History Of Psychology Student Notes PDF 2020-2021

Pack: A3 Module 1 – History of Psychology Dr. Olivia Galea Seychell Dott. Mireille Vila Dr. Miriam Geraldi Gauci Ms. Stephanie Bugeja Year: 2020-2021 IMPORTANT:...

Pack: A3 Module 1 – History of Psychology Dr. Olivia Galea Seychell Dott. Mireille Vila Dr. Miriam Geraldi Gauci Ms. Stephanie Bugeja Year: 2020-2021 IMPORTANT: Additional recommended reading Chapter title: The Story of Psychology Book: Psychology (9th ed.) Author: D. G. Myers Cohort 2020-2021 1  Pack: A3 Why do we study the history of Psychology? By exploring its origins and studying its development we can see clearly the nature of psychology today. Knowledge of history brings order to disorder and meaning to what appears to be chaos, putting the past into perspective to explain the present (Schultz, 2008). The origins of Psychology Psychology evolved out of philosophy and biology/physiology. Discussions of these two subjects date as far back as the early Greek thinkers including Aristotle and Socrates. The word psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche, meaning 'soul' or 'mind.' Cohort 2020-2021 2  Pack: A3 Dominant schools of thought in psychology The establishment of psychology as a discipline was born out of the debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behaviour. There are different schools or models of psychology which represent the major theories within psychology today. These schools offer different perspectives of ideas and concepts used to understand different phenomena Some of these schools have been discarded whilst others have evolved and are still used nowadays (Feldman,1996). Major perspectives in the History of Psychology Structuralism Focuses on: Conscious Mental Processes 1880s-1920s Key People: Wilhelm Wundt & Edward B. Titchener Functionalism Focuses on: Conscious Mental Processes 1890s-1920s Key Person: William James Psychoanalysis Focuses on: Unconscious Mental Processes 1890s-Present Key Person: Sigmund Freud Behaviourism Focuses on: Observable behaviour 1900s-Present Key People: Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B.F. Skinner Humanism Focuses on: Conscious Mental Processes 1950s-Present Key People: Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers Cohort 2020-2021 3  Pack: A3 Structuralism The building blocks of the mind The focus of STRUCTURALISM Structuralism supported the idea that psychology was the science of conscious experience and that trained observers could accurately describe thoughts, feelings, and emotions. ‘Its main focus was the fundamental elements that form the foundation of thinking, consciousness, emotions and other kinds of mental states or activities’ (Feldman, 1996, p. 17) Stressed the importance of basic sensory and perceptual processes To study conscious experience, psychologists started measuring how long people take to react and how long they take to be conscious of their awareness. Cohort 2020-2021 4  Pack: A3 Key people in Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt is regarded as the father of Psychology/Experimental Psychology He was interested in the measuring ‘atoms of the mind’ by applying laboratory techniques He established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879 In his experiment, Wundt concentrated on three areas of mental functioning: - thoughts, - images, & - feelings. One of his students was Edward B. Titchener Key people in Structuralism cont… Edward B. Titchener, who is considered the father of Structuralism, was one of Wundt’s students in the US. He tried to focus on the structure of the mind Titchener and the structuralists advocated the use of a technique called introspection (looking inward): ‘training people to report elements of their experience as they looked at a rose[…], smelled a scent or tasted a substance. What were their immediate sensations, their images, their feelings? And how did these relate to one another?’ (Myers, 2013; p. 3) Introspection, however, proved unreliable Cohort 2020-2021 5  Pack: A3 Structuralism: Legacy & Limitations The importance of Structuralism First school of thought; Paved the way for experimental and cognitive psychology. Limitation Subjective ‘it required smart, verbal people and its results varied from person to person’ (Myers 2013; p.3); Functionalism How consciousness functions in adapting to the environment… Cohort 2020-2021 6  Pack: A3 The focus of Functionalism Functionalism moved away from structuralism Its principal interest was in studying how the mind worked so that an organism could adapt to its environment: the functions of mental activity The main focus: how does behaviour allow people to satisfy their needs? Similar to structuralists however, functionalists still regarded psychology as the study of conscious experience Functionalism was influenced by Darwin’s Theory of Evolution which focuses on how mental processes and behaviour have helped our ancestors to survive and reproduce > natural selection. The focus of Functionalism cont…/1 Functionalist wanted psychology to be a practical science, not a pure science. They wanted to apply it to different fields. They wanted psychology to be broadened to include research on animals, children, and atypical humans. They emphasized individual differences (not similarities), e.g., John Dewey’s belief that children should learn at the level for which they are developmentally prepared. Cohort 2020-2021 7  Pack: A3 Key person in Functionalism William James (1842-1910)- American philosopher-psychologist, working at Harvard University. ‘Under the influence of evolutionary theorist Charles Darwin, James assumed that thinking, like smelling developed because it was adaptive – it contributed to our ancestors’ survival’ (Myers, 2013; p. 3) He thought it would be more helpful to think about the purpose of our thoughts and feelings (Myers, 2013). Functionalism: Legacy & Limitations The importance of Functionalism Functionalists helped expand the focus of psychological research. They moved away from the structuralists' attempt to look only at the structure of the mind and focused more on the function of behaviour. Functionalism