History of English Literature PDF

THE MIDDLE AGES TO CIRCA 1485 -England was the territory of the Roman Empire up to the 5th century. This territory was named Brittania after the ivasion of the Celtics. -After the 5th century, the island was open to the invasion of the Germanic invaders: The Angles, The Saxons, The Juters * The Angl...

THE MIDDLE AGES TO CIRCA 1485 -England was the territory of the Roman Empire up to the 5th century. This territory was named Brittania after the ivasion of the Celtics. -After the 5th century, the island was open to the invasion of the Germanic invaders: The Angles, The Saxons, The Juters * The Anglo-Saxon invasion of the island actually took many years of wars, it was not done over-night.* -The Britains became Christians in the 4th century after the conversion of the Emperor Constantine along with the most of the Roman Empire. -In the case of literature, since we talk about the existence of only oral literature, alliteration was one of the figures of speech that helped them memorize ''texts''. The repetition of consonants at the beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other. Old English Poetry 1-One of the most important characteristics of -Anglo-Saxons brought with them a tradition of oral poetry. Middle English Literature is its impersonality. * Nothing was written down before the conversion to Christianity.* Most of the literature of the Middle Ages was -Men in struggle/war anonymous. It is partly that people were -It has meter but no rhyme - Alliteration+assanace interested in the poem than in the poet. Reproduction of books by hand gave them a Old English to Middle English communal character. A text was exposed both to -The Norman conquest unconscious alteration and conscious change. -The Normans displaced the English ruling class with their own language. The medieval scribe was as likely as not to ''Old French'' - Anglo-Norman England. assume the role of editor or adapter, so that the different manuscripts of a work often differ 4-Much of the Middle English Literature was meant to be greatly from one another. listened to rather than read. As there was no printing facility in those days, most of the literature was memorized 2-Originality is the quality of the created or invented works by people. One of the reasons that hindered the spread of that makes them new or novel, and that distinguishes them books among general public was the unavailability of books. from copies, forgeries, plagiarism, replicas or derived works. It Books were very expensive and common people could not should be noted that this did not happen in them since they afford to buy them. As a result, verse is the normal medium were expressed orally. for most forms of literature. 3-Religion occupies an important place Middle English 5-Courtly Love is a code of behavior that defined the Literature. It is an important element of social life in medieval relationship between aristocratic lovers in Western Europe ages. It is often said that men and women looked upon during the Middle Ages. Courtly love was a secret affair religious life as a means to the next life. They were constantly between the lovers. It was tantamount to adultery. in fear of hell and its torments and were vitally concerned with the problems of salvation for their souls. That's why, religious 6-Chivalry is a prominent feature of Middle English Literature. writing forms a greater part of Middle English Literature. Due Britannica Encyclopedia defines chivalry as "chivalry, the knightly to authority of church on the lives of people, the Middle class of feudal times. The primary sense of the term in the English Literature is absolutely didactic in nature. There is European Middle Ages is "knights" or "fully armed and mounted much of teachings and warnings instead of entertainment. fighting men." Thence the term came to mean the gallantry and honor expected of knights. Lastly, the word came to be used in its general sense of "courtesy." Middle English Poetry is mostly concerned with heroic deeds of knights.  SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT Setting: England Camelot, Wales, The Green Chapel, The Wilderness, Bertiloks Castle. Part 1: The Game, Camelot, Christmas Time -King Arthur and his knights are celebrating Christmas. The point where the Green Knight's head is cut off is the introduction of the human vs the supernatural conflict. Part 2: The Quest -After a year's time, Sir Gawain goes on a journey to meet the Green Knight. Part 3: The Hunting Major Themes: 5 Virtues Expected from Knights: -Man vs Nature -Charity -Codes of Rules of Behaviour: Knighthood -Fellowship -Bravery vs Moral Courage -Chastity -Knighthood vs Religiously being honest -Courtesy -Quest: road story -Generosity geography climate nature itself is a test of courage. Castle: Challanges -King Arthur's castle(interior setting) 1st challenge: beheading game -Quest itself-outside- wilderness- uncertainity- danger- 2nd challenge: exchange Green Knight's real name: Bercilak de Hautdesert Old Woman's real name: Morgan le Fay *Sir Gawain's desire for self preservation let him to act dishonestly.