History Notes PDF

Leçon 2: L’Amerique Precolombienne Paleo-Indigenous Cultures: - Clovis Culture: Early North American civilization known for unique stone tools, such as Clovis points. - Megafauna Interaction: Early humans coexisted with large animals like the mammoth and giant sloth. Leçon 3: Con...

Leçon 2: L’Amerique Precolombienne Paleo-Indigenous Cultures: - Clovis Culture: Early North American civilization known for unique stone tools, such as Clovis points. - Megafauna Interaction: Early humans coexisted with large animals like the mammoth and giant sloth. Leçon 3: Contact et les debuts de la colonisation française Era of Exploration: - Geopolitical Context: Constantinople's fall and the Silk Road's closure pushed European nations to seek maritime routes to Asia. - Technological Innovations: Tools like the astrolabe (Arab origin) and caravels (Portuguese-inspired) made transoceanic navigation possible. Jacques Cartier’s voyages: 1st (1534): Exploration of the Gulf of St Laurent and contact w the Mi’kmaq and Iroquoiand of the St Laurent 2nd (1535-1536): Cartier mapped the St Laurent River up to Hochelaga (Montreal), endured a harsh winter, and received Indigenoius aid despite strained relations. 3rd (1542-1543): A failed attempt at colonization, marked by hostile relations with the Iroquoians and the loss of many men during winter. French Relations with Indigenous People: - Fur Trade & Alliances: French fishermen traded European goods for furs with the Mi’kmaq and Innus before formal colonization. By the early 1600s, fur trade monopolies were granted to French merchants, leading to the establishment of trading posts. - First Alliance (1603) with the Innu (Montagnais): Helped the French secure fur trade routes and provided mutual benefits–protection for the Innu against Haudenosaunee raids, and European goods in exchange for furs. - Champlain and the Wendat (Huron) Alliance (1609): Central to the survival of early French settlements like Port-Royal (Acadia) and Quebec, as the Wendat provided food, knowledge of the land and trade partnerships. Indigenous Political Landscape: - Haudenosaunee Confederacy (Iroquois): Formed in the 14th century, the confederacy consisted of five nations and had a complex political system governed by the Great Law of Peace. - Mourning Wars: Haudenosaunee warfare practices, known as mourning wars, sought to avenge the dead and replenish populations through the capture of war prisoners. Leçon 4: Réformes, guerres et paix Compagnie des cents associés: - granted sovereignty over Canada by the french crown. - The colonization project faced challenges like competition from other European powers and vulnerability due to reliance on indigenous alliances for food and fur. Role of religious orders (jesuites and recollets): - arrived to convert indigenous people (Mi'kmaq, Innus, Abenakis). - The Ursulines and the Congregation de Notre-Dame focused on education for both Indigenous people and settlers. - Conversion strategies: forced baptisms (on the sick). Vulnerability of French colonization (1608-1649): - They were vulnerable due to their small population, dependance on indigenous allies and ongoing conflicts with the Haudenosaunee. Fall of Wendake (1649) (home of the Wendat): - severely impacted by smallpox epidemics and Haudenosaunee raids. - Hauden. took advantage of the Wendat’s weakness to seize their territory and replenish their population by capturing Wendat people. - Consequences for New France: they lost a military ally and prime fur supplier. Also, a truce was negotiated between them and Haudensonaunee in 1653. Reforms of Louis XIV (1663) and restructuring New France: - 1661 is when Louis started to take a direct role in colonial affairs. - In 1655, the regiment of Carignan-Salières (1100 soldiers) arrived to defend the colony and provide new settlements. - Filles du roi: about 800 young women were sent to New France to boost the colony’s population and improve gender ratio. - Temporary workers were brought in to clear and cultivate new lands, in St Lawrence valley and mtl Island, which become important for agriculture. expansion and Impact of the fur Trade (1663-1712): - essential to the colony’s economy (new alliances were forced with indigenous groups). - The French now traveled deeper into indigenous territory to establish remote trading posts, which led to the foundation of Louisiana in 1682. - Governance Structure: Intendant: Managed laws, police, finances, and administration. Gouverneur: Represented the king, commanded the military, and was responsible for diplomacy and exploration. Conseil Supérieur: Acted as the colony’s civil and criminal court. - Impact on Indians. communities: creation of Domiciled villages provided refuge for groups affected by wars with the haudenosaunee and the english. Leçon 5: Apogée et fin de la colonisation française en Amérique du Nord After 1713 (Treaty of Utrecht): - period of prosperity and growth in New France - Population increase, fur trade expansion, and development of agriculture and export activities. - Louisburg on Isle royale became a key military and trade hub for France in the Atlantic. - the # ships between Canada and France rose significantly after 1730, signaling economic strength. Slavery in new France: - due to labour shortages and trade. - Africans and Ind. being slaves. - 1709 ordianced legalized the enslavement of Penais (Ind. people) and africans. - slavery became a status symbol for the elite, especially in urban areas like Montreal. - Ind slaves were cheaper than africans. - the economy became dependant on slave labour Conflicts and war (1744-1763): - The war of Australian succession (1744-1748) and the seven years war (1756-1763) marked a period of increasing conflict between France and Britain in North America. - The Ohio valley was a major territorial dispute between the two powers. - During the 7 years war, the British displaced the French from their North American colonie. - acadian deportation (1755-1764): 10000 acadians were forcibly removed, with many dying from disease and starvation. Leçon 6: le Canada et la revolution americaine: Context on 7 years war (1756-1763): this war led to the end of the french colonial rule in north america. the british now took control of former french territories, leading to challenges like managing the predominantly french-catholic population and establishing relations with Ind groups who were once french allies.Acadiens (displaced during the war), faced restricted access to property and political regrouping, and many lived under temporary permits. proclamation of 1763: - The royal proclamation created a vast Indian territory and recognized India. sovereignty over land, stating that any land transactions had to go through the british crown. - For French Canadians, the proclamation aimed at assimilation, imposing English civil and criminal laws and requiring a Test Oath for administrative and military positions. Political impact of the american revolution: - the american rev. posed challenges for Britain as the 13 colonies rebelled against British