This sound change helped early linguists to classify the early IE languages. 41 Indo-European Grammar Non-IE, no inflections o E.g. Chinese – written in characters rather than letters o Types of languages ▪ Isolating or analytic: rely on independent forms to express all meanings, including grammatical notions such as person, number or tense. (Chinese, Vietnamese) ▪ Agglutinative: attach morphemes to the end of words, and each morpheme usually conveys one single meaning. (Japanese, Finnish, Basque.) ▪ Fusional or inflectional: morphemes typically express more than one meaning (e.g person, number and tense). (Spanish, French, Latin) ▪ Polysynthetic: concatenation of roots and morphemes (i.e. a sentence) (Mohawk, Nahuatl - and other Native American, Aboriginal Australian, and Arctic language families ) 42 Indo-European Grammar Articles a/the o The girl, the boy, the girls, the boys, the house, the houses ▪ Fr. le, la, les / Cat. el, la, els, les / Sp. el, la, los, las o A house, a car, a girl ▪ Fr. un, une / Sp./Cat. un, una o English articles never change - Most inflections gone o Other IE: inflections to indicate gender, number, tense... (e.g. Latin, German, Russian) 43 Indo-European Grammar Verbs In English, inflections for past & present (jumped (DID?)& jumps). Not for future (will jump) Present simple of the verb jump? o I jump o You jump o He jumps o We jump o You jump o They jump In IE, they would all have had different endings. Singular, plural + dual tense for actions by two things. Stragglers in Shakespeare (I bear, Thou bearest, He beareth) Germanic language nothing like Latin for future, perfect, pluferfect and future perfect forms --> use verb phrases. 44 Indo-European Grammar Nouns Possession o 's (The world's population) o of (the) (The population of the world) < Fr. de le, de la ▪ Not always. Context will dictate the use. See Jane's car vs *The car of Jane Plurals o -s Cases o IE had 8. o English: John sees the policeman vs The policeman sees John 45 Indo-European Grammar Nouns Cases o English = specific word order. Danish & Vikings. Case "horse" English Nominative *ekwos Horses ran across the field. Vocative *ekwe Horses, come here! Accusative *ekwom I saw horses. Genitive *ekwosyo The horse's pasture was green. Dative *ekwoy Give the horses some food. Ablative *ekwod He ran from the horses. Locative *ekwoy The saddles were on the horses. Instrumental *ekwo She rode the horses to town. 46 Indo-European Grammar Conclusion English has become a much simpler, flexible language. Loss of inflections. Love is patient. Love is a battlefield. Love is a many-splendoured thing. --> Noun I love you. --> Verb A love song; love poem; a love potion --> adjective In OE, different in each example: lufa, lufie, lufe. 47 Indo-European Grammar - Germanic: summary See book pages 39-42 1. Stress became fixed on the first syllable of the root. 2. Reduction in the number of proto-IE vowels. 3. Reduction of noun cases. 4. Simplification of verbal system (person, number, tense, aspect and mood) 5. Development of weak verbs. 6. Development of weak and strong declensions of adjectives. 7. Retention of core vocabulary from IE and some lexical innovations. 8. First consonat shift or Grimm's Law. 48 Indo-European words 1. Languages before IE? o Yes - but this is the origin as far as our history is concerned. o Older ancestor 2. Words in English from IE – 4000-2000 BCE – very different! 3. Between 1,300 – 2,000 reconstructed words – not all accepted. 4. Tree metaphor 5. Words traced back to IE, Latin or Greek. 49  Indo-European words Otter, beaver, Louse, moth, Goose, crane Cow, bull, steer, Barley, corn*, Timber, wolf, lynx, elk, bedbugs, wasp, starling, sheep* (ewe), apple* House/domo*, red deer, mouse, hornet, bee* swallow, duck* lamb, goat, door hare, horse* swine (pig?), hound* (dog? - 1500s), Fire, night, star, heart, lung, head, foot, tooth, ear, nose*, lip, wind, air, sun, mouth, brow, jaw, tongue, neck, brain, spleen, moon, snow, liver, uterus winter 50 Indo-European Grammar The words grammar and glamour come from the same source, i.e. Old French gramaire (from Exercise p. 37 Latin). Would you say they are cognates? 51 Indo-European Grammar The words grammar and glamour come from the same source, i.e. Old French gramaire (from Exercise p. 37 Latin). Would you say they are cognates? 52 Indo-European Grammar The words grammar and glamour come from the same source, i.e. Old French gramaire (from Exercise p. 37 Latin). Would you say they are cognates? No, they are not cognates because both are English words. Cognates do have a common origin but they belong to different languages. A 'doublate' or 'etymological twins' are words that share the same source but came into the language via different routes: Examples: frail & fragile, ward & guard, warranty & guarantee. 