made it possible for psychologists to consider research with animals, children and people with mental health problems as worthwhile and significant. By considering the importance of the function of behavior, emotions, thoughts and other mental activity, functionalism paved the way for Evolutionary Psychology. Limitation Some of the conclusions and predictions concerning mental phenomena are difficult to test. Cohort 2020-2021 8  Pack: A3 A word about… Determinism and free will Determinsim vs Free will One of the oldest debates in psychology Determinism is based on the idea that our behaviors are determined by other forces operating on us, e.g., genetics, past experiences, etc. – we are pre-determined to act in specific ways Free will is based on the idea that we are free and that we can decide from a number of options which life presents to us without restrictions Cohort 2020-2021 9  Pack: A3 Psychoanalysis Understanding the inner person The focus of Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis ‘emphasized the ways our unconscious thought processes and our emotional response to childhood experiences affect our behaviour’ (Myers, 2013; p. 5) For psychoanalysts our behaviour is motivated by inner forces and conflicts which the individual has limited ability to control > psychic determinism Cohort 2020-2021 10  Pack: A3 Sigmund Freud: The father of Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is considered the father of Psychoanalysis Freud received a medical degree in 1881 and specialised in Neurology. His experience of working with patients complaining of ‘nervous’ difficulties (neurotic patients) led him to develop his theory of the unconscious mind He started seeing patients’ difficulties as a result of mental rather than physical problems Freud: Childhood & the Unconscious The work he conducted with patients diagnosed with hysteria led Freud to believe that early childhood experiences and unconscious impulses contributed to the development of adult personality and behaviour. Cohort 2020-2021 11  Pack: A3 Psychoanalysis: The view of psychological illness? According to Freud, psychological disorders: are caused by psychological rather than physical factors are the result of: ounconscious desires ounconscious conflicts becoming extreme or unbalanced ochildhood experiences If unresolved conflicts occur in childhood, they will cause ‘fixations’ later on in life: the conflict between the impulse and the prohibition. Psychoanalysis: The Goal of Psychology According to Freud, the goal of psychology was to understand the unconscious factors that lead to problematic feelings, thoughts and behaviours and learn to work through them to improve daily function. He believed that unconscious thoughts and impulses are expressed through: - Slips of the tongue (also called Freudian slips) - Dreams Cohort 2020-2021 12  Pack: A3 Psychoanalysis: Helping people through therapy Freud believed that one of the therapeutic ways in which one could discover what is ‘locked’ in the unconscious was through the method of free association. Free association is a method ‘in which a patient is instructed to say everything that comes to mind, regardless of how trivial or embarrassing it may seem’ (Atkinson et.al., 1996; p.448). Psychoanalysis: Helping people through therapy cont… Another way was: dream analysis Freud believed that dreams represented unconscious desires or fears in disguised form. By analysing the content of dreams, the therapist can try to understand the unconscious meaning. Cohort 2020-2021 13  Pack: A3 Psychoanalysis: View of human nature Negative and pessimistic view of human nature: Nearly all of our impulses are sexual and aggressive in nature. Because we cannot accept them in our conscious, thoughts find their expression in dreams, slips of the tongue that appear as accidents, and even jokes. Psychoanalysis: Legacy & Limitations The importance of Psychoanalysis Limitations Influence on “pop culture”: Does not focus on observable behaviour. § Freudian slips § Anal-retentive Negative perspective of human beings because actions Was the first approach to are provoked by aggressive recognise childhood as a critical and sexual impulses. period of development. Cannot be scientifically proven Focused mainly on the or disproven. individual Ignores political and social explanations of people’s Influence on psychology problems. § Psychodynamic theory It implies that people have § Recognised the role of the very little free will - unconscious deterministic Cohort 2020-2021 14  Pack: A3 Behaviorism Observing the outer person The focus of Behaviorism Behaviorism focuses on the study of the human being through behaviors which can be visibly observed: Only by studying what people do – their behavior - is an objective science of psychology possible (Atkinson et al., 1996; p. 12) It rejects the emphasis on the inner workings of the mind: what goes on in one’s mind can never really be known or measured (the mind is a “black box”). Cohort 2020-2021 15  Pack: A3 The focus of behaviorism cont… Behaviourism emphasises the learning process. It attempts to explain how we learn and retain new forms of behaviour through experience. It assumes that permanent change in knowledge or behaviour is the result of experience. Key people in Behaviorism: Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian physiologist discovered classical conditioning - also called Stimulus-Response (S-R) theory - in dogs. Whilst carrying out experiments about the secretion of salivation in dogs, he noticed that sometimes these secretions would begin even when no food had actually been eaten. He realised that dogs were responding to what they had learnt to associate with food, e.g., the sight of the bowl in which food was usually presented or the sight of the person who usually brought the food: Dogs had learnt to associate the stimuli in the form of the person/bowl with the actual food and responded by salivating Cohort 2020-2021 16  Pack: A3 Key people in Behaviorism: John B. Watson John B. Watson (1878-1958) is considered the father of Behaviorism. He was the first to apply the principles of classical