policies. Britain implemented Coercive Acts, known as the "Intolerable Acts", which included the Quebec Act of 1774. The Quebec Act repealed earlier policies of forced assimilation and allowed French civil law and religious freedoms, hoping to keep the Canadiens loyal to Britain during the Revolution. military involvement: - The American continental army tried to invade Quebec, hoping to spread ideas and gain support from French Canadians, but the invasion failed. although, revolutionary ideas of liberty and political representation reached the Canadian population. Demographic Impact: Loyalist Migration: - The American Revolution caused a significant migration of Loyalists (those who remained loyal to Britain) to British-controlled territories in North America, such as Nova Scotia and Quebec. About 30,000 Loyalists, including 3,000 Afro-descendant Loyalists, relocated to these regions. The British promised freedom to enslaved people who escaped from their American owners and fought for the British side. - Many Loyalists also brought enslaved people with them, with around 2,000 slaves settling in the Maritime provinces. Creation of New Colonies and Haudenosaunee Migration: - The influx of Loyalists led to the establishment of new British colonies, such as New Brunswick in 1784 and the expansion of Nova Scotia. - The Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), who had been key allies of the British during both the Seven Years' War and the American Revolution, were granted new territories on the Grand River in 1784, forming what is today the largest Haudenosaunee reserve in Canada. Leçon 7 – Régime représentatif, Loyalistes tardifs, et la guerre de 1812: Creation of haut et bas canada (1791): - After the american rev., british north america was divided into two provinces: upper canada and lower canada (Ont. and Quebec) - This division followed the constitutional act of 1791, which established elected legislative assemblies in both regions. Loyalistes tardifs (late loyalists): - They were American colonists who remained loyal to the British crown during the American revolution. - individuals from the u.s who emigrated to canada post-rev., attracted by promises of land and tax-free settlement under british policies. war of 1812: - between britain and u.s, influenced by the legacy of the american revolution and ongoing conflicts. - issues leading to war: british restrictions on american trade and the forced conscription of american sailors into the british navy. - fought across several fronts, including upper canada, where american forces attempted invasion. - key figures : isaac brock (british general) & Tecumseh (shawnee leader who allied w the british)  - haudenosaunee and anishinaabe fought alongside the british - impact: helped solidify british north america’s identity, and Ind. groups played a huge role defending canadian territory. - The conflict is remembered differently in Canada and the U.S., with Canada viewing it as a triumph of diversity and defense of territory, while the U.S. sees it as part of its expansionist efforts. - The U.S.A national anthem originated during the war. Leçon 8: Transitions 1812-1830: guerre du pemmican et immigration britannique: Colonialism transition: from settlement to territorial colonialism: - The British shifted their colonial approach, now by intensifying territorial exploitation through mass immigration, industrialization and transport movements. - decline of diplomatic relations with the Ind. populations, replaced by policies of displacement, marginalization and assimilation (reserves and residential schools) - British Imperialism expanded, particularly after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, shaping the Canadian colonial framework. economic transitions: - forestry and shipbuilding (new economic sectors) and improvements in transportation - facilitated urban growth in Mtl and expanded access to key resources like timber between upper and lower canada. - fur trade declined as new industries took precedence. fur trade and metis nation: - played a key role in the rise of the metis nation in red river (manitoba) - metis communities formed as voyageurs (french-canadian fur traders) married ind. women, integrating into the fur trade economy. - Rivalry between the HBC and NWC culminated in the Pemmican War (1812–1821), which saw the HBC gain a monopoly over the fur trade and marked the decline of Montreal as a key fur trading hub. demographic tension: - British immigration surged in the early 19th century, with 800,000 new settlers from England, Scotland, and especially Ireland arriving between 1825 and 1850. - Epidemics, such as the cholera outbreak of 1832, devastated urban centers like Montreal and Quebec, exacerbating social tensions amid the massive influx of immigrants. Leçon 9: des rébellions de 1837-1838: Political and Social context leading to the rebellions: socio-demographic factors: - Mass immigration of British settlers raised concerns among Canadians about cultural and political assimilation. - The cholera epidemic of 1832 exacerbated tensions in Lower Canada. economic facts: poor harvests and the loss of winter jobs in the fur trade increased discontent. political factors: - lower canada: dissatisfaction grew due to the domination by the clique du château, a british oligarchy that controlled the government. - The parti canadien opposed this oligarchy, promoting republican ideals, democratic reform. - upper canada: the oligarchic Family Compact held power. The Reform Party (Whigs) sought more democratic institutions, while some radicals, led by William Lyon Mackenzie, pushed for annexation by the United States. the ninety-two resolutions (1834): - series of demands made by the parti canadien in lower canada: government responsibility, control over the budget and taxation, preservation of french as an official language and the french-catholic education system. The resolutions were rejected by the British crown in 1837. the rebellions of 1837-1838: - in lower canada: led by the parti patriote, the rebels were french canadian farmers and urban workers - in upper canada: Mackenzie's rebels sought to overthrow the family Compact. Both rebellions were quashed by British forces by 1838, though attempts at further insurrections, including cross-border invasions from the United States, continued. lord Durham’s report (1839): he was sent to investigate the causes of unrest. his report recommended: - union of upper and lower canada to form the province of canada - establishment of municipal governments and a responsible government (where executive officials are accountable to the elected legislature rather than an unelected crown.) - assimilation of french canadians into english culture, which he viewed as essential to peace. the act of union (1840) merge of upper and lower canada into one province with two chambers: - Political representation was equal between the two chambers, benefiting the more English-dominated Upper Canada. - The debts of both regions were combined, with Lower Canada assuming a share of Upper Canada’s larger debts.  - This act further marginalized French-Canadians, stripping them of certain cultural and political rights, including the loss of the right to speak French in the assembly. political union of reformists: - a reform party led by Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine (FC) and James Baldwin (EC) formed a political alliance. - succeeded in establishing a responsible government in 1848, which allowed elected officials to hold real power over appointed governors. - Their government restored key cultural and political rights for French-Canadians, such as the right to speak French in Parliament and the revival of french-catholic institutions. Lecon 12: Canadian Confederation Key Factors leading to Confederation: Political challenges: - Canada East and West (QC & ON) were joined in the province of Canada but faced a political deadlock, blocking effective governance. - The lack of central government made it hard to create unified policies and manage relations with Britain and Indigenous people. - The french catholic minority in Canada East wanted assurances to protect their language and religion. Economic pressures: - The colonies were economically dependent on Britain, which ended favorable trade tariffs with the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. - The Great Trunk Railway (GTR) was a major project to connect Mtl, Toronto and the Great Lakes, but financial troubles plagued the railway. Uniting the colonies could provide financial stability and encourage investment. - Confederation promised shared economic resources, increased trade, and infrastructure investment. Security concerns: - The American civil war (1861-1865) and U.S. expansion stirred fears of American Invasion, especially after the Fenian Raids (attacks on Canada by Irish-American nationalists). - A unified Canada could strengthen defenses and reduce reliance on British military support. Cultural Identity: - Confederation was seen as a way to prevent cultural assimilation by the United States. - French Canadians wanted guarantees to protect their language and religion within a federal structure. Key Steps toward Confederation: 1. Great Coalition (1864): - John A. Macdonald (Canada West), George Etienne Cartier (C.E), and George Brown formed a coalition to break the political deadlock in Canada. - They proposed a federal union that would grant provinces some autonomy while centralizing other powers.  2. Charlotte Conference (1864): - Initially focused on a Maritime Union, Canadian representatives presented the idea of a larger federation. - Key discussions involved representation by population (favored by larger provinces) and regional autonomy to protect smaller provinces from being overshadowed. 3. Quebec Conference (1864): - Delegates developed the 72 Resolutions, which became the basis for Confederation. - The resolutions proposed a federal system with shared responsibilities and protections for religious and linguistic minorities. 4. London Conference (1866): - The final terms were agreed upon with Britain officials, leading to the British North America Act in 1867. Key Outcomes: Formation of the Dominion of Canada (1867): - On July 1, 1867, the British North America Act created the Dominion of Canada, initially including Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. - Canada became self-governing but remained under British control for foreign affairs. Federal Structure: - A bicameral legislature (House of Commons and Senate) divided powers between federal and provincial governments. - Federal powers included defense, trade, and immigration, while provincial powers included education and health. Important Figures: John A. Macdonald: Advocate for a strong central government and future first Prime Minister. George Etienne Cartier: Represented French Canadians, pushing for protection of language and religious rights. George Brown: Championed representation by population and federalism to end political deadlock. Why was Confederation seen as a solution? The Confederation addressed political deadlock, economic instability, defense against U.S. threats, and protected French Canadian culture. Was Confederation inevitable? Confederation was widely supported by political and economic leaders but met resistance, especially in the Maritimes, where there were concerns about dominance by Canada East and West. It was more a practical response to specific issues than a certainty. Leçon 13: Expansion du Canada et Assimilation des Autochtones Key Events and Policies in Canadian Expansion 1. The Métis and Manitoba: - Challenges in 1867-68: The Metis faced hardship from crop failures and pressure from Ontario settlers moving west. - Provincial Metis Government (1870): Led by Louis Riel, the Metis established a provincial government to protect their rights, land and culture. - Manitoba Act (1870): Created the province of Manitoba, guaranteeing French language rights, confessional schools, and a land reserve for the Metis, although much of this land was later taken or sold off. 2. Securing British Columbia - B.C joined Canada in 1871 with the promise of a transcontinental railway to connect it to the rest of Canada, addressing concerns over American expansion into the region. 3. Colonizing the West: - Dominion Lands Act (1872): Offered 64 hectares of free land to men aged 21+ or heads of families for a $10 fee, provided they lived on and cultivated the land for three years. - North-West Mounted Police (NWMP): Established to maintain order, stop illegal whiskey trade with Indigenous communities, and serve as negotiators in treaties. 4. Numbered Treaties (1871-1921): - Canada signed 11 treaties with Indigenous communities, creating reserves and promising annual payments, healthcare, and schooling. - The treaties were largely viewed by the government as land sales, not as nation-to-nation agreements, often leading to disputes over interpretation and implementation. 5. Securing Prince Edward Island: - Prince Edward Island became a province on July 1, 1873, joining Confederation in exchange for Canada taking on its debt and promising a ferry service (later replaced by the Confederation Bridge in 1997). Key Policies of Indigenous Assimilation: 1. Indian Act of 1876: - The Indian Act imposed a legal structure on Indigenous communities, defining ‘status indians’ and creating Band Councils as government-imposed administrative units. - The Act enforced the reserve system and restricted Indigenous rights, including land ownership and mobility. Those who left reserves for extended periods often lost their status. 2. Cultural Suppression: - Amendments to the Indian Act targeted Indigenous cultural practices, banning ceremonies like the Sun Dance and the Potlatch to enforce assimilation into Euro-Canadian society.  