53  Indo-European Grammar Exercise p. 41 Look at these sentences (O'Grady et al., 2017, 274-275). They represent analytic, agglutinating, fusional and polysynthetic languages. Which is which? Note that hyphens are used to separate morphemes which belong to the same word. Turkish Mandarin Inuktitut Russian Koek-ler-in Ta chi fan le. Qasu-iir-sar-vig-ssar-si-ngit-luinar-nar-puq My vidim ruk-u Village-PL-GEN He eat meal PAST Tired not cause-to-be place-for suitable find not We see hand- completely comeone 3SG FEM.SG.ACC 'He ate the meal' 'someone did not find a completely suitable 'We see a/the hand' resting place' 54  Indo-European Grammar Look at these sentences (O'Grady et al., 2017, 274-275). They represent analytic, agglutinating, Exercise p. 41 fusional and polysynthetic languages. Which is which? Note that hyphens are used to separate morphemes which belong to the same word Turkish Mandarin Inuktitut Russian Koek-ler-in Ta chi fan le. Qasu-iir-sar-vig-ssar-si-ngit-luinar-nar-puq My vidim ruk-u Village-PL-GEN He eat meal PAST Tired not cause-to-be place-for suitable find We see hand- not completely comeone 3SG FEM.SG.ACC 'He ate the meal' 'someone did not find a completely suitable 'We see a/the hand' resting place' agglutinating isolating polysynthetic fusional 55 Activities Complete the reconstructed Germanic, OE and PDEng (Present Day English) words by supplying the 2.4.1 consonant that resulted from the operation of Grimm's Law. IE Ger. Lat. (Sp.) Ger. OE PDEng. p pater (padre) *__ader __æder/fader __ather t trēs (tres) *__ris __rī __ree k centum (cien) *__und __und- __undred b labium (labio) *le__oz li__a li__ d decem (diez) *__ehan _ēon __en g gelu (hielo) *__ald-oz __ald/__eald __old 56 Activities Complete the reconstructed Germanic, OE and PDEng (Present Day English) words by supplying the 2.4.1 consonant that resulted from the operation of Grimm's Law. IE Ger. Lat. (Sp.) Ger. OE PDEng. p f pater (padre) *fader fæder/dader father t θ (th) trēs (tres) *þris/ðris þrī/ðrī three k h centum (cien) *hund hund- hundred b p labium (labio) *lepoz lippa lip d t decem (diez) *tehan tēon ten g k gelu (hielo) *kald-oz cald/ceald cold 57 Activities Complete the reconstructed Germanic, OE andModE. When the two IE roots are given, the first is the basic 2.4.2 uninflected form and the second is the form to which the English word is more closely related. IE Ger. OE ModE Borrowing from Latin 1 *pisk- *__iska- __isc __ish 2 *dent-, *__anthus __ōᚦ __ooth *dont- 3 *gel- 'cold; *__ōl- __ōl __ool to freeze' 4 *kaput *__aubidam __ēafod __ead 5 *dekṃ *__ehun __īen __en 58 Activities Complete the reconstructed Germanic, OE andModE. When the two IE roots are given, the first is the basic 2.4.2 uninflected form and the second is the form to which the English word is more closely related. IE Ger. OE ModE Borrowing from Latin 6 *deik-, deig- 'to *__aikjan __œċan __each show, pronounce' 7 *ped-, *ōd *__ōt- __ōt __oot 8 *genu-, *gneu- *__iwam __nēo __nee 9 *trei- *__rijiz __rīe __ree 10 *ten-, *tṇ-u- *__unniz __yne __in 'stretched, thin' 59 Activities Match the following words which have been borrowed from Latin at a later stage, with the English words that 2.4.3 derive ultimately from the same IE root by writing the boldfaced ModE borrowing in the last column of Ex. 2.4.2. Dens 'tooth': dental Genu 'knee': genuflect Caput 'head': capital Tendere 'to stretch, extend': extend Piscis 'fish': Pisces Dīcere 'to say, tell': dictate Glaciēs 'ice': glacial Trēs 'three': trio Pēs (stem ped-) 'foot': pedal Decem 'ten': decimal 60  Activities 2.4.2-3 IE Ger. OE ModE Borrowing from Latin 1 *pisk- *fiska- fisc fish Pisces 2 *dent-, *tanthus tōᚦ tooth dental *dont- 3 *gel- 'cold; *kōl- kōl kool glacial to freeze' 4 *kaput *haubidam hēafod head capital 5 *dekṃ *tehun tīen ten decimal 61  Activities 2.4.2-3 IE Ger. OE ModE Borrowing from Latin 6 *deik-, deig- 'to *taikjan tœċan teach dictate show, pronounce' 7 *ped-, *ōd *fōt- fōt foot pedal 8 *genu-, *gneu- *kiwam knēo knee genuflect 9 *trei- *þrijiz þrīe three trio 10 *ten-, *tṇ-u- *þunniz þyne thin extend 'stretched, thin' 62 Possible long questions 1. Before Old English. How did English evolve from Proto-IE? Use examples to illustrate your answer. 2. Before Old English. IE grammar vs English grammar. Use examples to illustrate your answer. 63  History of the English Language Code: 35349 6 ECTS Dr Ana-Isabel Martínez-Hernández 1 3 Old English 2  Missed opportunity https://starkeycomics.com/2019/06/20/england-could-have-been-sexland/ 3  Englaland? The term 'English' or 'England' first? https://play- lh.googleusercontent.com/9WLX4kpGokn73nXMUAElCj0byelBhVPSM5vbskz xZuMH8_guUJIbzSknr4wJ_8jRoZhVS9YRIWdunr9HMLLb 4  Latin in English Year 410 – Romans abandoned Britain Celtic spoken in rural areas, Latin in urban. o Celtic (hydronyms & toponyms) & Latin earliest influences on OE. o Roman conquest not easy: Queen Boudicca (southeast) ▪ Roman influence especially in south. Latin borrowings: The Zero Period: Continental borrowing. Comercial and military relationship. The First Period: Latin through Celtic transmission (before 600 CE). Word OE 'ceaster' (> Lt. castrum). E.g. Manchester, Chichester, Lancaster, Winchester. The Second Period: The Christianisation of Britain. Deeper lasting imprint. o Missionaries to the north from Ireland o 597 CE St Augustine in the south by Pope Gregory ▪ Difficult to convert Anglo-Saxons (1 century!!) – values contrary to principles of Christianity. ▪ Frankish woman (Princess Bertha --> Queen to Aethelbert). Conversion of King, and of Kent. 5  Latin in English Churches and monateries --> centres of learning. Monks taugh population to read and write in Latin. Latin alphabet replaces runes. Diglossic community: Latin = prestigious; Vernacular Eng. = oral domain. In 10th c., verancular dominant (King Alfred!!) More borrowings: o After conversion: ▪ Household: cap, sock, silk, purple ▪ Food: lentil, pear, oyster, lobster, cook ▪ Herbs and plants: plant, pine, balsam ▪ Education and learning: school, mater, Latin, grammatic(al), verse o Mid-10th - Early11th c. (Benedictine Reform). ▪ Religious texts in vernacular. ▪ Variation in spelling. West Saxon standard (Alfred the Great) Higher status religious words: apostle, demon, nocture, synagogue Literature: accent, brief, history, paper, title Herbs and trees: cucumber, ginger, cypress, laurel Medicine: cancer, paralysis Animals: camel, scorpion, tiger 6 Activity Identify the semantic fields to which the following words belog (The Zero Period). p. 49 OE from Latin Semantic field a camp 'battle', weall 'wall', stræt 'street', mīl 'mile' b ceap 'bargain' (PDE cheap), pund 'pound', wīn 'wine' c cytel 'kettle', cycene 'kitchen', cuppe 'cup', disc 'dish', cyse 'cheese', pise 'peas' 7 Activity Identify the semantic fields to which the following words belog (The Zero Period). p. 49 OE from Latin Semantic field a camp 'battle', weall 'wall', stræt 'street', mīl 'mile' war b ceap 'bargain' (PDE cheap), pund 'pound', wīn 'wine' trade c cytel 'kettle', cycene 'kitchen', cuppe 'cup', disc 'dish', domestic life cyse 'cheese', pise 'peas' 8 English is brought to Britain Denmark Netherlands Celtic languages: British, Welsh, Breton, Cornish, Gaelic. New culture – new language (OE) The Angles = Germanic 'anga' ('hook') > OE 'angle' = 'angle' in geometry (IE *ang 'to bend' (Fr. < Lt. < Gr.) = Germanic langs and OE 'angcleow' + Old Norse > 'ankle' The Saxons (sought to expand) > Germanic 'saks' ('knife or sword which cuts') + -on ('someone who...') Lt. & Fr. > 'section' 9 English is brought to Britain North The Jutes Germanic Theories about the Jutes: 1. They lived in Juteland. 2. Name given to Franks (linguistically & geographically) 3. Hybrid theory 4. The Geats in southern Sweden (see West Beowulf) Germanic Let's assume 1 is true but not travelled directly from there to Britain. 10 English is brought to Britain 1st – 5th centuries: sea levels begin to rise in the North Sea Flooding & population growth – expand outward. Explore neigbour (e.g. Northern Gaul); excursions across the Channel. The Saxon Shore: defenses constructed by the Roman Empire. (NOTE: 'Saxon' general term) Valuables or land? Romans vs Scots & Picts, Germanic tribes Coordinated attack in 367? 11 English is brought to Britain The seven kingdoms - Heptarchy Settlement patterns: o Angles: centre & north o Saxons: south o Jutes: Kent Not 100% - dominant groups, but mixed. o Kings of the dominant group. Linguistically important!! Blended, could not preserve own dialect. Blended lang. emerged quickly (diff. from the continent's) – regional dialects did also exist (origin of English accents/dialects) 12 English is brought to Britain The seven kingdoms - Heptarchy Wessex: West Saxons o Dominant after Vikings (9th c.) King Alfred the Great. o Standard written OE. East Angles: East Angles o North folk (Norfolk) o South folk (Suffolk) Mercia (OE Mierce) o 'border land' [in the centre???] (with the Welsh) o Assibilation in name o Emerged as dominant kingdom before Vikings arrived. o Linguistically, East Anglia and Mercia similar. 13 English is brought to Britain The seven kingdoms - Heptarchy 3 kingdoms for the Angles 3 kingdoms for the Saxons 1 for the Jutes Kent: (somewhat) linguistically unique. [Kentish] Four main variants: Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon, Kentish How can we know of the existance of different dialects? Note: Mercian dominating dialect (oral); West Saxon dominated politically (written docs.) 11th c. 14  English is brought to Britain Anglo-Saxon society https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z8f4mnb/revision/2 15 English is brought to Britain Examples of Anglian & Saxon dialects West Saxon Anglian Present Day English eald /ay-ald/ ald old niehsta /nee-ay-stah/ nesta /nay-stah/ next yea /yay-ha/ ye /yay/ yes (yeah) wielle /we-ay-luh/ welle /way-luh/ well gear /yay-arr/ ger /yair/ year meoluc /may-oh-luc/ milk /milk/ milk seovunda seovotha seventh land /lahnd/ lond /lohnd/ land 16 OE Dialects West Saxon Dialect Northumbrian Dialect