History Unit 1 PDF

Unit 1: Native Societies and First Encounters, 1491-1607 Sets of Key Terms: 1.​ Mesoamerica and pueblos - Mesoamerica - Region: Central America (Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica). - Major Civilizations: Olmec, Ma...

Unit 1: Native Societies and First Encounters, 1491-1607 Sets of Key Terms: 1.​ Mesoamerica and pueblos - Mesoamerica - Region: Central America (Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica). - Major Civilizations: Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Teotihuacan, Aztec, Inca - Agriculture: Maize, beans, squash (staple crops). - Urban Centers: Cities with pyramids, plazas, temples, and glyph carvings. - Trade Networks: Obsidian, jade, cacao, luxury goods. - Calendar Systems: Advanced calendars based on astronomy and religion. - Pueblos - Region: American Southwest (Four Corners, U.S.). - Architecture: Multi-story adobe dwellings, often built into cliffs. - Social Structure: Communal villages, shared governance, strong kinship ties. - Ceremonial Practices: Rituals, and dances tied to agriculture and seasons. - Pottery: Unique decorative styles reflecting cultural identity. - Cultural Continuity: Many Pueblo communities maintain traditional customs and languages. - Connections - Trade: Exchange of goods like turquoise between Pueblos and Mesoamerica. - Influence: Possible impact of Mesoamerican art and religious concepts on Pueblo societies 2.​ The Iroquois Confederacy - The Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Haudenosaunee, was a union of Native American tribes in northeastern North America: Formation: Dekanawidah and Hiawatha formed the Iroquois Confederacy between 1350 and 1600. The confederacy was created to unite the five original tribes, the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca, against invasion. In 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the Confederacy. - Government: The Great Law of Peace governed the Confederacy, which established an egalitarian society. It was ruled by a Grand Council of Chiefs, which was made up of the chief of chiefs and 49 other chiefs. Each chief represented a clan, and the oldest woman chose the clan's chief. Unanimity was required for the council to make decisions. - Territory: The Iroquois Confederacy occupied a large area that included parts of what are now New York, Ontario, Quebec, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Kentucky. - Role in history: The Iroquois Confederacy played a key role in the French and British conflict for control of North America. The Iroquois signed a pact with the English in 1677, and during the American Revolution, the Oneida and Tuscarora sided with the colonists. - Dissolution: The Iroquois Confederacy dissolved during the American Revolution. After the war, the United States federal government forced the Iroquois from their homelands. 3.​ Crusades and the Reconquista - While both the Crusades and the Reconquista were series of religious wars fought by Christian forces against Muslims, the key difference is that the Crusades primarily focused on  the Holy Land in the Middle East, while the Reconquista specifically targeted the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal) to reclaim territory previously conquered by Muslim forces, also known as "Moors.". - Key points about the Crusades: -​ Location: Primarily in the Levant, aiming to recapture Jerusalem and other holy sites from Muslim control. -​ Motivations: Religious zeal to liberate the Holy Land, pilgrimage, and potential economic gain. -​ Notable events: The First Crusade, which captured Jerusalem in 1099, and the later failures to maintain Christian control in the region. - Key points about the Reconquista: - Location: The Iberian Peninsula, where Christian kingdoms gradually fought to regain territory from Muslim rulers. - Motivations: A mix of religious zeal, political expansion, and a desire to reclaim land lost to Muslim invaders. - Notable events: The Battle of Covadonga (considered the beginning of the Reconquista), and the fall of Granada in 1492, marking the final defeat of Muslim power in Spain. - Connections between the Crusades and the Reconquista: - Similar ideology: Both campaigns were driven by a Christian belief in fighting against "infidels" and were often supported by the Pope. - Military tactics and orders: Christian knights from across Europe participated in both campaigns. - Papal support: The Pope often granted indulgences to those who fought in the Reconquista, similar to the Crusades. 4.