3. Residential Schools (1887-1990): - Residential schools were established to assimilate Indigenous children, forcibly removing them from their families to suppress Indigenous languages and culture. - Prime Minister John A. Macdonald stated that the goal was to “eliminate the tribal system” and fully assimilate Indigenous peoples into Canadian society. Key Conflicts and Rebellions: 1. North-West Rebellions (1885): - Led by Louis Riel and Gabriel Dumont, the Métis and Indigenous communities resisted government encroachment on their lands and failure to uphold treaty rights. - The Canadian government responded with military force, leading to defeat for the Métis and harsher policies under the Indian Act. Review Questions How did Canada expand westward? Through policies like the Dominion Lands Act, treaties with Indigenous nations, and infrastructure promises to provinces like British Columbia and Prince Edward Island. How was this expansion linked to Indigenous assimilation? Expansion policies aimed to integrate Indigenous lands while suppressing their cultural practices and sovereignty, primarily through the Indian Act and residential school system. Lecon 14: Industrialisation and Urbanisation 1. Industrialization in Canada Key Characteristics: Transition: Shift from an agrarian (farming-based) economy to an industrial one. Production: Transformation in production methods, moving from manual to mechanized processes. Capital Investment: Significant investments were required to support this transformation. 2 Phases of Industrialization: First Phase: Primary Technologies: Introduction of the steam engine and basic machinery. Industries Developed: Metallurgy, Textile industries, Transportation infrastructure (canals & railroads). Second Phase: New advancements: Electricity, commercial telegraph, and telephone systems. Mass production: Large-scale production of consumer goods, including a variety of manufactured items. Industrial Sites and Case Studies - Clendinning Foundry (Montreal, Griffintown, 1972): Symbol of early Canadian industrial growth. - Textile industry: Boosted by the 1878 National Policy, which supported local industries. - Hochelaga Cotton Factory (Montreal, 1874): Shwocased the rapid growth of the textile sector, which was heavily influenced by industrial policy. New Work Environments - Mechanization led to mass production capabilities, e.g., “300 pairs per day” in a Montreal shoe factory in 1880. - Henry Morgan’s Store (St. Catherine Street, Montreal, 1890): An example of commercial expansion and urban consumption trends. 2. Labour Movements and Working Conditions The Nine-Hour Movement (1872 Toronto Strike): Printers and typographers demanded a reduction of the workday to nine hours. Reactions: employers strongly opposed the movement and although the strike failed, it led to the 1972 Trade Union Act, legalizing workers’ rights to unionize and strike. Unionization and Strikes: 1880-1910: Rise in Union membership and strike activity as workers sought better conditions. Royal Commisision on Capital and Labour (1886-1889): Addressed the conflict between employers and workers. Worker Protections: 1914 - Ontario implemented the Workers’ Compensation Act to provide financial support for injured workers. Montreal Dockworkers’ Strike (1877): A significant labour action in response to working conditions, highlighting labour conflicts in industrial hubs. 3. Urbanization in Canada Population Growth and Urban Expansion: Population Doubling (1871-1911): Canada’s population grew fro m3.7 to 7.2 million. Drivers of Growth: Both immigration and natural population increase were major contributors. Western Expansion: Significant urban growth, particularly in the Western provinces, as people moved towards opportunities in newly industrialized areas. Urban Challenges: Living Conditions: Workers often lived in cramped, poorly maintained housing near factories. Animal Presence: Urban areas saw the continued use of animals for transportation and as a food source. Examples: Horse-drawn streetcars in Toronto (1892) and livestock markets near Jarvis Street (1885). Meat Processing Industry: Transportation and Processing: Mechanized meat processing developed, involving slaughter, canning, and packaging. Transportation Networks: Refrigerated railway cars transported processed meats to urban centers. Electrification and Transportation: Electric Streetcars: Facilitated urban mobility and linked different areas of growing cities, promoting suburban development. Street Lighting: Increased safety and allowed for evening economic activities, changing the rhythm of city life. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. How did industrialization transform the Canadian economy and workforce? Industrialization shifted Canada from an agrarian to an industrial economy, enabling mass production through mechanization. Capital investment in factories and infrastructure increased, drawing workers from rural areas to urban centers. Factory work created new demands on workers, often with long hours and difficult conditions, which spurred labor movements for fairer treatment. 2. What role did unionization play in shaping labor rights? Unionization was vital in establishing labor rights. The 1872 Nine-Hour Movement pushed for shorter workdays, leading to the Trade Union Act, which legalized unions and strikes. With industrial growth, unions expanded, organizing strikes like the Montreal dockworkers’ strike. Government reforms followed, such as Ontario’s 1914 Workers’ Compensation Act, supporting injured workers. 3. What were the major urban challenges posed by rapid population growth? Rapid population growth led to overcrowded, unsanitary living conditions, infrastructure strain, and pollution. Cities dealt with health issues from animal presence and factory waste. These challenges highlighted the need for improved urban infrastructure and sparked social tensions as workers demanded better conditions and wages. Leçon 15: Immigration et Mouvements de Reformes Sociales 1877: First economic recession. Immigration in Canada: 1. Economic Context - Canada’s economy on the 19th century relied heavily on immigration to address labour shortages and populate the western provinces. - The national Policy of 1878, introduced by John A. Macdonald, aimed to develop the economy through protective tariffs, railway construction and immigration. 2. Immigration Waves - Chinese Immigration: - First major wave in 1858, drawn by the Fraser River Gold Rush - 2nd wave arrived between 1880-1885 (15,000 to 17,000) to work on the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), were paid for half of their white workers. (and they also worked on the sections more dangerous) - European Immigration (1896-1914) - Promoted by Clifford Sifton, Minister of the Interior, who sought “desirable” immigrants, particulary farmers from Eastern Europe. - Afro-American Immigration: - Around 1,000 Black immigrants from Oklahoma settled in Alberta between 1905 and 1912. However, the 12 Aug 1911 Orden-In-Council banned further black immigration. IMPORTANT GROUPES MIGRATOIRES ENTRE 1878 et 1901: - Allemandes : 203,000 en 1871 a 310,000 en 1901 - Russes: 19,825 in 1901: - Scandinaves (Norvegiens, Suedois, Islandais, Finlandais) : 31,000. 