conditioning to human beings: he conducted the ‘Little Albert Experiment’ where he ‘demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby’ (Myers, 2013; p. 5) Watson supported the idea that psychology ought to be based on pure empirical studies and experiments. He defined behaviorism as ‘the scientific study of human behavior. Its real goal is to provide the basis for prediction and control of human beings: Given the situation, to tell what the human being will do; given the man in action, to be able to say why he is reacting in that way’. (p. 2) (as cited in Weibell, 2011). Key people in Behaviorism: B. F. Skinner B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) was also a behaviorist. He is associated with another branch of behaviorism: Operant Conditioning. Operant conditioning focuses on the kind of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened as a result of consequences (reinforcement or punishment) received from the environment. Used a particular apparatus called the ‘Skinner box’ to conduct experiments with pigeons and rats where they would learn to press a lever to obtain food. Cohort 2020-2021 17  Pack: A3 Behaviorism: Legacy & Limitations The importance of Behaviorism Limitations Influence on Education Mechanistic and reductionist (complex A focus on how humans learn and how behaviours are explained in terms of S-R we learn to associate different stimuli links) view of human nature together Does not explain differences in human Understanding how we can control and learning/acquisition of knowledge predict behaviour: practical applications (e.g., dog training) It is deterministic in its explanation of behaviour – behaviour is the result of the Is research oriented – can be tested. environment not of free will Led to the development of social Does not account for learning theory – adding the dimension of cognition to pure behaviourism altruistic/disinterested behaviour Humanism The unique qualities of human beings Cohort 2020-2021 18  Pack: A3 The focus of Humanism Whereas psychoanalysts look at unconscious impulses and behaviorists focus purely on environmental causes, humanists believe strongly in the power of free will and self-determination. It emphasizes the role of individuals in deciding their state of mental health: each individual is naturally able to make decisions about his/her life and to control his/her behaviour. According to humanists, the role of psychology is to help people reach self-fulfillment. Key people in Humanism: Carl Rogers Carl Rogers (1902-1987) believed that all people strive for perfection; some are interrupted by a bad environment. He is very famous for his method of psychotherapy He believed that people who are controlled by other people/things in their life cannot and will not take responsibility for their behaviour so they cannot change it. Cohort 2020-2021 19  Pack: A3 Key people in Humanism: Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) suggested that human beings are basically good He proposed that human beings have needs: from the most basic biological ones to the more complex psychological ones – the hierarchy of needs For people to feel higher level needs, they need to have satisfied more basic ones The highest, most complex need is self-actualization Humanism: Legacy & Limitations The importance of Humanism Limitations Positive view of human nature It is mostly subjective and vague and therefore difficult to test via Power to change lies within the research. individual Concepts such as ‘self- It influences many areas of actualization’ are very subjective. human life: education, therapy, It is difficult to tell if people healthcare etc. reach this state. It helped lessen some of the Concepts used are also culturally stigma attached to therapy sensitive Cohort 2020-2021 20  Pack: A3 Cognitive Psychology Comprehending the roots of understanding The focus of Cognitive Psychology The cognitive approach focuses on mental processes (e.g., perception, attention, memory, decision making, problem solving). ‘Cognitive psychologists seek to explain how we process information and how our ways of thinking about the world influences our behaviour’ (Feldman, 1996; p. 19). Greatly influenced by the computer revolution (1950s): focusing on specific behaviours (output) by understanding them in terms of mental processes (processing of information). For example, models of memory focus on: o The input of information, o The processing of information: selection, comparison to what is already stored in memory, and the o Output of information Cohort 2020-2021 21  Pack: A3 Taken from: http://www.careerprofiles.info/cognitive-psychologist.html Cognitive Psychology: Legacy & Limitations The importance of Cognitive Limitations Psychology Mechanistic view of human We can use scientific research nature: similar to a computer to explore and examine this Gives little importance to free field will Many practical applications, Most studies are taking place in e.g., improving memory and laboratories and therefore may attention span, validity of eye not be applicable in the real witnessing testimony, etc. world. Cohort 2020-2021 22  Pack: A3 Biological Psychology Behaviour as the result of biological functioning The focus of Biological Psychology According to this approach, behaviour is to be considered in terms of biological functioning: § Genetic inheritance § Hormones & chemicals in the brain § Communication between nerve cells and in the nervous system Heavily influenced by the theory of evolution. Cohort 2020-2021 23  Pack: A3 Biological Psychology: Legacy & Limitations The importance of Biological Limitations Psychology Deterministic view of human Biological explanations have behaviour: behaviour is heavily dependent on genetics been found in relation to various mental disorders A belief that behaviours could be controlled through genetic An understanding of hormones engineering. and chemicals in the nervous Medication based on chemical systems has led to various understanding is only helpful to successful drug treatments for treat the symptoms not the a variety of psychological original problem problems Cohort 2020-2021 24