​ Caravels and astrolabe and circumnavigation A "caravel" is a type of small, maneuverable ship used during the Age of Exploration, while an "astrolabe" is a navigational instrument that allowed sailors to determine their latitude by measuring the position of stars. " Circumnavigation" refers to sailing completely around the Earth; essentially, caravels and astrolabes were crucial tools that enabled early explorers to successfully circumnavigate the globe, making long sea voyages possible by providing accurate location data. Caravels: These Portuguese-developed ships were known for their efficient design, which included triangular sails (lateen sails) that allowed them to sail effectively against the wind, making them ideal for exploring new coastlines and navigating open oceans. - Astrolabes: This ancient astronomical instrument, when used by sailors, allowed them to calculate their latitude by measuring the angle of stars above the horizon, which was vital for navigating long distances across the sea. - How they facilitated circumnavigation: - Accurate positioning: By using the astrolabe to determine their latitude, sailors could stay on course during long voyages, significantly improving navigation accuracy compared to earlier methods. Exploration of new routes: The caravel's maneuverability allowed explorers to navigate coastal areas and explore new territories with greater ease. Key examples: Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation: Magellan's expedition, which successfully circumnavigated the globe in the early 16th century, heavily relied on caravels and astrolabes for navigation. 5.​ Conquistadores and “God, Gold and Glory” - "God, Gold, and Glory" refers to the primary motivations of Spanish Conquistadors during their conquest of the Americas, signifying their desire to spread Christianity ("God"), acquire wealth through precious metals like gold ("Gold"), and achieve personal fame and recognition through their exploits ("Glory") in the New World. - Key points about the phrase: - Religious Zeal: The strong Catholic faith of Spain played a significant role, with Conquistadors believing they were spreading the true faith by converting indigenous populations. - Economic Incentive: The lure of vast riches, particularly gold, was a major driving force for many Conquistadors, often leading to brutal exploitation of local populations. - Personal Glory: Conquistadors sought recognition and advancement within the Spanish Empire through their military achievements in the Americas. 6.​ Treaty of Tordesillas - The Treaty of Tordesillas was an agreement signed in 1494 that divided the world between the Spanish and Portuguese empires: - Signing: The treaty was signed on June 7, 1494, in Tordesillas, Spain. Purpose: Pope Alexander VI brokered the treaty to settle disputes between the two kingdoms over land discovered in the New World and along the African coast. - Boundary: The treaty established a demarcation line that ran from pole to pole, 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. - Result: The treaty gave Spain control of lands west of the line and Portugal control of lands east of the line. This resulted in the birth of Brazil, which falls within the Portuguese zone. - Other terms: The treaty also gave the two kingdoms the right to enslave non-Christians they encountered, and instructed them to convert non-Christians to Roman Catholicism. Significance: The treaty is important for understanding American history and the economic and cultural relations between Europe and America. - Treat of Zaragosa made the Treaty of Tordesilla official 7.​ The encomienda system and the Laws of the Indies The "encomienda system" was a system in Spanish colonies where Spanish conquistadors were granted a group of indigenous people to whom they could extract labor and tribute, essentially creating a system of forced labor. The "Laws of the Indies" were a set of legal codes issued by the Spanish crown to regulate the social, political, and economic life in their American colonies, including attempts to mitigate the abuses of the encomienda system through regulations like the "New Laws" of 1542. - Key points about the encomienda system: - Function: Spanish colonists, called "encomenderos," were given control over a group of indigenous people who were required to provide labor, goods, or tribute in exchange for supposed "protection" and religious instruction. - Exploitation: This system often led to severe exploitation of indigenous populations due to harsh working conditions and forced labor. - Impact on indigenous communities: The encomienda system significantly disrupted indigenous societies and contributed to population decline due to disease, overwork, and violence. -Key points about the Laws of the Indies:  - Purpose: The Laws of the Indies aimed to regulate all aspects of colonial life in the Spanish Americas, including the treatment of indigenous people. - "New Laws": A significant part of the Laws of the Indies, known as the "New Laws," were introduced in 1542 to attempt to reform the encomienda system by limiting its inheritance and aiming to gradually free indigenous laborers. Limited effectiveness: Despite the "New Laws," the encomienda system continued to be used in practice, often with significant abuses, due to colonist resistance. 