* *Green means: fertility, the power of nature, youth, lust and some wil, animal power, rebirth of the nature in spring, honor and shame, honesty *Gold means: natural motifs, wealth, wordly power, perfection, purity, nobility*  Geoffrey Chaucer(1343-1400) & The Canterbury Tales *Chaucer uses english that is closest to everyday language* *The general prologue describes the beginning of spring* *Draws a picture of 14th century English Society* *Chaucer depicts Characters not only in a positive manner but sometimes portrays them in a negative way. In the diversity of these characters we see that there are characters who are decieving, liars, religiously corrupt.* The Church: The Church at this time(Pre-Reformation) is very corrupt. Church officials take bribes, and don't live the way they should. This angered Chaucer !!Look to the way Chaucer describes Church people for his attitude towards the Church!! Characters in Canterbury Tales Knight: Squire: Knight's Yeoman: -noblest of the pilgrims -Knight's son -wears green from head to toe -embodying military prowess -devoted to love -carries a bow and feathered arrows -loyalty, honor, generosity -strong and beautiful -sword and shield -good manners -curly-haired dressed in clothes with flowers on them Friar: Prioress: Monk: -Lives by begging -Named Madame Eglentyne -Extremely handsome -jovial, pleasure loving, well- -Not of royal court but acts like it -Loves hunting and keeps many horses spoken and socially agreeable -Speaks french with English Accent -An Outrider at monastery -Hears confessions, assigns -Compassionate to Animals -Dismisses strictures about hunting easy penance for donations -Pretty with enormous forehead -Fat, bald and well dressed -Pays no attention to beggars -Wears prayer beads and lepers because they have -Another nun and three priest accompany her Clerk: no money Merchant: -thin and threadbare Man of Law: -speaks constantly of his profits. -student of philosophy at Oxford -an infuentia lawyer -good at borrowing money -devours books instead of food -wise, capable of preparing -Clever enough to keep people from knowing he is in debt. flawless legal documents. -very busy but appears even The Franklin: The Physican: busier than he is -White bearded, wealthy gentleman farmer -taffeta-clad -possessed of lands but not noble birth -practice of medicine and surgery -preoccupation with food -knows ancient and modern medical authorities -reads little scripture -sometimes frugal The Guildsmen: The Shipman: The Plowman: -5 in all -wears a dagger on a cord around neck -brother of Parson -artisans -when on ship he steals wine from merhants -works hard, loves God -dressed in livery of their guild -neighbors The Cook: The Wife of Bath: The Parson: -Has ulcer on his shin -slightly deaf seamstress -gentle and poor, -first at Mass -pure of conscience -Had 5 husbands -true to teaching of Christ -jolly and talkative, gives love advice -enjoys preaching and instruchting The Miller: -does not seek better appointment -Red headed Manicle: -loves crude, bawdy jokes and drinking -stocks an Inn of Court with provisions Reeve: -wart on his nose -smarter than most lawyers -short hair -wear sword and buckler -manages his lordsestate -steals from customers -hoards money -rides behind everyone else The Summoner: The Pardoner: -when drunk spouts the few Latin phrase he knows -rides with the Summoner and sings with him. -Uses his power for his own gain -Long flowing yellow hair -lecherous -sells papal indulgences Conclusion -After introductions of all Pilgrims narrator apologizes for any offense the reader might take. -He explains he must faithfully reproduce the characters words even if rude and disgusting. -He cites Christ and Plato that it is best to speak plainly and tell the truth. -Host of tavern speaks to group -Welcomes them and compliments them -Proposes a contest of story telling -Each pilgim tells two stories going and two coming back -Host goes to judge -Winner gets free meal, paid by others -Whoever disagres with him has to pay for the trip *the main purpose of The Prologue is to introduce the pilgrims through description, so it frames the rest of The Tales.