3. Racial Discrimination: - Anti-Asian sentiments fueled laws like the Chinese Immigraiton Act and the imposition of a head tax on Chinese immigrants. - 1907 Anti-Asian Riots in Vancouver saw attacks on Asian communities and business. - Restrictions targeted South Asian and Japanese immigrants, including disenfranchisement and immigration caps. THE LAST BEST WEST ”,1896-1914 - Campaign launched by Clifford Sifton, Minister of the Interior (responsible for immigration) and member of Minister Wilfred Laurier's cabinet - Aim to attract “good immigrants”: criteria determined by potential for assimilation into the Canadian population. - Discriminatory campaign against Jews and people of colour people of color (Asians, Arabs, Africans, Afro-Americans) Social Reform Movements 1. Temperance Movement: ○ Advocated for the prohibition of alcohol, led by groups like the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). ○ Linked temperance to broader moral and social reforms, including women’s suffrage. 2. Women’s Suffrage Movement: ○ Organizations like the Toronto Women’s Literary Club (1876) and the Dominion Women’s Enfranchisement Association (1889) fought for women’s voting rights. ○ Women connected suffrage with their roles as moral guardians and advocates for societal improvement. Review Questions 1. What role did immigration play in Canada’s development? Immigration helped populate the western provinces, provided labor for industries like the CPR, and supported economic growth under policies like the National Policy. 2. Why did immigration generate racist and exclusionary policies? The arrival of non-white immigrants sparked fears of economic competition and cultural change. This led to laws like the Chinese head tax and outright bans on certain groups, such as Black Americans and South Asians. Lecon 16: Canada & WWI When Britain declared war on August 4 1914, Canada was automatically involved as part of the british Empire. 650,000 Canadians who joined the Canadian Expeditionary Force, 65,000 died and 150,000 were injured. Cause of WW1: - European countries: industrializing and competing in European markets - European countries, USA and Japan in imperial and colonial competition in Africa and Asia - Rise of unifying nationalism, creating new nation-states - Unification of Germany, 1861 - Unification of Italy, 1871 - Rise of anti-monarchical nationalism in Russia and Eastern Europe - Competition in the arms race, reflecting the economic and industrial strength of different nations Life on the Frontlines: - Canadian soldiers faced harsh conditions, including mud, disease and constant danger from artillery and chemical weapons. - The Battle of Vimy Ridge (1917): Considered Canada’s most significant military achivement during the war - Using a well-planned attack strategy under Sir Julian Byng, canadian forces captured the ridge in just 4 days, suffering 10,600 casualties, including 3,600 deaths. - Vimy Ridge symoblized Canada’s growing independence and national pride. Recruitment & Diversity: - recruitment posters targeted French Canadians using cultural references to encourage enlistment. - Despite resistance, Japanese, black and Indigenous Candians served in the war. - Notable Soldier: Francis Pegahmagabow, Anishnaabe sniper and most decorated Ind. solider in the war. Economy of the war: In the beginning of the war, candian economy was in recession. Also, declaration of war: industrial production temporarily paralyzed. AND massive troop movements further threaten economy: lack of manpower. But from 1916, unemployment is virtually non-exisant: the constant need to produce military equipment - shells - but also agricultural production to feed the troops. Imperial Munitions Commission (IMC) oversees dozens of state companies and corporations. 1917 : $2 million worth of products per day Conscription Crisis of 1917: - Voluntary enlistment slowed as the war continued, leading to Robert Borden’s government introducing conscription through the Military Service Act. - This caused significant divisions: - English Canadians generally supported conscription. - French Canadians, led by figures like Henri Bourassa, opposed it, seeing it as an imposition by English Canada. - The 1917 federal election, influenced by wartime laws, gave voting rights to soldiers and nurses while disenfranchising recent immigrants from enemy countries. Borden’s party won with 90% of soldiers’ votes, securing conscription. The Home Front: - Wartime measures included:  - Conscription, censorship, and propaganda to support the war effort (social level). - Victory Bonds and new taxes (income and corporate taxes) to finance the war. - Women played a crucial role, working in factories, replacing men in the workforce, and participating as nurses on the front (economic level). These contributions advanced their fight for suffrage, and many women gained the right to vote in 1917 (politic level). Civil Liberties and Internment Camps: - The War Measures Act (1914) allowed the government to suspend civil liberties for security reasons. - Over 8,500 individuals, mainly of Ukrainian descent, were detained as "enemy aliens" and forced into labor camps between 1914 and 1920. The Spanish Flu Pandemic (1918–1920): - The pandemic began near the war’s end, spreading rapidly as soldiers returned home. - It caused 20–50 million deaths worldwide, with Canada heavily affected. Public health measures included masks, business closures, and bans on public gatherings. How did Canadian soldiers experience World War I? Soldiers endured harsh trench conditions, constant danger, and heavy casualties in battles like Vimy Ridge, which became a defining moment of national pride. How did the home front in Canada handle the war? Canadians supported the war effort through propaganda, Victory Bonds, and women entering the workforce. However, conscription caused significant divisions, particularly between English and French Canadians. How did the war transform Canada’s politics, economy, and society? Politically, the War Measures Act and conscription reshaped civil rights and voting laws. Economically, the government introduced new taxes and loans to fund the war. Socially, women gained new roles and voting rights, but the internment of "enemy aliens" revealed deep societal divides. Lesson 17: Les annees 1920 et la Grande Depression WW1 marked significant social and economic changes in Canada.The 1920s saw economic growth in new industries and social reforms, while the Great Depression (1930s) brought poverty, unemployment, and debates over the government’s role in society. KEY TOPICS: 1. The 1920s: Transition & Growth - Prohibition and Smuggling:  - The U.S Prohibition created opportunities for Canadian bootleggers, especially in Quebec and B.C, where alcohol smuggling thrived - Montreal, a.k.a “Sin City of the North”, became famous for its cabarets and jazz clubs. - Worker Movements: - Labour unrest peaked w the Winnipeg General Strike (1919), as workers demanded better wages and conditions. - Veterans of WW1 played a significant role in organizing protests. - Industrial Growth: - New sectors like pulp and paper and hydroelectricity flourished, driven by international demand. - Immigration restrictions: - Anti-immigrant sentiments led to stricter policies, especially targeting Asian & European immigrants. 