Mercian Dialect Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum FADER URÆ ðu art in heofnas Feder ure þu eart in heofenum sī þīn nama gehālgod. Sie ðin nama gehalgad. se þin noma is gehalgad tōbecume þīn rīce Tocymeð ðin ric. to cyme þin rice gewurþe ðīn willa Sie ðin willo sie þin willa on eorðan swā swā on heofonum. in eorðo suæ is in heofne. on eorþan swe in heofenum ūrne gedæghwāmlīcan hlāf syle ūs tōdæg. Userne ofæ wistlic hlaf sel ús todæg, ure deghweamlice hlaf sele us to deg and forgyf ūs ūre gyltas and forgef us usra scylda ond forgef us ussa scylda swā swā wē forgyfað ūrum gyltendum. suæ uoe forgefon usum scyldum swe ond us forgef ure scylde and ne gelǣd þū ūs on costnunge And ne inlæd usich in costunge, and nu in læde us in costnunge ac ālȳs ūs of yfele. ah gefrig usich from yfle ales us from yfele https://www.tha-engliscan-gesithas.org.uk/written-and-spoken-old-english/regional-versions-of-lords-prayer/ 17 Historical (?) sources SOURCES o (St) Gildas (c. 450/500 - c. 570): De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae o Procopius (c. 490/507 - c. 565) Byzantine historian. o (St) Bede the Venerable (c. 672/673 - c. 735) (OE Bǣda, Bēda) ▪ Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English people) o The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (c. 900) 18 Historical (?) sources SOURCES o (St) Gildas (c. 450/500 - c. 570): De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae ▪ Tells the history of the Celts in Britain before and during the arrival of Anglo-Saxons. ▪ near-contemporary ▪ Sermon rather than historical account – not objective (historian vs preacher). ▪ Anglo-Saxon invasion as punishment for inviting pagan barbarians to fight the Picts. (Roman practice) ▪ Britons fled: western mountains (Wales); "beyond the sea" (Brittany) ▪ Britons wiped out??? Probably exaggeration. View challenged by genetics and linguistics. Gradual process, not as dramatic as Norman C. 19 Historical (?) sources SOURCES o Procopius (c. 490/507 - c. 565) Byzantine historian ▪ Wrote accounts from Franksih emissaries – second-hand info. ▪ Confirms settlement of Britons in Britany. ▪ Doesn't use term 'Saxon' - inhabitants in Britain are Britons, Angles and Frisians. ▪ Doesn't mention the Jutes 20 Historical (?) sources SOURCES o Bede (c. 672/673 - c. 735) Ecclesiastical History of the English people ▪ Gives year for the arrival of the AS (449) - guesstimate. AS settlements 10 years earlier. ▪ Bede follows St Gildas' account ▪ Wrote 300 years later approx. By then, different dialects within regions. Some persist. 21 Historical (?) sources SOURCES o The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (c. 900) ▪ Follows Bede's narrative and timeframe. ▪ Written over 400 years after AS invasion - relied on other sources 22  Historical (?) sources The Peterborough Chronicle (facsimile) Note that o '⁊' ='and' o 'þ' ='th' o 'ʒ' ='g' o 'ſ' = long 's' o Ꞅ = insular 's' o Ƿ=w Freeborn, D. (1992). From Old English to Standard English. A course Book in Language Variation Across Time. Macmillan. 23  Historical (?) sources The Peterborough Chronicle (facsimile) Note that o '⁊' ='and' o 'þ' ='th' o 'ʒ' ='g' o 'ſ' = long 's' o Ꞅ = insular 's' o Ƿ=w What words can you identify? Do you understand any of these? Freeborn, D. (1992). From Old English to Standard English. A course Book in Language Variation Across Time. Macmillan. 24  Historical (?) sources The Peterborough Chronicle (facsimile) (word for word) Note that o '⁊' ='and' o 'þ' ='th' o 'ʒ' ='g' o 'ſ' = long 's' o Ꞅ = insular 's' Freeborn, D. (1992). From Old English to Standard English. A course Book in Language Variation Across Time. Macmillan. 25  Historical (?) sources The Peterborough Chronicle (facsimile) (translation) The island of Britain is eight hundred miles long and two hundred broad. There are five languages, English, Brito-Welsh, Scottish, Pictish and Latin. The first inhabitants of this land were the Britons. Freeborn, D. (1992). From Old English to Standard English. A course Book in Language Variation Across Time. Macmillan. 26 The alphabet and the runes ENGLISH ᛖᛝᛚᛁᛋᚻ 27 The alphabet and the runes ENGLISH ᛖᛝᛚᛁᛋᚻ Latin letters; Roman alphabet Runes (runic alphabet?) Inadequate? Futhark > Futhorc Lacks letters for common sounds in Accurately represents sounds in OE English (th, sh, ch, ng) Straight lines: short messages on hard Multiple letters for other sounds (C, K, surfaces (bone, wood, stone) Q)? Most famous English runic inscriptions are: Franks Casket (c. 700) & the Ruthwell Cross (8th c.) Abandoned with Christianisation (Latin!!) 28 The alphabet and the runes 29 The alphabet and the runes Tolkien Fascinated with OE and language of the Vikings 30 The alphabet and the runes Dwarvish?? >> Anglo-Saxon!! Map taken from The Hobbit (Tolkien, 1937) 31 The alphabet and the runes STAND BY THE GREY ST- ONE HWEN THE THRUSH KN- OCKS AND THE SETTING S- UN WITH THE LAST LIGHT OF DURIN'S DAY WILL SH- INE UPON THE KEYHOLE 32  The alphabet and the runes Write English with runes? Recently (mis)abused (Nazis, etc) Back to the continent (map) Old Futhark -->> Origin of name Letters B, H, R, S; similar – connected? 