8.​ Bartolome de las Casas and the Valladolid debate - Bartolome de las Casas was a Dominican friar who famously participated in the Valladolid debate in 1550, where he strongly argued against the enslavement and brutal treatment of indigenous people in the Americas by Spanish colonists, advocating for their rights as human beings and their capacity to be peacefully converted to Christianity, while his opponent, Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, justified the conquest and argued that Native Americans were "natural slaves" due to their perceived barbarity; this debate is considered a landmark moment in the discussion of colonialism and human rights, marking one of the earliest attempts to grapple with the ethics of colonization in the New World. - Key points about the Valladolid debate and Las Casas: - Central issue: The debate centered around whether Spanish colonizers had the right to subjugate and enslave indigenous populations in the Americas, particularly based on their practices like human sacrifice. - Las Casas' position: He argued that Native Americans were rational beings with souls and deserved to be treated with respect, advocating for peaceful conversion to Christianity and against violent conquest. - Sepúlveda's position: In contrast, Sepúlveda, a humanist scholar, justified the conquest by claiming that indigenous people were "natural slaves" due to their perceived savagery and lack of civilization, thus legitimizing Spanish domination. - Impact: While no clear victor emerged from the debate, Las Casas' impassioned arguments significantly influenced public opinion and contributed to the later implementation of the "New Laws" in 1542, which aimed to limit the abuses against indigenous populations in the Americas. 9.​ The Middle Passage and the trans-Atlantic slave trade - The Middle Passage was the voyage of enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas, and was part of the transatlantic slave trade: - The transatlantic slave trade: The purchase, transportation, and sale of enslaved Africans from Africa to the Americas. - The Middle Passage: The voyage of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean. - The Middle Passage was part of the Triangle Trade, which connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas. The trade route involved: - European traders traveling to Africa's west coast to buy enslaved people in exchange for goods - The enslaved people were loaded onto ships and transported across the Atlantic Ocean - The enslaved people were sold in the Americas and put to work as slaves The ships returned to Europe with goods produced by the enslaved people, such as sugar, coffee, tobacco, rice, and cotton - The Middle Passage was a horrific journey for the enslaved people:  - Conditions: Enslaved people were packed into small spaces with little room to move around. - Resistance: Enslaved people resisted by refusing food and water, committing suicide, or attempting organized revolts. - Treatment: Enslaved people were whipped, tortured, and forced to "dance" for exercise. 10.​ The Columbian exchange - The Columbian Exchange was the global exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between the Old and New Worlds. It began in 1492 after Christopher Columbus voyaged to the Americas. - What was exchanged? - Plants: Tomatoes, potatoes, corn, chocolate, sugar, cassava, and tobacco - Animals: Horses, cattle, pigs, and chickens - Diseases: Syphilis, smallpox, and other diseases carried by Europeans - Ideas: Christianity and other cultural shifts - What were the effects? - Environmental changes: The Columbian Exchange led to environmental changes in the Americas, Europe, and Africa. - Population growth: The Columbian Exchange led to population growth in some areas, but also to catastrophic population loss in others. - Trade: The Columbian Exchange led to new trade routes and the establishment of plantations. - Food: The Columbian Exchange led to the introduction of new staple crops in the Old World. Thematic Questions: 1.​ What were the differences between the Native American societies before the European arrival and what accounts for them? Native American societies before European arrival were diverse, with significant differences in social structures, economies, and cultural practices shaped by geography, climate, and available resources. In the Northeast, societies like the Iroquois formed complex political alliances and relied on agriculture, hunting, and gathering, supported by fertile land and abundant forests. In contrast, the Plains tribes, such as the Sioux, developed nomadic lifestyles centered on hunting bison, shaped by the vast grasslands of the region. In the Southwest, groups like the Pueblo built permanent settlements and practiced irrigation-based agriculture to adapt to the arid environment, while the Pacific Northwest tribes, such as the Tlingit, thrived on fishing and developed hierarchical societies due to the abundance of marine resources. These variations arose from the unique environmental conditions and resource availability in different regions, which influenced subsistence strategies, settlement patterns, and social organization. Despite their differences, these societies shared commonalities in their deep spiritual connection to the land and their adaptation to diverse ecological niches, highlighting their ingenuity and resilience in pre-contact North America. 