2. The Great Depression (1929-1939) - Stock Market Crash (1929): - The Canadian Economy suffered a sharp downturn, with industries collapsing and unemployment soaring. - Falling commodity prices hit farmers and resource-based economies hard. - The Dust Bowl: - Severe droughts in the Prairies devastated agriculture, leading to massive dust storms that ruined crops and displaced families. - Government response: - Robert Bennett elected in 1931: Solutions were slow and often inadequate, with relief programs providing minimal support. - 37 million to provinces for direct relief - Prime minister Robert Bennett introduced public works and promised a Canadian “New Deal” in 1935 but lost re-election to William Lyon Mackenzie King. - Social Impact: - Letters from struggling Canadians reveal the widespread desperation and poverty of the era, as families begged for basic necessities like shoes and food. NEW SOLUTIONS Dissatisfaction with the current government and parties => creation of new political parties: - Social Credit in Alberta - Federal Communist Party - Union Nationale (conservative party) of Maurice Duplessis in Quebec New financial institutions: - Bank of Canada - Alphonse Desjardins founds his savings and credit cooperative (Caisse Desjardins) Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Program: - New land irrigation systems - New farming processes and machinery to prevent soil erosion New legislation:  - Federal Housing Act to encourage the construction of affordable housing (first draft in 1935) - New land Before 1935, Banks in Chartes controlled interest rates, monitor the value of the CAD on world markets and controlled quantity of currency in circulation. Bank of Canada Act (1934) and opening of the Bank of Canada (1935) - These 3 powers under the control of a single institution.. - Today, this bank still has the same powers, but operates independently of the federal government. 1. Relief Efforts: - Cities established shelters like the Meurling Refuge to provide food and temporary housing for the homeless. 2. Bank of Canada (1935): - Created to stabilize the economy and regulate monetary policy. 3. Unemployment Insurance (1940): - Canada’s first unemployment insurance law was introduced following negotiations with provinces. Review Questions 1. How did the 1920s and the Great Depression influence views on government’s role in society? The 1920s highlighted the need for workers' rights and industrial regulation, while the Great Depression emphasized the government's responsibility to address unemployment and poverty. Programs like unemployment insurance and public works emerged as responses to these crises. 2. Why were the post-war years marked by anti-immigrant sentiments? Economic uncertainty and job competition fueled racial tensions, leading to restrictions targeting Asian, Black, and Eastern European immigrants. Events like the Winnipeg General Strike also spotlighted fears of foreign influence in labor movements. Lesson 18: Le Canada et la Deuxieme Guerre mondiale. WW2: 1st September 1939 - 1st April 1945 10 September 1939 (7 days after Great Britain), Canada enters war against Germany. Industries immediately go into “war mode” because the government are prepared and expecting it. Promised by William Lyon Mackenzie King (P.M): Canada’s contribution would be mainly in the supply of military equipment, not men. Also, no conscription. AVIATION: Aviation (new technology) and aerial bombardment - Trench warfare impossible -British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) - Air defense plan to support Great Britain, based in Canada BILATERAL DEFENSE AGREEMENT BETWEEN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES Summer 1940: - France is occupied by the Germans - Great Britain particularly vulnerable Heads of State realize that this conflict will last a long time. - In this context, the U.S and Canada enter into a mutual defense agreement in the event of either being attacked, or the conflict spreading to the U.S. side of the Atlantic. - Permanent Joint Board of Defence, 1940-45 Pressure on the Canadian war effort, and therefore on Canada’s financial needs. READ SLIDE 9 AND 10!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! December 1941: Entry of the War to Japan - 7 december 1941: Japanese attack on the U.S. military base at Pearl Harbour. - 8 December 1941 1941: Japanese attack on Hong Kong, then a british colony. Opening of the Pacific Front: - Canada declares war on Japan on December 8, 1941, as do the United States, Great Britain and many other allied countries. The Canadian Women’s Army Corps was disbanded on Sept. 30th 1946. - Little recognition of women’s abilities in the short term - Female soliders’ dedication and determination may have calmed the service’s detractors - Dominant idea => temporary service: after the war, women were expected to return to family and domestic life. Document D-Day - NORMANDY LANDINGS (DEBARQUEMENT DE NORMANDIE) Turning point in the conflict => start of a bloody campaign that will lead to the conquest of Nazi France, and eventually the defeat of Nazi Germany. Science of great Canadian military exploits: - 14,000 Candians at Juno Beach - Royal Canadian Nacy: 110 ships and 10,000 soldiers - Royal Canadian Air Force provides 15 squadrons of fighters and fighter-bombers for the assault. Lecon 19: Autochtones: Pensionnat et Activisme 1. Residential Schools (1886 - 1996): - Purpose: created to assimilate indigenous children by erasing their language, culture, and traditions. - Conditions: - Children were often sent far from home, up to 8000 km away. - Overcrowded facilities, poor nutrition, and abuse were rampant. - The Bryce Report (1907) revealed mortality rates in residential schools between 35% and 69%, but the government largely ignored these findings (due to poor sanitation and healthcare in schools). - Legacy: - Survivors faced long-term trauma, leading to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (2007-2015) to address the schools’ impact and demand justice. - social issues such as substance abuse and mental health struggles 2. Reserve System: - Creation of Reserves: After the North-West Rebellions (1885), reserves were established to control and confine Indigenous lands/populations. - Pass System: Introduced in 1886, it restricted movement, requiring passes to leave reserves. - Reserves limited their ability to travel, hunt, and engage in traditional economies, making them reliant on government rations. 3. Sixties Scoop (1960s - 1980s): - Thousands of Indigenous children were removed from their families and placed with non-Indigenous households, severing cultural ties. 4. Indigenous Activism: - Early Movements: - League of Indians of Canada (1918): Founded by Frederick Ogilvie Loft, a Mohawk veteran, this was the first national Indigenous political organization. - Groups like the Allied tribes of British Columbia (1916-1927) and the Native Brotherhood of British Columbia (1931) emerged to fight for land rights and recognition.