*  THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 1485-1603 -As the English state got powerful the English language also developed to be recognized as one of the most influential languages in Europe. -Renaissance is known as the rebirth of intellectual and cultural facilities in England. Although in its birth place(Italy) is known as an arts and architecture movement, in England it is mostly inspired by humanism. -The Protestant Reformation with its emphasis on the authority of scripture(sola scriptura, only scripture) and salvation by faith(sola fide) came to England upon Henry VIII's insistance on divorcing his wife Catherine of Aragon against the wishes of the Pope. Henry the VII: Ends The War of Roses to begin Tudor Dynasty. Henry the VIII (1491-1547): He is the king who introduces The Divine Rights of Kings. Elizabeth I: Questions regarding her reign due to her gender and not being married. Question of whether divine rights pass on to female monarch. -Tudors Dynasty -Renassiance *Consolidation of Power* -Reformation II Principe(The Prince): ''it is better to be feared than to be loved'' central authoritarian leadership Henry the VIII'S Marriages/Wives: -Katherine of Aragon(Spanish) -Ann of Cleves(German) to obtain friendship of Spain to get help against the Emperor Charles V 24 years 6 months one daughter Mary seperated divorced -Catherine Howard(English) -Anne Boleyn(English) to favour catholics to have a son 2 year 3 years executed one daughter Elizabeth -Catherine Parr(English) executed to nurse him in old age -Jane Seymour(English) 5 years a son and help from Protestants Henry died first one son Edward 1 year died in childbirth  *Henry VII- Elizabeth of York* THE TUDOR FAMILY TREE (1485-1509) Henry VIII (1509-1547) Edward VI Margaret Henry Mary I Elizabeth I (1547-1553) (1553-1558) (1558-1603) starts reigning at age 9 and dies at 15 James V of Frances Scotland Lady Jane Mary Queen of Grey Scots 1553 reigns for 9 days -How Reformation affected English society:The most immediate and visible effect of the Reformation was the establishment of the Church of England, with the monarch as its head. This marked a significant shift in religious authority, from the Pope to the English Crown. The Church of England became the primary religious institution in the country, and its doctrines and practices, which were a mix of Catholic and Protestant elements, became the norm. This led to a unique form of Protestantism known as Anglicanism. The Reformation also led to a period of intense religious conflict and persecution. Catholics and Protestants alternately gained and lost favour, depending on the religious inclinations of the reigning monarch. This religious conflict often spilled over into politics, with Catholics and Protestants forming rival factions at court. The persecution of Catholics during the reign of Elizabeth I, for example, led to several plots against her life and reignited conflict with Catholic Spain. The Reformation also influenced the development of English literature and art, with writers and artists exploring themes of faith, doubt, and religious conflict. In the long term, the English Reformation helped to shape a distinct English national identity. The break with Rome and the establishment of a national church fostered a sense of English exceptionalism and independence. This was reinforced by the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, which was seen as a divine endorsement of the Protestant cause. The Reformation also laid the groundwork for England's later expansion and colonisation, with the Church of England playing a key role in the spread of English culture and influence around the world. In conclusion, the English Reformation had far-reaching effects on English society. It led to the establishment of the Church of England, sparked religious conflict, and brought about significant cultural changes  THOMAS MORE- UTOPIA -Thomas More served as a counselar to Henry the 8th, but after he refused to accept the king as the head of the Church he was executed. -Thomas More wrote to show his disdain about the political corruption that was happening in Europe at that time. Aside from the corruption in Europe he also talked about the hypocrisy of religion that was debated at that time. COMMONWEALTH FORM OF GOVERNMENT political vision ELECTION what is best form of Commonwealth The Book "Utopia" -Published in: 1516 -Author: Thomas More -Written in: Latin -A sailor visited an island named "Utopia". He narrates how the island looks like and how it is to be there. -Thinks it has the ideal society -Positive and negative reactions. Premise: -More develops the concept of Utopian society and the plot of his novel through an intricate setup. -The novel is almost entirely made up of a discussion between depictions of More himself, his colleague Peter Giles, and a fictional explorer, Raphael Hythloday. -Hythloday, having visited and lived in Utopia during his travels, has a conversation with More and Giles in which he describes Utopian sociery. -More and Giles are astounded by Hythloday's descriptions and make many comparisons between Utopia and England. England in the 16th century (background info): *Sir Thomas More was the first person to use the term -Tripartite Society “utopia,” describing an ideal, imaginary world in his -Reformation most famous work of fiction. His book describes a -Discover new places complex community on an island, in which people share -These might be the reason, why he wrote the book "Utopia" a common culture and way of life* The Island Utopia -Description-: *Utopia presents many themes such as wealth, power, -Artificial island slavery, and causes of injustice. The overarching theme -Seperated from the main land throughout the book is the ideal nature of a Utopian -Has everything the people need society. In Utopia, there is no greed, corruption, or power -Contain 54 cities -all alike- struggles due to the fact that there is no money or private -Each city is divided in four equal parts property. There is very little hierarchy and everything is -Each district has a free hospital held in common where everyone’s needs are supplied.* -"Amaurot" is the capital city. *Utopia is based upon the idea that money corrupts the government and destroys justice and happiness in society.* The Political System: -Each city has 6000 households with 10-16 adults per household -Overpopulation: colonies are set up to the main land -Underpopulation: colonies are recalled -Natives are invented to be part of Utopian colonies -The Political System -Government-: -Static constitution -Hierarchically structed -Elected mayor ruled for life (other officers are elected annually) -No negotitations outside of the Senate/popular assemblies The Political System -Justice-: -There are no lawyers -The law is made simple so everybody can understand it -Criminals wear chains of gold (gold is used for shameful things like chamber pots-dislike for gold-) -There are slaves in Utopia -Criminals are enslaved -Slaves are periodically released for good behavior -Every household has 2 slaves Social Structure: -"Wives are subjects to their husbands and husbands are subjects to their wives" -same rights -everybody is treated the same -everybody wear the same clothes -no private property on Utopia -goods are stored in a warehouse -they just take what they need- -no locks on the front door of the houses -Welfare of the community is above the individual -Objectives: public welfare, happiness Social Structure -Marriage-: -women: 18; men: 4 years older -priest are allowed to marry -divorce is permitted -adultery is punished by enslavement -premarital sex is punished with a lifetime of enforced celibacy Cultural Traditions -Religions-: Several religions: moon-worshipers sun- worshipers planet-worshipers ancestor-worshipers monotheist - tolerant each others and other religious ideas from the mainland - atheists are allowed but despised :state thinks they are dangerous because they do not believe in anything so they have no reason to share the communistic life in Utopia. Economic Situation: -"Planned economy" -everybody has to work -women do the same work like men do -One work day: take 6 hours -agriculture is the most important job -Everybody has to learn how to farm -on of the other essential trades: weaving carpentry metalsmithing masonry - Education Everybody gets a basic education - the best are allowed to be priest or politician -There are similarities between England and Utopia. -The most important thing about Utopia is: religion-toleration -"educated person" -"labour" 6 hours -"rotation" -Utopia-Europe comparison -Politics is done in public. -Forgoodness of the community -Communally debated -"Equal allocation of gods" -Plato to achieve this: abolishment of private property -European countries holding hereditary officeility  SIR THOMAS WYATT THE ELDER -Sir Thomas Wyatt the Elder was an accomplished diplomat and Renaissance poet well known for his influence on the development of the sonnet. During his lifetime, his poems were circulated in manuscript form to members of the king’s court but were not officially published until after his death. -All great writers have a muse; for Wyatt drama and inspiration came in the form of Anne Boleyn. I Find No Peace: -"I Find No Peace" is a sonnet by the influential 16th-century British writer and courtier, Sir Thomas Wyatt. The poem's lovesick speaker exist in a state of utter turmoil, twisted this way and that by a love that's as painful as it is pleasurable. Through a series of paradoxes (such as burning with passion and freezing "like ice," wanting to die and wanting to live all at once), the poem captures love's complexity and its ability to completely overwhelm those it strikes. As with many of Wyatt's sonnets, "I Find No Peace" is an adaptation of an earlier poem by the 14th-century Italian poet Petrarch. -Sir Thomas Wyatt’s “I Find No Peace” expresses the glorious and terrible contradictions that come with being in love. Love, here, is both torture and pleasure, ugliness and beauty, life-giving and life-denying. In short, the poem shows love to