2.​ What were the motives of the Europeans in embarking on the voyages of exploration? The motives of Europeans in embarking on voyages of exploration during the Age of Discovery were driven by a combination of economic, religious, political, and personal ambitions. Foremost among these was the desire for wealth, particularly through access to lucrative trade routes and valuable resources like gold, silver, spices, and silk, which were highly sought after in European markets. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 disrupted overland trade routes to Asia, prompting Europeans to seek  alternative sea routes. Religious motives also played a significant role, as nations like Spain and Portugal aimed to spread Christianity and counter the influence of Islam by converting non-Christian peoples. Politically, competition between emerging European powers spurred exploration as nations sought to expand their territories, gain prestige, and establish dominance on a global scale. Personal ambition and curiosity also motivated explorers, who sought fame, fortune, and adventure while advancing geographic and scientific knowledge. These combined motives, supported by advancements in navigation and shipbuilding, drove Europeans to explore and colonize new lands, reshaping global history in the process. 3.​ How and by what methods were the Europeans able to conquer extensive areas of the Americas? Europeans were able to conquer extensive areas of the Americas through a combination of military superiority, strategic alliances, disease, and exploitation of internal divisions among Indigenous populations. Their advanced weaponry, including firearms, steel swords, and cannons, gave them a significant advantage over Native American societies, which relied on traditional weapons like bows and spears. Europeans also formed alliances with rival Indigenous groups, exploiting pre-existing conflicts to weaken powerful empires such as the Aztecs and Inca. Diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza, introduced by Europeans, devastated Native populations, who had no immunity to these foreign pathogens, drastically reducing resistance to colonization. Furthermore, Europeans employed psychological tactics, such as leveraging the belief in their divine favor or superior power, to intimidate and destabilize Indigenous resistance. The use of encomiendas forced labor, and the establishment of colonial administrative systems enabled Europeans to consolidate control over vast territories. These methods, combined with the relentless pursuit of wealth and land, allowed Europeans to establish dominance across the Americas despite their relatively small numbers. 4.​ How did Europeans organize their colonial possessions in the Americas? What accounts for the differences in their types of settlements, colonial economy, treatment of the Native populations, etc.? Europeans organized their colonial possessions in the Americas differently depending on their goals, resources, and interactions with Indigenous populations, leading to distinct settlement patterns, economies, and treatment of Native peoples. The Spanish established centralized towns, missions, and administrative centers focused on extracting wealth, particularly gold and silver, using systems like encomiendas and haciendas to exploit Indigenous labor. They also prioritized converting Native populations to Christianity. In contrast, the French established smaller, trade-oriented settlements in regions like Canada and the Mississippi River Valley, relying on alliances and cooperation with Native tribes, especially in the fur trade. English colonies varied widely, with northern colonies developing small towns centered on religious and community life, while southern colonies relied on plantation agriculture, cultivating cash crops like tobacco and rice with enslaved African labor. Treatment of Native populations also differed: the Spanish often enslaved or heavily taxed them while attempting cultural assimilation, the French maintained relatively cooperative relationships, and the English frequently displaced and marginalized Indigenous peoples to secure land for their growing settler populations. These differences arose from varying motivations for colonization, such as wealth extraction, trade, or settlement, as well as geographic and cultural factors that influenced the organization of each colonial system.