` - Post World War II Activism: - Indigenous veterans who fought in the war demanded equality and recognition for their contributions. - Modern Resistance: - In 1969, the federal government proposed the White Paper, which sought to abolish the Indian Act and reserves, but it was widely rejected as an attempt to erase Indigenous rights. - Groups like the Kahnawake Warrior Society (1974) became symbols of Indigenous resistance. Review Questions  1. What challenges did Indigenous communities face between 1886 and 1980? Indigenous peoples endured policies aimed at assimilation, including residential schools, the reserve system, and the Sixties Scoop, which disrupted their communities and cultural ties. They also faced systemic racism and limited rights under the Indian Act. 2. How did Indigenous communities resist assimilation? Indigenous activism began with groups like the League of Indians of Canada, continued with demands for land rights, and expanded post-World War II through resistance to policies like the White Paper. The Mohawk Warrior Society became a modern symbol of defiance and cultural pride. Lecon 20: Le Canada d’Apres-Guerre: Transformation Indentiaire: The Welfare State: a system where the government intervenes to address social and economic inequalities through programs such as healthcare, unemployment insurance and pensions. It’s designed to ensure equality, dignity, and protection for citizens against economic insecurity caused by illness, old age, or unemployment. - Key developments Health Insurance: Provinces and the federal government debated funding and delivery of healthcare services. - Expansion of Social Programs: The welfare state provided a safety net for Canadians, reflecting post-war economic prosperity and a shift toward social equity. Post War Immigration: - Immigration Waves (1946-1967): Canada received an average of 14000 immigrants annnually from countries like Britain, Italy, Greece, Germany, Poland, Netherlands. - Refugees: Political refugees from Hungary (1956) following Soviet repression. Also, refugees from decolonization in Asia (e.g. Vietnam) and Africa. - Immigration Policy Reforms: In 1967, Canada introduced a points-based immigration system, prioritizing skills and education over racial or national origin. Quebec Nationalism: - Union Nationale: Led by Maurice Duplessis from 1944 to 1959, this conservative and nationalist provincial government resisted federal control, introducing a provincial income tax to assert Quebec’s financial autonomy. - The Quiet Revolution (1960s): - A period of rapid secularization, modernization, and calls for Quebec sovereignty. - Efforts focused on strengthening the French language, education reforms, and reducing the influence of the Catholic Church. Second-Wave Feminism (1960s - 1970s): - Key Goals: - Equal opportunities in education, employment, and wages.  - Access to birth control, abortion, and changes in divorce laws. - Notable Developments: - The 1969 Omnibus Bill, introduced by Pierre Trudeau, legalized abortion under certain conditions and decriminalized homosexuality. Bilingualism and Multiculturalism - Official Languages Act (1969): - Passed by Pierre Trudeau’s government, it recognized English and French as Canada’s official languages. - Aimed to address growing demands from Quebec for the protection of French language and culture. - Expo 67 (Montreal): Celebrating Canada’s centennial, Expo 67 showcased Canada’s diversity and marked the first time Indigenous peoples had a dedicated pavilion to share their history and perspectives. Trudeaumania and Identity Politics: - Pierre Trudeau’s Vision: - Advocated for a strong, centralized federal government as a unifying force, rejecting Quebec sovereignty and promotingh bilingualism. - Trudeau’s policies emphasized multiculturalism over a single, dominant Canadian identity. - 1969 Turning Point: - Several landmark laws passed, including the Official Languages Act, legalization of abortion and homosexuality, and increased focus on education and divorce rights. Lecon 21: Multiculturisme et l’immigration post-Seconde Guerre mondiale: Changements et enjeux au Canada European Immigration (1947–1959) Post-War Context: ○ Canada needed labor to support its economic growth during the post-war boom. ○ Immigrants primarily came from Italy, Greece, Germany, Poland, and other European countries. Demographic Impact: ○ Immigration boosted Canada’s population and contributed to the growth of diverse cultural communities, particularly in urban areas like Montreal and Toronto. Quebec and Language Debates: ○ The arrival of European immigrants, such as Italians, influenced linguistic and cultural dynamics in Quebec.  ○ Many immigrants integrated into English-speaking communities, sparking tensions with Francophone Quebecers over preserving the French language and culture. Class Notes: Leçon 21 – Multiculturalisme et Immigration Post-Seconde Guerre mondiale : Changements et Enjeux Course Title: HIS1501 – La formation du Canada Instructor: Mr. Christopher Compain Overview of Multiculturalism and Post-War Immigration This lesson examines how Canada’s immigration policies and the adoption of multiculturalism as an official policy reshaped the country’s identity. Particular attention is given to the integration of European immigrants after World War II, debates over bilingualism and language policies in Quebec, and the federal vision of multiculturalism under Pierre Trudeau. Key Topics European Immigration (1947–1959) Post-War Context: ○ Canada needed labor to support its economic growth during the post-war boom. ○ Immigrants primarily came from Italy, Greece, Germany, Poland, and other European countries. Demographic Impact: ○ Immigration boosted Canada’s population and contributed to the growth of diverse cultural communities, particularly in urban areas like Montreal and Toronto. Quebec and Language Debates: ○ The arrival of European immigrants, such as Italians, influenced linguistic and cultural dynamics in Quebec. ○ Many immigrants integrated into English-speaking communities, sparking tensions with Francophone Quebecers over preserving the French language and culture. The Saint-Léonard Crisis (1968–1969) Context:  ○ Saint-Léonard, a working-class borough in Montreal with a growing Italian population, became a flashpoint for language debates. ○ Francophone leaders sought to enforce unilingual French education in public schools, while many Italian families resisted, favoring bilingual or English education for better economic opportunities. Key Events: ○ Protests and political debates over school policies escalated into a broader cultural conflict about the role of French and English in Quebec. Political Reactions: ○ The crisis led to the 1974 Official Language Act (Bill 22) in Quebec, declaring French the sole official language of the province. Canadian Multiculturalism and Trudeau’s Vision Multiculturalism Policy: ○ In 1971, Pierre Trudeau made multiculturalism