33 The alphabet and the runes 34 The alphabet and the runes From 7th c. tweaked version Futhorc Adapted for Germanic dialects (In Br. and Continent) 35 The alphabet and the runes ᚦ THORN (thorn) ᚩ​ ÓS (god) ᚣ​ YR (bow) ᚪ AC (oak) ᚹ WYNN (joy) ᛠ​ EAR (grave) ᚫ​ ASH (ash tree) ᛝ ING (hero Yngvi) ᛟ​ Ēðel (estate) ᛇ EO (yew) ᚳ CEN (torch) ᛁ​ IS (ice) ᛖ EH(horse) 36 The Danes: a Viking invasion OE Her nom Beorhtric cyning Offan dohtor Eadburge; 7 on his dagum cuomon ærest.iii. scipu, 7 þa se gerefa þærto rad, 7 hie wolde drifan to þæs cyninges tune þy he nyste hwæt hie wæron; 7 hiene mon ofslog; Þæt wæron þa ærestan scipu Deniscra monna þe Angelcynnes lond gesohton. Translations Her name was Eadburga, the daughter of King Beorhtric; and in his days, three ships first came, and then the reeve rode there, and they wished to drive to the king's town, but he did not know what they were; and a man killed him; those were the first ships of Danish men that sought the land of the English. (Free Old English to English Translator) A.D. 787. This year King Bertric took Edburga the daughter of Offa to wife. And in his days came first three ships of the Northmen from the land of robbers. The reve then rode thereto, and would drive them to the king's town; for he knew not what they were; and there was he slain. These were the first ships of the Danish men that sought the land of the English nation. (https://avalon.law.yale.edu/medieval/ang08.asp) 37 The Danes: a Viking invasion Raiding stage Settlement stage o 1st wave of Vikings o Territorial conflicts until 878 (Alfred the Great [Wessex] defeats Guthrum [Danish in East Anglia] o Treaty of Wedmore: ▪ Guthrum accepts Christianity ▪ Division: Wessex & Danelaw Second Viking conquest o 2nd wave of Vikings (late 10th – early 11th c.) o King Cnut (of England) (for 30 y.) --> Restore Alfred's line https://platform.vox.com/wp- content/uploads/sites/2/chorus/uploads/chorus_asset/file/3321192/823px- England_878.svg.0.png?quality=90&strip=all&crop=0,0,100,100&_gl=1*1px36 g5*_ga*Mjc0MDMyNzIuMTcyODI5MzY2OQ..*_ga_C3QZPB4GVE*MTcyODI5Mz Y2OS4xLjEuMTcyODI5MzcxNi4xOC4wLjA. 38 The Danes: a Viking invasion o Restore Alfred's line --> Edward the Confessor o Harold II – Last Anglo-Saxon king ▪ Died at the Battle of Hastings (1066) High degree of intelligibility between AS and Danes (many cognates) https://platform.vox.com/wp- content/uploads/sites/2/chorus/uploads/chorus_asset/file/3321192/823px- England_878.svg.0.png?quality=90&strip=all&crop=0,0,100,100&_gl=1*1px36 g5*_ga*Mjc0MDMyNzIuMTcyODI5MzY2OQ..*_ga_C3QZPB4GVE*MTcyODI5Mz Y2OS4xLjEuMTcyODI5MzcxNi4xOC4wLjA. 39 Summary Up till now, we've looked at the historical context in which OE flourished as a language with its own dialects and the two main influences on OE: Latin and Celtic. We've also seen that the Germanic peoples had their own writing system (runes), which more accurately represented the sounds of Old English. With the Christianisation of Britain, the Latin alphabet replaced these runes. The Latin alphabet had to be adapted to be able to represent English sounds. 40 Linguistic features of OE Highly phonemic Short & long vowels (macron) Short & long consonants (geminated) (cwellan 'to kill', cwelan 'to die') https://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm 41 Linguistic features of OE From Latin, but just one sound. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm 42 Linguistic features of OE PDE "th" could be represented by both. Thorn (borrowed from runes) Eth (Irish writing?) Represented both voiced and unvoiced allophones. Thorn and eth orthographic variants to represent the same sound. (Team Eth vs Team Thorn) https://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm 43 Linguistic features of OE Modern "w" represented by rune "wynn" Easily confused with "thorn". Replaced. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm 44 Linguistic features of OE represented many sounds Differenciated by 12th c. for /g/ (god 'good') /dȜ/ (secgan 'say') for /j/ before or after front vowel (Ȝear 'year' and dæȜ 'day') https://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm 45 Linguistic features of OE and ??? did not actually exist Variants of and , and ?? Rarely used https://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm 46 Linguistic features of OE /tʃ/ or /k/ ??? o /k/ https://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm 47 Linguistic features of OE Three sounds Front vowels + [ç] Back vowels + [x] [h] elsewhere https://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm 48 Linguistic features of OE N + G/Ȝ / N+ K (like today) https://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm 49 Linguistic features of OE Voiced or unvoiced depending on