be not one single emotion, but an unending rollercoaster of extreme-and often conflicting-feelings. -In short, the speaker expresses the intense flurry of conflicting emotions that go along with being in love, a contradictory state that pulls the speaker—both painfully and joyfully—in many directions at once. Love, then, is hardly a stable or predictable experience in this poem, and the speaker is in a state of constant, violent flux. One day he feels like he has everything, and the next he has nothing. His love will neither let him live nor die, making him a kind of zombie at the mercy of love itself. In other words, love hurts. My Galley Charged with Forgetfulness: -The narrator describes his boat challenged with lack of memory, which passes through dangerous seas on winter nights. He is stuck between rocks and his enemy, and sadly, his lord misdirects him cruelly. The oars are plans to escape, as if his destruction would scarcely matter. A constant wind tears at the sail, which is made of forced sighs and honest fear. Rain formed from tears and clouds of despair have loosened the rigging, covering the ropes with mistakes and ignorance. The stars that guided him towards this agony are gone, and reason, who should be his companion, is drowned. Meanwhile the narrator is still hopelessly yearning for safety. -The poem is constructed around an extended metaphor of a dangerous voyage which represents a spurned love or loss of faith in an important union or relationship. The metaphor has been interpreted to suggest that the narrator feels deserted by God.  HENRY HOWARD, EARL OF SURREY -A major poet of the 16th century, Surrey is credited with developing the Shakespearean form of the sonnet. He wrote love poems and elegies and translated Books 2 and 4 of Virgil’s Aeneid as well as Psalms and Ecclesiastes from the Bible. He also introduced blank verse to English—a form that he used in his translations of Virgil. The Soote Season: -Henry Howard’s summery sonnet, in summary, is about the coming of summer and the various ways in which a world previously in a sort of stasis or hibernation is now springing into life. (‘Soote’ in ‘Soote Season’ means ‘sweet’.) However, despite this, the poet’s sorrow also springs into new life at this time. We usually associate autumn and winter with sorrow, but not the summer. -‘The soote season’ takes up the literary legacy of Middle English poetry and, specifically, alliterative verse. -‘The soote season’ is not only one of the first English sonnets written in English; it was written by the very man who invented the sonnet form that Shakespeare would later put his indelible stamp on. But Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey is not as celebrated as the Bard. Even a preliminary analysis of ‘The soote season’ shows, however, that he didn’t simply prepare the way for Shakespeare: he wrote a powerfully affecting and technically accomplished sonnet in his own right.  THE FAERIE QUEEN by EDMUND SPENSER -E.S dies before he completes TFQ. -E.S wrote during the time of post-reformation. -England replacing the Catholic faith with Protestant belief. This divided people into two sides and structed his work in a way that all the protagonists "the good characters" are representations of Protestant belief. On the other hand, the antagonists are representations of the Catholic Church. "the bad characters" -The glorification of Queen Elizabeth. "The poem is dedicated to Elizabeth I who is represented in the poem as the Faerie Queen Gloriana, as well as the character Belphoebe." Spencer's Aim of Writing the Faerie Queen: "fashion a gentleman or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline". "historical fiction" Spenser presented the first three books of The Faerie Queene to Elizabeth I in 1589, probably sponsored by Sir Walter Raleigh.The poem was a clear effort to gain court favour, and as a reward Elizabeth granted Spenser a pension for life amounting to 650 a year. Faerie Queen: Written in Archaic style,draws on History and Myth particularly the legends of Arthur. One of the longest poem in the English language It was the work in which Spenser invented the verse form known as the Spenserian stanza. The poem follows the adventures of a number of medieval Knights. Poem is Unfinished. Spenser outlines his plan for 12 but there are only seven the last being incomplete. Twelve book to represent the twelve moral virtues of Aristotle. Each book follows the adventure of a knight who represents a particular virtue. Arthur represent a magnificence the total sum of all virtues. Arthur appears and disappears and reappears through out the poem,searching for his love Gloriana. (Queen Elizabeth) Political Background of Faerie Queen: The Faerie Queen is much more than a fairy tale. Many of the character contain historical paradoxes from the Elizabethan time period