an official policy, emphasizing cultural diversity as a cornerstone of Canadian identity. ○ It aimed to respect and celebrate different cultural groups, promoting integration without assimilation. Tensions with Quebec Nationalism: ○ Multiculturalism clashed with Quebec’s desire for unilingual French identity, as articulated during the Quiet Revolution and subsequent sovereignty movements. ○ Trudeau’s Official Languages Act (1969) sought to balance French and English, but many Quebecers viewed multiculturalism as undermining their cultural distinctiveness. REVIEW QUESTIONS How did post-war immigration influence Canada’s identity? Post-war immigration diversified Canada’s population, fueling economic growth and creating vibrant cultural communities. However, in Quebec, it sparked debates over language and identity, as many immigrants preferred English education and integration, challenging the Francophone majority’s efforts to preserve French culture. What was the significance of the Saint-Léonard Crisis? The Saint-Léonard Crisis highlighted the tensions between Quebec’s Francophone population and immigrant communities regarding language rights. It was a turning point that led to stronger language policies, such as Quebec’s Bill 22, reinforcing French as the province’s official language. How did Trudeau’s multiculturalism policy shape Canada?  Trudeau’s multiculturalism policy recognized cultural diversity as integral to Canadian identity. While it fostered inclusivity nationwide, it also clashed with Quebec’s aspirations for a unilingual French identity, deepening divisions between federal and provincial visions of Canada. Lecon 22: Les Crises d’Octobre et Consitutionelle The Quiet Revolution (1960s): Origins: ○ Began after the death of Maurice Duplessis (1959) and the defeat of his conservative Union Nationale party. ○ The Quebec Liberal Party under Jean Lesage initiated reforms that modernized the province. Characteristics: ○ Economic Reforms: Nationalization of hydroelectricity to gain control over Quebec’s resources. ○ Cultural and Social Reforms: Creation of public education and healthcare systems, removing the influence of the Catholic Church. ○ Rise of Neo-Nationalism: The slogan “Maîtres chez nous” (“Masters in our own house”) symbolized Quebec’s desire for greater autonomy. The October Crisis (1970): Background: ○ The Front de libération du Québec (FLQ), a radical group advocating for Quebec independence, used bombings, robberies, and kidnappings to further their cause. ○ On October 5, 1970, the FLQ kidnapped James Cross, a British trade commissioner, and later abducted Quebec’s Minister of Labour, Pierre Laporte. Government Response: ○ Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoked the War Measures Act, suspending civil liberties to restore order. ○ Over 450 people were arrested without charges, making this the first use of the War Measures Act in a non-war context. ○ Pierre Laporte was found murdered, while James Cross was eventually released after negotiations. Impact: ○ The crisis highlighted tensions between federal authority and Quebec nationalism, increasing support for more moderate sovereignty movements like the Parti Québécois (PQ). The Parti Québécois and the Sovereignty Referendum (1980): PQ in Power (1976): ○ Led by René Lévesque, the PQ promised a referendum on Quebec sovereignty. ○ Bill 101 (1977): Strengthened the French language in Quebec, making it the official language of government, education, and business. 1980 Sovereignty Referendum: ○ Question: Whether Quebec should negotiate sovereignty while maintaining an economic partnership with Canada. ○ Result: The referendum was defeated, with 60% voting “No” and 40% voting “Yes.” Patriation of the Constitution (1982): Trudeau’s Vision: ○ After the 1980 referendum, Trudeau promised to address Quebec’s concerns through constitutional reforms. ○ The Constitution Act, 1982, introduced the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, solidifying individual rights and freedoms. Quebec’s Opposition: ○ Quebec’s government, under Lévesque, opposed the patriation process, arguing that it diminished provincial powers. ○ Quebec refused to sign the new Constitution, leading to ongoing tensions between Quebec and the rest of Canada. Lecon 23: Crises Consitutionelle et d’Oka Indigenous Peoples and the Constitution Act, 1982 Indigenous groups played a critical role in influencing the Constitution Act of 1982, which included: ○ The Charter of Rights and Freedoms. ○ Section 35, recognizing and affirming the existing Aboriginal and treaty rights of Indigenous peoples (First Nations, Inuit, and Métis). Constitution Express (1980): ○ Organized by Indigenous groups to demand recognition of their rights in the new Constitution. ○ Indigenous organizations such as the Assembly of First Nations, Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, and Congress of Aboriginal Peoples advocated for inclusion. Meech Lake Accord (1987–1990) Purpose: ○ Prime Minister Brian Mulroney sought to bring Quebec into the constitutional fold after it refused to sign the 1982 Constitution. ○ The Accord recognized Quebec as a “distinct society”, granted provinces more power over immigration, and allowed them to opt out of federal programs with compensation. Reasons for Failure: ○ Opposition from Indigenous Leaders: Elijah Harper, a Cree MLA from Manitoba, refused to support the Accord due to its exclusion of Indigenous concerns. ○ Criticism of the negotiation process as anti-democratic and the extended ratification timeline. ○ Newfoundland Premier Clyde Wells also opposed the Accord, and it failed in June 1990. The Oka Crisis (1990) Background: ○ The town of Oka in Quebec planned to expand a golf course onto Mohawk land, including a sacred burial ground known as “the pines.” ○ Tensions between the Mohawk community of Kanesatake and municipal authorities had been brewing for decades over land claims. Timeline: ○ March 1990: Mohawks erected barricades to block construction. ○ July 11, 1990: The Quebec Provincial Police (SQ) attempted to dismantle the barricades, resulting in a gunfight and the death of officer Marcel Lemay. ○ Escalation: Mohawk communities in Kahnawake and Akwesasne joined the protests, blocking the Mercier Bridge in Montreal, paralyzing transportation. ○ August 1990: The Canadian army intervened, leading to a 78-day standoff that ended on September 26, 1990. Impact: ○ The crisis exposed Canada’s failure to address Indigenous land claims and sovereignty. ○ It inspired other Indigenous movements to fight for their rights and brought international attention to the plight of Indigenous peoples in Canada. Charlottetown Accord (1992) Purpose:  ○ Aimed to resolve constitutional issues following the Meech Lake failure. ○ Proposed recognizing Quebec as a distinct society, increasing provincial powers, and creating Indigenous self-government. Result: ○ Rejected in a nationwide referendum, with 54% voting “No.” ○ Opposition came from diverse groups, including Quebec nationalists, Indigenous leaders, and Western provinces.