context. https://www.omniglot.com/writing/oldenglish.htm 50 Linguistic features of OE: phonology Four main sound changes involving assimilation o Voicing (consonants) (θ > ð ; f > v; s > z) ▪ Voiceless in initial or final positions ▪ Voiced surrounded by voiced sounds. Remnants in plurals: wife, half, knife, leaf o Palatalisation (consonants) (i.e. towards the palate) ▪ /k/, /sk/, /g/ before front vowels Kirk > church Skirt > shirt Egg > eye 51 Linguistic features of OE: phonology o Breaking (vowels) ▪ Front vowels broken into two sounds (diphthongs) before /l/ or /r/ + another consonant o werc > weorc /e/ > /eo/ o half > healf /æ/ > /ea/ before an /h/ o Picts > Peohtas /i > /io/eo/ o Fronting, i-umlaut or i-mutation (vowels) ▪ Back vowels appearing before /i/ (or similar) (in Germanic) were fronted in OE. /u/ > /y/ (later i) /o/ > /e/ /a/ > /æ/ Example: mouse/mice Germanic: *mus/musi > *mysi 52 Activity Can you think of other non-fronted and fronted forms which nowadays form singular and plural pairs? p. 65 53 Activity Can you think of other non-fronted and fronted forms which nowadays form singular and plural pairs? p. 65 Foot – feet Tooth – teeth Goose – geese Louse – lice Man – men Long – length Strong – strength Broad - breadth Food - feed 54 Linguistic features of OE First attempt to describe the grammar of English: 1586. Before – no English grammar Grammar was synonymous with Latin when the concept was applied to English, done by applying that Latin framework to English. The word 'grammar' is a Greek word o Not same meaning as today o Variation of the root word 'gram': anything that is written down. o Can you think of words with 'gram'? ▪ Telegram, Instagram, Gramophone, the Grammys, hollogram, monogram, epigram, diagram, program 55 Linguistic features of OE: morphology OE Synthetic language (declensions) [like IE!!] > analytic NOUNS o Number (IE had dual; OE doesn't). Sg, Pl. o Case (IE 8; OE 4) o Gender (masc, fem, neu.) o Weak & strong nouns 56  Origin of 's Linguistic features of OE: morphology Origin of plural -es o Strong nouns MASC NEU FEM MASC stan ('stone') word ('word') lufu ('love') sunu ('son') SINGULAR NOM stan ∅ word ∅ lufu ∅ sunu ∅ GEN stanes wordes lufe suna DAT stane worde lufe suna ACC stan ∅ word ∅ lufe sunu ∅ PLURAL NOM stanas word ∅ lufa suna GEN stana worda luf(en)a suna DAT stanum wordum lufum sunum ACC stanas word ∅ lufa suna 57 Linguistic features of OE: morphology Origin of plural -n o Weak nouns MASC FEM guma ('man') folde('earth') SINGULAR NOM guma ∅ folde ∅ GEN guman foldan DAT guman foldan ACC guman foldan PLURAL NOM guman foldan GEN gumena foldena DAT gumum foldum ACC guman foldan 58 Activity Can you think of any PDE irregular plural ending in –n? p. 68 59 Activity Can you think of any PDE irregular plural ending in –n? p. 68 Ox – oxen Cow – kine Brother – brethren Child – children Note: "children" shows two plural morphemes. The plural form of OE cild was cildru. In time, the –r lost its plural meaning and speakers started to use a more distinctive plural marker (-n). English learners today might sa "childrens" as a plural. Similar to Spanish plurals "graffitis" or "spaguettis". 60  Linguistic features of OE: morphology ADJECTIVES o Today, largely invariable o In OE, could be inflected: number, gender and case ▪ Depended on the presence/absence of a demonstrative or possessive determiner. Example: þæm godan cyninge (weak form) / godum cyninge (strong form) = to the good king 61 Linguistic features of OE: morphology Strong and weak adjectives STRONG WEAK SING. MASC FEM NEU MASC FEM NEU NOM god god god goda gode gode GEN godes godre godes godan godan godan DAT godum godre godum godan godan godan ACC godne gode god godan godan gode PLU. MASC FEM NEU MASC FEM NEU NOM gode goda god godan GEN godra godra godra godra/godena DAT godum godum godum godum ACC gode goda god godan 62 Linguistic features of OE: morphology Declensiosn common in synthetic languages. Periphrastic constructions (more/most) in analytical languages. Irregular forms inherited from IE. 63  Linguistic features of OE: morphology DEMONSTRATIVES o Origin of definite article (the), demonstratives or relative pronoun (that) 64  Linguistic features of OE: morphology PRONOUNS o More complex than current system: ▪ Singular, dual and plural ▪ Three persons ▪ Four cases ▪ Three genders (in sg and pl) 65  Linguistic features of OE: morphology PRONOUNS Familiar??? 66  Linguistic features of OE: morphology PRONOUNS Bye-bye!! 67  Linguistic features of OE: morphology PRONOUNS Is that even English??? Dramatic change!!! 