in England. The setting of the poem 'Faerie land" is itself an allegory to England. Written during the height of England's flowering in the Renaissance under Queen Elizabeth I, The Faerie Queene was Spenser's attempt to write the ultimate poem of his time celebrating both his beloved monarch and his beloved country, England. It was written during "Reformation Movement". During Queen Elizabeths reign, England was going through the Catholic Reformation, which is also known as the English Reformation. People believed the popes and Catholic Church were corrupt so they wanted to get away from it. The people wanted Protestantism and Anglicanism. Queen Elizabeth was a well known Protestant, so she became the symbolic leader of the Catholic Reformation. Edmund Spenser was very anti-catholic. In the story, the good characters represent true religion, which he thought was Protestantism/Anglicanism. The villains represent the Roman Catholic Church. Characters: -Arthur- The central hero of the poem, He does not play the most significant role in its action. Arthur is in search of the Faerie Queen, whom he saw in a vision. The "real" Arthur was a king of the Britons in the 5th or 6th century A.D., He was the legendary person who has all the twelve virtues defined by Aristotle. -Gloriana- She never appears in the poem The Faerie Queen is the focus of the poem. Her castle is the ultimate goal or destination of many of the poem's characters. She represents Queen Elizabeth. -Red Cross Knight- Red Cross Knight, fictional character, protagonist of Book I of The Faerie Queene. The Red Cross Knight represents the virtue of holiness. His real name is discovered to be St.George, the patron saint of England. He is the individual Christian fighting against evil--or the Protestant fighting the Catholic Church. He is the chivalric champion and eventual husband of Una. -Una- Red cross's future wife. The other major protagonist in Book I. She is meek, humble, and beautiful, but strong when it is necessary. she represents Truth, which Red cross must find in order to be a true Christian. Use of Allegory in Faerie Queene: Book I of Faerie Queene is highly Allegorical. "Allegory is a literary device, it is a metaphor in which a character, place or event is used to deliver a broader message about real-world issues and occurrences." Allegorically, In Book 1 of The Faerie Queene Spenser has shown the fight between vices and virtues and finally the triumph of virtue. Moral and Spiritual Allegory: The Faerie Queene deals with the action and interaction of virtues and vices. Good characters: virtues Bad characters: vices Red Cross Knight: Holiness. Lady Una: Truth and Goodness. Una's parents: Human race. Dragon who has imprisoned them: Satan/evil. Archimago: Hypocricy [mission is to separate Red Cross Knight(holiness) and the Lady Una(truth)] The mission of Holiness is to help Truth fight Evil and thus regain its rightful place in the human heart. Thus the Red Cross Knight encouraged by Lady Una kills the monster error and marches ahead on his way. Moral and Spiritual Allegory mingled with the Religious Allegory: The Reformation was the most important religious movement of the time and in his epic Spenser has represented it allegorically. He is strong supporter of the Reformed Church of England Red Cross Knight; Reformed Church of England. The parents of Lady Una; Humanity. Dragon who has imprisoned; Pope of Rome. Monster Error allegorically: error or mistakes which human beings make in course of their lives. Fight of the Red Cross Knight with the monster Error: The conflict between Protestantism and Catholicism. The books and papers vomited by Error: The scurrilous pamphlets directed against Queen Elizabeth by the Roman Catholics. Political Allegory: Red Cross Knight:St. George of England Lord Leicester: Prince Arthur. Lady Una: Truth which is represented by the National Church of England. Una's parents: The people of England who are hold in subjection by Roman Catholic. Dragon:Roman Catholic. The Monster Error: Evil forces. Archimago :Philip-II of Spain, who was a Roman Catholic by faith. Main Moral Ideas: Friendship, Justice, Courtesy  DOCTOR FAUSTUS by CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE Doctor Faustus exists in 2 versions (the first is a shorted version and was published in 1604; second is more preferred and more than 1.000 line longer and has simple-minded comedy No other Elizabethan play caused more controversy than Doctor Faustus The play is based on a Medieval legend. The Renaissance: It was a transitions from the Medieval time period. Renaissance was the 'rebirth' of literature and religion. Many works of literature focused on humanism and secularism. Often questioned authority & faith leading to a rise in skepticism and rationalism The Main Characters: -Doctor Faustus; The protagonist of the