68  Linguistic features of OE: morphology PRONOUNS Shakespeare's 'thou' and 'thee' 69  Linguistic features of OE: morphology PRONOUNS Origin of 'you' 70  Linguistic features of OE: morphology PRONOUNS All with 'h' 71  Linguistic features of OE: morphology PRONOUNS Replaced with ONorse forms. (See ME period) 72  Linguistic features of OE: morphology VERBS o More complex than current system:. o PDE verbs have up to four forms: base form, third person sg present, simple past, past perfect. o OE verbs were inflected: ▪ Person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) ▪ Number (sg, pl) ▪ Tense (present, past) ▪ Mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive) o Weak or strong 73 Activity You may be surprised to find out that OE actually had a subjunctive mood. Would you say that there are p. 71 remnants of this subjunctive today? Think about that for a moment and then have a look at the sentences below. Are they correct in PDE? How would you correct them? 1. He suggests that hou be present at the meeting. 2. The board recommend that he join the company. 3. He requested that the car park not be locked at night. 4. They made a suggestion that we be early. 5. It is advisable that she rest for a week. 6. If that be (not) the case, I intend to report the matter. 7. God bless America! 8. God save the Queen. 9. If I were a boy / even just for a day / I'd roll out of bed in the morning / and throw on what I wanted, then go. 74 Activity You may be surprised to find out that OE actually had a subjunctive mood. Would you say that there are p. 71 remnants of this subjunctive today? Think about that for a moment and then have a look at the sentences below. Are they correct in PDE? How would you correct them? 1. He suggests that you be present at the meeting. 2. The board recommend that he join the company. 3. He requested that the car park not be locked at night. 4. They made a suggestion that we be early. 5. It is advisable that she rest for a week. 6. If that be (not) the case, I intend to report the matter. 7. God bless America! 8. God save the Queen. 9. If I were a boy / even just for a day / I'd roll out of bed in the morning / and throw on what I wanted, then go. 75 Linguistic features of OE: morphology Strong verbs Weak verbs (do) 76 Linguistic features of OE: morphology Strong verbs Weak verbs (do) 77 Linguistic features of OE: morphology VERBS o Many strong verbs have become weak verbs. o In PDE, the productive pattern is weak verbs. ▪ Example: To google – googled – googled To google – gogle – goglen** (like choose-chose-chosen) o Strong verbs and weak verbs are NOT homogeneous in OE. 78 Linguistic features of OE: morphology 79 Activity Which features do these verbs have in common? What makes them different? p. 73 80 Activity Which features do these verbs have in common? What makes them different? p. 73 Some similarities: -an in the infinitive Prefix ge- and suffix –en in the past participle (which still survivies in some PDE verbs, such as ridden and stolen. In other cases, it has disappeared from the verb, but remains in the adjective, e.g. drunken) -onin the past plural Some differences: The sequence of their stem vowels: all these verbs have different stem vowels in the four forms. This is known as ablaut (i.e. regular vowel variations or gradations) 81 Linguistic features of OE: morphology VERBS o Two additional verb types: ▪ Anomalous verbs: willan ('to want') dо̄n ('to do') Two suppletive verbs (i.e. inflected with totally different stems) - irreg. & common: o bēon/wesan 'to be' o gān 'go' ▪ Preterite-present verbs: Combine features of weak and strong o Originally strong – preterite forms came to be used as present. o Past-tense lost > creation of new past forms (+dental suffix) o Modal verbs: sculan (shall, should), cunnan (can), magan (may/might) 82 Linguistic features of OE: morphology VERBS o Non-finite forms ▪ Infinitives Bare/plain infinitives o -(i)an lufian Inflected infinitives (to-inf) o -anne/-enne tō lufienne ▪ Present participles o -(i)ende lufiende ▪ Past participle o ȝe-/ge- ▪ Strong verbs: + suffix -en ▪ Weak verbs: + dental suffix (-ed, -od, -d) 83 Linguistic features of OE: morphology ADVERBS o PDE adj. + -ly = adv. o OE -līce ▪ Beald 'bold' > bealdlīce o How about friendly, homely, earthly? Are they adverbs? 84 Summary We've gone over some of the linguistic features of OE, such as phonology and morphology. Phonological features: voicing & palatalisation of consonants; breaking and fronting of vowels. Morphological features: declensions of strong and weak nouns, demonstratives, adjectives, pronouns and strong and weak verbs 85  Linguistic features of OE: syntax PHRASES - Noun phrases ▪ OE adj. usually preceded the noun (as in PDE) Þa beorhtan steorran ('the bright stars') ▪ Titles followed the proper nouns Ælfrе̄d cuning ('King Alfred') - Adverb phrases ▪ OE adv. usually preceded words they modified Þises goðdspelles geendung is swīðes ondrǣdenlic. ('This gospel's ending is very terrifying') ▪ Particle ne for negation (NOT **DO**). Multiple negation common (not ungrammatical). Ne ūre nǣnig his līf ne fadode swā swā he colde … and nāðer ne heoldan ne lāre ne lage ne manna swā swā we scoldan. ('Not of us none his life not arranges as he ought to and neither not (we) observe neither teaching nor law nor of men as we ought to.') 86  Linguistic features