play. A scholar who has a strong desire for knowledge. He lets his ambition to know things lead him to practice the dark arts and sell his soul to the Devil.He refuses to repent and as a result must be dammed to Hell eternally. -Mephostophilis; A devil that Doctor Faustus conjures up for his service but also Faustus's partner in crime. -Good Angel; The spirit that urges and encourages Faustus to repent and make the right choices but is unsuccessful most of the play. -Evil Angel; The spirit that persuades Faustus more often. It wants Faustus to sell his soul, uses black magic and encourages Faustus not to repent. -Lucifer; Prince of Hell who visits Faustus often. Also Mephostophilis' master. -Wagner; Faustus' student and servant. Makes the play comedic. He uses Faustus books to learn how to do magic. Also foreshadows Faustus throughout the play. -Valdes & Cornelius; Friends of Faustus who influence him to use the dark arts by promising that good things such as fame, superiority and riches will come from practicing black magic. Prologue: The Prologue tells the audience the plot of the play. It explains Faustus' life and downfall. Marlowe also apologizes that the play will not portray the typical stories of war, love, deities or the most common topics in Renaissance plays. Act I: Faustus begin by speaking about how he wants to make men live eternally. He began to question philosophy and turns to magic to make him mighty. A Good Angel and an Evil Angel visits him. The Evil Angel succeeds. Faustus is visited by two scholars. Then Faustus performs a spell to conjure up a devil and he meets Mephostophilis. Wagner has a comedic conversation with a clown which basically revealed the plot of the play. Meanwhile, Faustus has second thoughts and Good & Evil Angel appears again as he has second thoughts. Faustus asks M about his priorities as his servant. Also tells that Lucifer wants him to write a deed stating the agreement and must sign it in his blood, but after Faustus cuts his arm, no blood will pour out. Faustus gives his soul to Lucifer for 24 years of M's service. Act II: The angels appear once again. The Good Angel tells Faustus to repent because God will pity him. The Evil Angel tells him that God will not pity him because of what he has done. Then Lucifer & Co enter and displays the 7 deadly sins. Act V: Lucifer & Co arrive to receive F's soul. F admits to his scholars the deal he made with Lucifer and they plead him to repent. He finds himself unable to do so. F begin to blame everyone for his mishap as the angels appear one final time. The clock strikes 12 and devils enter and carry F. The scholars find his limbs and promise to give him a Christian burial. Epilogue: Faustus is the branch that could have grown upright and straight if it weren't for magic. The final line explains that Faustus may have lived longer if he wouldn't have tried to practice more than heavenly power permits. Faustus is a man who is interested in learning unlawful things, he is going to be condemned by the God. *Doctor Faustus is a man of science at the beginning of the play but he has a strong desire for follow black magic.* Summary: Faustus becomes dissatisfied with his studies of medicine, law, logic and theology; therefore, he decides to turn to the dangerous practice of necromancy, or magic. He has his servant Wagner summon Valdes and Cornelius, two German experts in magic. Faustus tells them that he has decided to experiment in necromancy and needs them to teach him some of the fundamentals. When he is alone in his study, Faustus begins experimenting with magical incantations, and suddenly Mephistophilis appears, in the form of an ugly devil. Faustus sends him away, telling him to reappear in the form of a friar. Faustus discovers that it is not his conjuring which brings forth Mephistophilis but, instead, that when anyone curses the trinity, devils automatically appear. Faustus sends Mephistophilis back to hell with the bargain that if Faustus is given twenty-four years of absolute power, he will then sell his soul to Lucifer. Later, in his study, when Faustus begins to despair, a Good Angel and a Bad Angel appear to him; each encourages Faustus to follow his advice. Mephistophilis appears and Faust agrees to sign a contract in blood with the devil even though several omens appear which warn him not to make this bond. Faustus begins to repent of his bargain as the voice of the Good Angel continues to urge him to repent. To divert Faustus, Mephistophilis and Lucifer both appear and parade the seven deadly sins before Faustus. After this, Mephistophilis takes Faustus to Rome and leads him into the pope's private chambers, where the two become invisible and play pranks on the pope and some unsuspecting friars. After this episode, Faustus and Mephistophilis go to the German emperor's court, where they conjure up Alexander the Great. At this time, Faustus also makes a pair of horns suddenly appear on one of the knights who had been skeptical about Faustus' powers. After this episode, Faustus is next seen selling his horse to a horse-courser with the advice that the man must not ride the horse into the water. Later, the horse-courser enters Faustus' study and accuses Faustus of false dealings because the horse had turned into a bundle of hay in the middle of a pond. After performing other magical tricks such as bringing forth fresh grapes in the dead of winter, Faustus returns to his study, where at the request of his fellow scholars, he conjures up the apparition of Helen of Troy. An old man appears and tries to get Faustus to hope for salvation and yet Faustus cannot. He knows it is now too late to turn away from the evil and ask for forgiveness. When the scholars leave, the clock strikes eleven and Faustus realizes that he must give up his soul within an hour. As the clock marks each passing segment of time, Faustus sinks deeper and deeper into despair. When the clock strikes twelve, devils appear amid thunder and lightning and carry Faustus off to his eternal damnation.  SONNETS by WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE - With few exceptions, Shakespeare's sonnets observe the stylistic form of the English sonnet—the rhyme scheme, the 14 lines, and the metre. But Shakespeare's sonnets introduce such significant departures of content that they seem to be rebelling against well-worn 200-year-old traditions. - Instead of expressing worshipful love for an almost goddess-like yet unobtainable female love-object, Shakespeare introduces a young man. He also introduces the Dark Lady, who is no goddess. Shakespeare explores themes such as lust, homoeroticism, misogyny, infidelity, and acrimony in ways that may challenge, but which also open new terrain for the sonnet form. - When analysed as characters, the subjects of the sonnets are usually referred to as the Fair Youth, the Rival Poet, and the Dark Lady. The speaker expresses admiration for the Fair Youth's beauty, and-if reading the sonnets in chronological order as published-later has an affair with the Dark Lady, then so does the Fair Youth. - Shakespeare begins his sonnets by introducing four of his most important themes-immortality, time, procreation, and selfishness-which are interrelated in this first sonnet both thematically and through the use of images associated with business or commerce. -The sonnet's first four lines relate all of these important themes. Individually, each of these four lines addresses a separate issue. Line 1 concerns procreation, especially in the phrase "we desire increase"; line 2 hints at immortality in the phrase "might never die"; line 3 presents the theme of time's unceasing progress; and line 4 combines all three concerns: A "tender heir" represents immortality for parents, who will grow old and die. According to the sonnet's poet, procreating ensures that our names will be carried on by our children. If we do not have children, however, our names will die when we do. -But, the scenario the poet creates in these four lines apparently has been rejected by the young man, whom the poet addresses as "thou," in lines 5–12. Interested only in his own selfish desires, the youth is the embodiment of narcissism, a destructively excessive love of oneself. The poet makes clear that the youth's self-love is unhealthy, not only for himself but for the entire world. Because the young man does not share himself with the world by having a child to carry on his beauty, he creates "a famine where abundance lies" and cruelly hurts himself. The "bud" in line 11 recalls the "rose" from line 2: The rose as an image of perfection underscores the immaturity of the young man, who is only a bud, still imperfect because he has not fully bloomed. The final couplet-the last two lines-reinforces the injustice of the youth's not sharing his beauty with the world. The "famine" that he creates for himself is furthered in the phrase "To eat the world's due," as though the youth has the responsibility and the world has the right to expect the young man to father a child. Throughout the sonnets, Shakespeare draws his imagery from everyday life in the world around him. In Sonnet 1, he writes of love in terms of commercial usury, the practice of charging exorbitant interest on money lent. For example, in the first line, which reads, "From fairest creatures we desire increase," "increase" means not only nature's gain through procreation but also commercial profit, an idea linked to another trade term, "contracted," in line 5. In line 12, by using the now-antiquated term "niggarding," which means hoarding, the poet implies that the youth, instead of marrying a woman and having children, is selfishly wasting his love all for himself.