of OE: syntax PHRASES - Prepositional phrases ▪ Prep. + noun ▪ Pronoun + prep. and ferde him togeanes mid þam folce ('and marched him against with the people') - Verb phrases ▪ Didn't exist as such ('be travelling' or 'have travelled'). Only one verb: tense, mood, aspect, etc. 87  Linguistic features of OE: syntax CLAUSES - Cases granted freedom for word order. - Six possible combinations in AS times: SVO, SOV, VSO, VOS, OSV, OVS ad Accusative ad Nominative 88  Linguistic features of OE: syntax CLAUSES - Despite freedom, constituents tended to occur in certain positions depending on type of clause. - Main clauses: S V O - Dependent clauses: S O V 89  Linguistic features of OE: syntax CLAUSES - Questions, commands, adverbial + declarative clause 90 Activity Can you think of any remnants of VSO order in PDE main clauses? p. 78 91 Activity Can you think of any remnants of VSO order in PDE main clauses? p. 78 VSO order is still visible in some PDE sentences starting with a negative adverb in which inversion is required. Never had I met someone so interesting. Rarely do I go outside. Under no circumstances should you press that button. 92  Linguistic features of OE: syntax CLAUSES - Prepositions ▪ Grammaticalised out of adverbs ▪ Common preps.: mid ('with'), tō ('to'), Þurh ('through') ▪ Genitive: andlang, andlanges ('alongside, along, on length, by the side of') ▪ Dative: tōgeagnes ('towards') ▪ Accusative: geond ('throughout, during'), geondan ('beyond'), oþ ('to, up to, as far as'), þurh ('through, during'), underneoðan ('underneath, below'), ƿiþgeondan ('beyond'), ymb ('around, about, at'), ymbūtan ('around, about') ▪ Dative: in ('on'), innan ('in, within'), onbutan ('about') 93  Linguistic features of OE: syntax CLAUSES - Conjunctions ▪ Not as extensive as in PDE ▪ Existed at the time: and, gif ('if'), þēah ('though, although, even if, that, however, nevertheless, yet, still; whether') ▪ Correlative conjunctions very common: ne...ne neither...nor oþþe...oþþe... either...or... swa...swa... just...as... þā... þā when...then 94  Linguistic features of OE: syntax SENTENCES - PDE: coordination and subordination - OE: paratactic syntax (conjunctions were scarcely used to connect sentences). Subordination not common. and and þā 'when' most frequent conjunctions Entry for the year 897 in the Parker version of The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 95  Linguistic features of OE: lexis NATIVE RESOURCES - ̄ n ('undo') Affixation: undо - Compounding - Conversion NON-NATIVE RESOURCES - To expand lexicon: borrowings - Lexicon is language area which more easily reflects the impact of historical events - Types: ▪ Open: semantic content – nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs – more liable to innovation, except core vocab. 'Relexification': native vocab replaced by foreign. ▪ Closed: pron., articles, preps., conj. 96 Activity Match the OE compound to their PDE meanings. A glossary is also given with the meanings of some of the p. 79 constituent parts. OE compound PDE meaning Glossary bæc-hūs 'woman' cræftig: strong geond-drencan 'intelligent' eald: ancient ingang 'pasture land' gang: journey ealdfæder 'forefather' wīf: female wīfmann 'bakery' bacan: bake etelond 'get drunk' etan: eat mо ̄ dcræftig 'entrance' mо ̄ d: mind geond: over hūs: house 97 Activity Match the OE compound to their PDE meanings. A glossary is also given with the meanings of some of the p. 79 constituent parts. OE compound PDE meaning Glossary bæc-hūs 'woman' cræftig: strong geond-drencan 'intelligent' eald: ancient ingang 'pasture land' gang: journey ealdfæder 'forefather' wīf: female wīfmann 'bakery' bacan: bake etelond 'get drunk' etan: eat mо ̄ dcræftig 'entrance' mо ̄ d: mind geond: over hūs: house 98 Possible long questions - How did external factors like Celtic, Roman, Germanic, and Viking influences shape Old English? - What were the key morphological, syntactic, phonological, and lexical features of Old English? - The runes and the alphabet in the Old English period. 99  History of the English Language Code: 35349 6 ECTS Dr Ana-Isabel Martínez-Hernández 1 3 Old English 2  Beowulf Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (Bede in Latin 8th c.) --> Translated in 9th c. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (c. 890 during reign of Alfred the Great – probably in Wessex) o First attempt to give a year-by-year account See previous slides about these. Beowulf o Mid-700s? o Post-Christian, pre-Viking (references to Christianity in Beowulf; praises the Danes) ▪ Deeds: clash between fate (AS idea) and God's role – moral tension ▪ Forgiving towards enemies o 10th-11th c. manuscript but older (8th c.?)! o Scandinavians illiterate; stories through the Greeks & Romans. o Poem provides detailed written accounts of life. Explains why poem is so important. ▪ Weapons, artifacts and leaders mentioned. ▪ OE poetic diction: compact – fewer function words, focus on meaning-bearing words